Module 2: Drug Education and the Law PDF

Module 2: DRUG EDUCATION AND THE LAW Harmful Effects of Dangerous Drugs Source: PDEA Region 10 Intended Learning Outcomes: Drugs – any chemical substance that brings about physical, emotional Knowledge:...

Module 2: DRUG EDUCATION AND THE LAW Harmful Effects of Dangerous Drugs Source: PDEA Region 10 Intended Learning Outcomes: Drugs – any chemical substance that brings about physical, emotional Knowledge: or behavioral change in a person taking it. 1.Explore the nature and effects of drugs and substance abuse such as Example: alcohol, tobacco, and others on personal health and social Paracetamol – to treat fever relationships; Antibiotics – to treat infection. Synthesize accurate information on health, legal and social Drug Abuse – the use of any chemical consequence of drug and substance abuse and examine how which result to an these negatively impact the person who uses drugs, his/her individual’s physical, family, friends and community; mental, or social Skills: impairment. It refers to the. Make a personal commitment to remain drug free and develop following: plan to help address drug and substance abuse;. Use of drugs without prescription Attitude :. Use of a drug or any substance for a purpose different - Appreciate the value of a drug free self and community. from the one for which the drug was prescribed for. Use of illegal or illicit drugs What is PDEA? Origin of Drugs Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency (PDEA) - is the lead Anti-. Natural – anything that comes from nature. Drug law enforcement agency, responsible for preventing,. Synthetic – anything that is produced artificially or processed investigating, and combating dangerous drugs, controlled precursors, in the laboratory. and essential chemicals within the Philippines. Classification of Drugs Based on Effects What is R.A. 9165? 1. Stimulants It is an Act instituting the Comprehensive Act of 2002 also It is also known as “uppers”, any of the group of drugs known as Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002, Repealing R.A. that excite the central nervous system. It increases alertness, 6425, otherwise known as The Dangerous Act of 1972, as amended, alleviates fatigue, reduces hunger, and provides a feeling of providing funds therefor, and for other purposes. President Gloria well-being. Macapagal-Arroyo signed R.A. 9165 on June 7, 2002, was published. Cocaine June 19, 2002 and took effect on July 4, 2002.. Methamphetamine hydrochloride (Shabu). Caffeine 2. Depressant Still based on the 2006 reported cases admitted for treatment and This drug is also known as “downers” or “bars”, any rehabilitation, the Top 10 drug or chemical that decreases the activity of any bodily Drugs/Substances of Abuse are: function. The term is most often used to refer to drugs that 4. Methamphetamine hydrochloride (Shabu) reduce the activity of the central nervous system. 5. Cannabis (Marijuana) Sedatives 6. Contact Cement Sleeping Pills 7. Benzodiazepines Tranquillizers 8. Cough/Cold Preparations 3. Hallucinogens 9. Methylenedioxymethamphetamine or MDMA (Ecstasy) It is also known as “psychedelics”, first developed as 10. Cocaine appetite suppressant. Any natural or synthetic psychoactive 11. Nalbuphine Hydrochloride drugs that produce marked distortion of the senses and 12. Psilocybin (Magic Mushroom) changes in perception. 13. Solvents (acetone, thinner) MJ LSD Drug Addiction Ecstasy 14. A chronic relapsing brain disease characterized by Ketamine compulsive drug-seeking and use, despite harmful 4. Inhalants consequences. Inhalants include a wide variety of breathable substances 15. This is considered a brain disease because drugs can change that produce mind-altering results and effects. the structure of the brain and how it works. The change can Nail Polish remover damage the brain and it can be long lasting and can lead to Plastic cement harmful behavior. Paint, o Show brain anatomy of drug abuse Gasoline Hair sprays Effects of Drug of Abuse The Limbic Reward System Nature of Drug Use Every substance of abuse like alcohol, cocaine, Poly drug use (or abuse drugs one after the other or in methamphetamine, heroin, marijuana, nicotine has some combination with other intoxicating substances) effects on limbic reward system. Substances of abuse affects the system by an increase in the release of the  neurotransmitter dopamine, which helps to regulate the A lot of changes in behavior, appearance and mood, it occur in a feelings of pleasure (euphoria and satisfaction) person who is abusing drugs. Sudden changes also occur in the person’s disposition from pleasant to unpleasant. Dopamine also plays a role in the control of movement, cognition, motivation, and reward. High levels of free Common Signs of Drug Abuse: dopamine in the brain generally enhance mood and increase body movement (i.e., motor activity, but too much dopamine 6. Often associated with known drugs users may produce nervousness, arability, aggressiveness, and 7. Irritable, discourteous, defiant and aggressive paranoia as well as hallucinations and bizarre thoughts. 8. Untrustworthy and lacks self-confidence 9. Unconcerned about his/her health and grooming Natural activities such as eating, drinking, and sex activate the nucleus 10. Has a low frustration tolerance acumens, inducing communication among these structures neurons to 11. Lacks interest in studies/works release dopamine. The released dopamine produces immediate but 12. Blames everybody but himself for his/her problems ephemeral, feelings of pleasure and joy. As dopamine levels subside, 13. Prefers to be with “barkada” where he/she feels accepted so do the feelings of pleasure. But if the activity is repeated, then 14. Frequently goes to odd places (to take drugs) dopamine again is released and more feelings of pleasure and euphoria 15. Often wears sunglasses at inappropriate times are produced (positive reinforcement). 16. Often borrows money and sometimes steals various items 17. Shows changes in attending school/work 18. Develops changes in normal capabilities in school/work Altered Perceptions 3. ILLUSION – misperception of a real external stimulus. 4. DELUSION – a fix false belief cannot be corrected by logic. 5. HALLUCINATON – a false sensory perception without an external stimulus How to tell a person who is abusing drugs?  This Act is also known as Tobacco Regulation Act of 2003 signed What will happen to drug users who would not reform? into law in June 23, 2003. Prohibited Act: 35. Allowing minors to man stalls selling tobacco products(s) Drug Prevention 36. Selling tobacco products to a minor (under 18 years of age) 37. For a minor to smoke cigarettes or any tobacco products 19. Stay away from illegal drugs 38. Selling of tobacco products within 100 meters from 20. Maintain physical and mental health and well-being playgrounds, schools and all youth facilities 21. Use drugs properly. Most drugs are beneficial when used 39. Cigarette vending machine within the place mentioned under medical advice Smoking in public places and public transportation 22. Understand yourself. Accept and respect your own 40. Tobacco sponsorship restricted to activities for those “18 and capabilities and limitations. above” beginning July 1, 2006 23. Develop your potentials. Engage in wholesome, productive 41. No tobacco ad on TV, Cable TV, and radio since January 1, and fulfilling activities. 2007 24. Choose your friends wisely. 42. No tobacco ads outdoors and in cinemas beginning July 1, 25. Learn to relate effectively to a trusted person whom you 2007 can communicate our problems freely. 43. No tobacco ads in all mass media beginning July 1, 2008 26. Seek professional help if you feel you cannot cope with your 44. No tobacco sponsorship of all sports, concert, cultural and art problems. events beginning July 1, 2008 27. Develop strong moral and spiritual foundations. What is Alcohol? Who are penalized by the anti-drug law? Alcohol is a powerful drug. It contains drug called “ethanol” 28. User (ethyl alcohol). It is a toxic and poisonous drug. It poisons the body if 29. Pusher taken in large quantities simply or in combination with other drugs. 30. Possessor 31. Cultivator Alcohol damages all the major organs of the body. 32. Importer 33. Manufacturer It is a depressant drug and not a stimulant as erroneously 34. Financer believed. Pure alcohol is colorless and tasteless. Alcoholic drinks vary in Republic Act No. 9211 color and taste because of the ingredients used to flavor them.  Categories of Disaster Module 3: DISASTER AWARENESS, PREPAREDNESS AND MANAGEMENT Natural Disasters Man-Made Disaster Intended Learning Outcomes: Armed Conflict and Civil Strife Technological Disasters Knowledge: 1. Update knowledge on the operational concepts, principles, structures, and Common Types of Disaster priority actions relative to the Philippine Disaster Management System; Typhoon/Cyclone 2. Identify risk reduction and preparedness activities that will reduce Landslide vulnerability, mitigate the impact of emergencies, and support efforts to Floods prevent conflict and civil unrest; Earthquake Skills: Tsunami Storm surge 3. Create contingency plans based on the likely emergencies in their respective Fire schools; 4. Acquire knowledge skills in various basic life support, particularly on General Effects of Disaster preparedness and response training; Loss of life Attitude: Injury 5. Value their involvement and participation in preventing disaster risk Damage to and destruction of property reduction in their respective schools as would be reservists. Damage to and destruction of subsistence and cash crops Disruption of production What is Hazard? Disruption of lifestyles Hazards are those elements of the physical environment, harmful to man and Loss of livelihood caused by forces extraneous. Disruption of essential services A Hazard is a threat. It is has the potential to cause harm to People, Human Damage to national infrastructure and disruption of government activity like economic, educational, etc, Property, and the Environment. systems National economic loss, and Some of the hazards are earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, cyclones, floods, Sociological and psychological after-effect landslides, and other similar events. Pandemic Emergencies What is a Disaster? A pandemic is an epidemic of infectious disease that has spread across a large A disaster is a serious disruption occurring over a short or long period that region, which can occur to the human population or animal population and causes widespread human, material, economic, or environmental loss that may affect health and disrupt services leading to economic and social costs. exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its Ebola resources. Avian Flu Dengue Fever Malaria VULNERABILITY+ HAZARD) / CAPACITY = DISASTER Disaster Prevention: UNISDR views Disaster Prevention as the concept of engaging in activities that intend to prevent or avoid potential adverse impacts through action taken in advance, activities designed to protect from the occurrence of disasters. WCPT similarly highlight that while not all disasters can Development Policies and Practices to avoid or mitigate similar be prevented, good risk management, evacuation plans, environmental situations in future planning, and design standards can reduce the risk of loss of life and injury mitigation. The HYOGO Framework was one such Global Plan for Natural Introduction to Earthquakes & Tsunamis Disaster Risk Reduction, which was adopted in 2005 as a 10-year Global Plan, signed by agreement with 168 Governments which offered guiding principles, What is an Earthquake? priorities for action, and practical means for achieving disaster resilience for Simply, earthquakes are the rumblings, shaking, or rolling of the earth's vulnerable communities. surface. It is usually what happens when two blocks of the earth suddenly slip past one another or break apart from each other as a result of tension caused Disaster Preparedness: Disaster preparedness is taking measures to prepare by prolonged energy build up. Earthquakes come in many forms. It can be felt for and reduce the effects of disasters, both natural and man-made, through like a shock under your feet or it may be very powerful and destructive enough research and planning to predict and prevent risks to vulnerable populations. to flatten an entire city. They can happen anywhere, land or sea. It can save lives and livelihoods and enable the affected population to return to normalcy quickly. Community-based preparedness and management should Foreshocks, Mainshocks and Aftershocks: be a high priority in physical therapy practice management. Sometimes, there are smaller shocks that occur before (foreshock) and after (aftershock) the main earthquake (mainshock). Sometimes foreshocks are so Disaster Response / Relief: Disaster response/relief stage focuses on big and scientists are unsure if it is the main shock. Foreshocks and aftershocks immediate needs, with some actions extending into the recovery stage. Rescue can occur for days, weeks, and months of the main earthquake. and stabilization of survivors' physical and emotional condition are primary aims, along with recovery of the dead and restoration of essential services. Earthquake Waves Coordinated multi-agency response is vital to this stage of Disaster There are 2 types of earthquake waves and the difference lies in the way the Management in order to reduce the impact of a disaster and its long-term seismic waves are transmitted. results with relief activities including: During an earthquake, the waves released may be “P” or “S” waves depending on the speed and ways in which they travel. Rescue Relocation P-Waves (Primary Waves) Provision Food and Water S-Waves (Secondary waves) Provision Emergency Health Care Prevention of Disease and Disability Tsunami Repairing Vital Services e.g. Telecommunications, Transport This is simply a series of massive ocean waves, triggered by an earthquake that Provision Temporary Shelter has occurred in the sea (or ocean). The displaced water then runs ashore and into the land. This happens when the plates underneath the Earth's surface Disaster Recovery: The vulnerability of communities often continues for long move (focus) so that one slips under another. after the initial crisis is over. Disaster Recovery refers to those programs which go beyond the provision of immediate relief to assist those who have suffered the full impact of a disaster and include the following activities: Rebuilding Infrastructure e.g. Homes, Schools, Hospitals, Roads Health Care and Rehabilitation Development Activities e.g. building human resources for health Preparing for an earthquake faults and the major types include dip-slip normal, dip-slip reverse, strike-slip Predicting when an earthquake will strike is one thing that scientists and, oblique-slip. The hypocenter is the location below the earth’s surface have not figured out yet. Scientists know that they happen along fault lines where the earthquake starts. The epicenter is the location directly above it and we know where these fault lines are. on the surface of the earth. There are things we can do in preparation for them, and to make the response easier and quicker when they do. Seismograph and The Richter Scale (RS): The seismograph is a device that scientists use to measure the magnitude of Governments: an earthquake. The Richter scale, on the other hand, is a scale or measure Authorities need to educate people about earthquake-prone areas that is used to compare earthquakes. It is calculated in levels of ten. For and fault lines in the country. People must also be educated about what example, an earthquake measuring 4 on the RS is ten times more than a earthquakes are and how to respond to them when they occur. measurement of 3, and an earthquake measuring 8 on the RS is 10 times Proper building permits and approvals must be given before people more than one that measured 7 on the RS. As a guide, an earthquake build in these areas. There are good engineering and architectural practices measuring 3-5 is considered minor, 5-7 is moderate, 7-8 is major and 8 or that can be engaged to put up earthquake-proof buildings. more is considered great and usually very devastating. Governments must ensure that facilities like fire and police stations, hospitals, schools and shelters, and emergency command posts are working Earthquake Monitoring well and prepared to deal with an emergency. In many countries, these The Institute's National Earthquake Monitoring and Information aims to facilities are legal requirements. provide accurate and timely information on significant earthquakes and tsunami events that may significantly impact the Philippines; and to ensure Individuals: the accessibility and integrity of earthquake data. Know your environments and buildings. It is important that you know where you live and where you visit often. If this is an earthquake-prone Introduction to Volcano region, be sure you know about your building (home, school, workplaces) The earth's mountains, plains, plateaus, soils, rocks, etc. as we see it today is always keep in mind what you can do if an earthquake starts. believed to have gone through many phases, with about 80% of it being During an earthquake, try to get away from objects that will fall or carved out by the action of volcanoes break. Run for cover under a sturdy piece of furniture. Move into the open if A volcano is simply rapture (opening or vent) on the earth's surface (crust) this is possible. Go out of the building if possible, as the building can cave in. through which molten magma (extremely hot mixture of gases, lava, ash There are usually aftershocks hours, days and months after the main and other burning substances) escape on to the earth's surface. earthquake. Try to be on your guard and look out for it. Did you know? The biggest volcano in the world is Mauna Loa in Hawaii. Its whole volume is about 80,000 cubic kilometres. Important terms to know about earthquakes Let us take a moment to learn about these terms to help us Common types of volcano understand earthquakes better. Tectonic Plates: These are huge layers that make up the earth’s upper layers. Shield Volcanoes They continually stretch, move, slide, and collide against each other. Even This is very fluid lava, usually from multiple vents or fractures, spreading over though they are constantly moving, we do not feel it because they move very very large areas. The fluid-like nature (viscous – say veez-kos) of the lava, it slowly. Each plate is about 50 to 250 miles (80 to 400 km) thick. does not allow it to pile up like a cone. The result is usually an elevation with a shape like a warrior’s shield. Faults (or Fault plane or fault lines): These are weak lines that can develop Lava Domes in the plates, usually on the surface of the earth. There are different types of They are produced from eruptions with less viscous lava. Because it is less The Effects of Volcanic Eruption viscous, they do not spread far and cool off (hardens) sooner. This means they Unlike other natural disasters such as floods, wild fires and pile around the vent and the dome grows only because of the expansion of earthquakes, volcanoes can have some positive effects, even though they can the vent area within. Lava domes tend to have steep walls and rock types be very disastrous. such as andesite, dacites or rhyolites (say rai-o-lites) Ash discharged very high into the stratosphere can have negative Cinder Cones consequences on the ozone layer. Read more about that here. These are the most common in the study of volcanoes. When lava is ejected Landscapes and natural sceneries can be destroyed. into the air above, the fragments and fine particles fall as cinders (ash) around Ash and mud can mix with rain and melting snow, forming lahars. the vent, forming a cone. The height of cinder cones usually depends on how Lahars are mudflows flowing at very fast pace. long the eruption takes and how much lava comes out. The cone has a depression (crater) in the middle where the vent is. Cinder cones can rise as Some positive effects of volcanoes include: high as 1200ft. A good example of a cinder cone is the Paricutin Volcano in Different types of erupting volcanoes provide extraordinary scenery, Mexico. so beautiful and natural that they attract tourists to the area, bringing in some economic value. Composite Volcanoes Places close to volcanic activities tend to have higher potential for These are usually awesome in nature, rising up to about 8000ft. They geothermal energy, which can be an advantage to the towns and cities. are also known as stratovolcanoes and they include Mount Cotopaxi in Some ash and lava breakdown become soils that are rich in nutrients Ecuador and Mount Fuji in Japan. They are seen as massive mountains. They and become good areas for crop planting activities. are formed by alternating layers of ash, rock, dust and lava, (pyroclastic) and hence the name ‘composite’. They have steep slopes with a peak. Typhoon, Hurricanes and Cyclone Volcanic eruptions in the sea A Hurricane, like other natural disasters, is one that we all pause to Though ocean floors are thousands of miles below the water surface, listen to each time we hear of it on the news. This is because we have all seen they also experience many volcanic activities. the devastation that it can bring to us. In shallow waters, eruptions tend to involve cold water coming into contact with extremely hot lava from beneath that ocean floor. The steam Low Pressure System escapes high above the water surface. If the eruptions occur deeper in the This is an area (over land or water) where the atmospheric pressure ocean, the weight and pressure of the water above it suppresses its expulsion is lower than that of the area surrounding it. Typically, there are winds and keeps it mild. This means the ocean floor is not necessarily affected in around, and the air is a lot warmer, causing atmospheric lifting. Low pressure any way. systems result in cloud formation and bad weather. Hurricanes, typhoons, Sometimes, lava which erupts into shallow water cools off very quickly and tropical storms and tropical depressions are all examples of low pressure breaks down into debris or sand. It is believed that Hawaii’s black sands systems. beaches are a result of lava interacting with sea water. Sometime lava settles The sustained winds within the hurricane move with speeds of over on the water in the form of debris, which is carried farther away by ocean 74miles per hour (that is about the speed at which cars move on the currents. highway), but the entire storm body moves at about 10-20 miles per hour. They often carry torrential rains and can bring about floods and landslides. Note that flooding along coastal regions is not only as a result of the rains, but more as a result of storm surges. Hurricanes can last for over a week. Landfall CLASSIFICATION OF TROPICAL CYCLONES This is when a hurricane reaches the coast and begins to travel over The classification of tropical cyclones according to the strength of land. It usually does not last for long as its fuel (warm ocean) is cut off, even the associated winds as adopted by PAGASA as of 01 May 2015 are as though the thunderstorms and rains may continue for a while. follows TROPICAL DEPRESSION (TD) - a tropical cyclone with maximum sustained Storm Surge winds of up to 61 kilometers per hour (kph) or less than 33 nautical miles per Hurricanes bring about storm surges. The powerful spiral wind action hour (knots). carries water a couple of feet high and lashes it ashore. This can destroy TROPICAL STORM (TS) - a tropical cyclone with maximum wind speed of structures and items very close to the shore. Storm surges are the main 62 to 88 kph or 34 - 47 knots. causes of the floods they bring. SEVERE TROPICAL STORM (STS), a tropical cyclone with maximum wind speed of 89 to 117 kph or 48 - 63 knots. Floods TYPHOON (TY) - a tropical cyclone with maximum wind speed of 118 to Hurricanes carry a lot of rains with it and even after the hurricane has 220 kph or 64 - 120 knots. subsided, it may continue to rain. This causes a lot of floods and brings about SUPER TYPHOON (STY) - a tropical cyclone with maximum wind speed other types of destructive results. (Learn more about floods here) exceeding 220 kph or more than 120 knots. Winds FLOOD Houses, cars, farms, and many other structures are blown away by Water, one of the most common substances known to man has the powerful winds that come with hurricanes. become, through the years, a precious commodity. Water is required in Impact on the economic Anytime there is a disaster caused by a natural practically all facets of human activities. And the need for water is enormous. phenomenon like hurricanes, floods and fires, there is extensive damage to It is roughly proportional to the population! property. Peoples’ livelihoods are wiped away and may take many years to get things together again. In many cases, there are fatalities and entire Definition and Nature communities are severely affected. A layman's conception is often an over-simplification. The Manual of People may be forced to stay home for so long and businesses suffer Operational Procedures on Flood Forecasting and Warning states: as a result. "From a strict hydrological sense, flood is defined as a rise, usually force to become effective. Tropical cyclones are very rare within 5° latitude brief, in the water level in a stream to a peak from which the water level of the equator. recedes at a slower rate (UNESCO-WMO 1974). The episodic behavior of a river that may be considered flood is then termed "flood event" (Linsley, Life History of Tropical Cyclone 1942) which is described as a flow of water in a stream constituting a distinct Tropical cyclones undergo constant metamorphosis from birth progressive rise, culminating in a crest, together with the recession that through maturity to decay. They last for about six days, in general, before follows the crest (Linsley, 1942)." they enter the land or reach sub-tropical latitudes. However, some can be Hence, for operational purposes, the Flood Forecasting Branch, the detected only a few hours or perhaps a day or two, while others are observed hydrological service of PAGASA has adopted a more extensive definition. as long as a fortnight. Flood is "an abnormal progressive rise in the water level of a stream that may result in the overflowing by the water of the normal confines of the stream with the subsequent inundation of areas which are not normally submerged". The popular or layman's idea of flood is, in the strictest sense, the process of inundation or the coverage by water of areas not normally.  submerged. Inundation is due to water overflowing from streams and Types of Flood other bodies of water as well as by the accumulation of rainwater by 1. MINOR FLOODING drainage. Inundation may or may not be due to overbanking Cause and Effect: When there is no bank overflow, flooding is simply due to the Natural accumulation of excessive surface run-off in low lying flat areas Floodwaters are usually confined to the flood plain of the river along 1. Meteorological Events the channel, on random low-lying areas and depressions in the an intense and prolonged rainfall spells terrain Unusually high coastal and estuarine waters due to storm surges, Floodwater is usually shallow and there may not be a perceptible flow seiches, etc. 2. MAJOR FLOODING 2. Seismic Activities Flooding is caused by the overflowing of rivers and lakes; by serious tsunamis (seismic sea waves) breaks in dikes, levees, dams and other protective structures; by sinking of land due to earthquakes reduces the elevation of land uncontrollable releases of impounded water in reservoirs and by the areas accumulation of excessive runoff uplifting of lake and river beds from seismic causes sometime results Floodwaters cover a wide contiguous area and spread rapidly to in the overflowing of these bodies of water adjoining areas of relatively lower elevation Flooding is relatively deep in most parts of the stricken areas 3.Atronomically-Influenced Phenomena There is a highly perceptible current as the flood spreads to other high tides coinciding with the occurrence of heavy rainfall areas Artificial FLASH FLOOD While floods take some time, usually from 12 to 24 hours or even 1. Blasting longer, to develop after the occurrence of intense rainfall, there is a particular causes landslides in the slopes of hills and mountains which may type which develops after no more than six hours and, frequently, after an result in the unintentional damming of rivers and streams. even less time. These are what are known as "flash floods". Flash floods develop in hilly and mountainous terrains where the 2.Construction of temporary dams slope of the river is rather steep. The rapid development of the flood is due produces an impediment to the flow of a river or stream which then to the extremely short concentration time of the drainage catchment. This results in an overflow means that precipitation falling on a point in the catchment farthest from the river takes only a short time to reach the river channel and become part of 3.Failure of hydraulic and other control structures streamflow. Thus, the amount of streamflow rapidly increases and, accidents like the breaking of a dike result in the entry of an consequently, the rise in water level. When the flow capacity of the stream is enormous quantity of water in a protected area. exceeded, the channel overflows and the result is a flash flood. 4. Mismanagement of hydraulic structures may necessitate an untimely and sudden release of large amounts of excess water CASCADING EFFECT of the results of the various analysis, hydrologists are able to come up with a Floods are among the most destructive calamities man has to cope prediction of the future state of the river. with. Even the most minor flooding poses some inconveniences. A really big If anything new is added to modern flood forecasting, it is the more flood can result in millions even billions of pesos of damages to roads and extensive reliance of hydrologists on the scientific principles of hydrology bridges, buildings and other economic infrastructure, in the loss of rather than on mere intuition. agricultural crops and livestock, loss of productivity in industry, commerce and trade. To this is added the incalculable loss of human lives directly PREPARATION OF FLOOD FORECAST attributable to floods as well as the hardship and attendant socioeconomic The preparation, issuance and dissemination of an adequate and problems of forced human displacement and the emotional impact on those timely warning is the ultimate purpose of flood forecasting. Timeliness is an affected by floods. essential requirement for a flood warning. A sufficient lead time enables the ultimate user to take the necessary precautionary countermeasures. MONITORING AND PREDICTION A flooding situation is not a daily occurrence. However, flood For obviously practical reasons, man has always preferred a riverine forecasting operations must, of necessity, be a continuous activity. It is environment. Almost always naturally fertile and, therefore, able to provide carried out from day to day even when the possibility of a flood is highly him with an abundance of his needs, flood plains have always attracted man improbable. This mode of operation enables flood forecasters to pinpoint the as a place to settle down. The river or a lake, in addition to being a source of beginning of a potential flood-generating situation. his livelihood, also serves as a convenient means of communications, an Like storm bulletins which are issued only during the presence of avenue for trade and commerce. tropical cyclones, flood forecast and warning bulletins are prepared only However, a river is not always placid, serenely flowing along. It has when a potential flooding situation is definitely present. They are issued its moods. And it changes its moods, quite regularly. When it does, man regularly at specified hours of the day for the duration of the flooding period comes face to face with the phenomenon of the flood. until the flood recedes or when all hazards and dangers associated with the But man is also a resourceful creature. Knowing that he cannot phenomenon are no longer present. prevent the recurrence of floods and because he has to live with it, man has learned to cope. He tried to understand the nature, behavior and the causes Counter Measure and Mitigation of Flood Damage of floods. A "Flood Advisory" is a warning that states the imminence of a flood In some primitive ways, he had learned to relate the vagaries of the situation. Thus, it also contains suggested necessary actions that may have to weather to the behavior of the river. In doing so, he established a "forecasting be taken by the residents and the community in the threatened basin. An procedure" which has persisted up to our times and which remains practically advisory is issued when the hydrological situation deteriorates further. It is unchanged. also issued when condition is definitely improving but caution is still Modern flood forecasting is now based on the standard procedure of necessary. monitoring and analyzing the hydrological and meteorological conditions in a A "Flood Warning" is issued when a flooding situation is a definite river basin. While the tools and methods of monitoring may have been reality at least 24 hours before actual flooding occurs. This category is modernized with the use of sensitive, telemetered gauging instruments to maintained in succeeding bulletins as long as the affected areas are effect better observation and faster transmission of data, it is still basically an inundated and the attendant dangers are present. Aside from the forecast, a attempt to paint a bread picture of what is currently happening, warning states the necessary precautionary measures and actions residents hydrologically and meteorologically, in a river basin. as well as the affected community must take. The simple method of associating the weather to the behavior of the Flood bulletins are specifically directed to the public. They are river has given way to the more modern sophisticated analytical methods intended to apprise the people in the threatened area of the present situation aided by the computerized flood forecasting models. With further evaluation and of the expected development. It suggests the appropriate actions the community may have to take to prevent or mitigate the disastrous effects of WHEN WARNED OF FLOOD a flood. Watch for rapidly rising flood waters. Floods cannot be prevented. To a large extent, however, they can be Listen to your radio for emergency instructions. controlled effectively. By this is meant keeping the river from overflowing. If you find it necessary to evacuate, move to a safe area before access There are a number of ways of accomplishing this before and during a flood: is cut off by flood waters. A. Increasing the flow capacity of a river by cleaning the channel of debris, by Store drinking water in containers, water service may be interrupted. dredging, by straightening of channels, etc.; Move household belongings to upper levels. B. Construction of dikes and levees; and Get livestock to higher ground. C. Sandbagging during floods. Turn-off electricity at the main switch in the building before evacuating and also lock your house. Flood Safety Rules BEFORE THE FLOOD AFTER THE FLOOD Find out how often your location is likely to be flooded. Re-enter the dwellings with caution using flashlights, not lanterns or Know the flood warning system in your community and be sure your torchers. Flammables may be inside. family knows it. Be alert for fire hazards like broken wires. Keep informed of daily weather condition. Do not eat food and drink water until they have been checked for Designate an evacuation area for the family and livestock. flood water contamination. Assign family members’ instructions and responsibilities according to Report broken utility lines (electricity, water, gas and telephone) to an evacuation plan. appropriate agencies authorities. Keep a stock of food which requires little cooking and refrigeration; Do not turn on the main switch or use appliances and other electric power may be interrupted. equipment until they have been checked by a competent electrician. Keep a transistorized radio and flashlight with spare batteries, Consult health authorities for immunization requirements. emergency cooking equipment, candies, matches Do not go in disaster areas. Your presence might hamper rescue and Store supplies and other household effects above expected flood other emergency operations. water level. Securely anchor weak dwellings and items. THINGS ONE CAN DO TO MITIGATE FLOODS DURING THE FLOOD Regulate cutting of trees. Avoid areas subject to sudden flooding. Report illegal loggers and mainliners. Do not attempt to cross rivers of flowing streams where water is Report illegal construction of fishponds and other establishments in above the knee. waterways. Beware of water-covered roads and bridges. Do not throw garbage in esteros and rivers. Avoid unnecessary exposure to the elements. Help clean the neighborhood. Do not go swimming or boating in swollen rivers. Support community activities intended to lessen the occurrence of Eat only well-cooked food. Protect leftovers against contamination. floods. Drink clean or preferably boiled water ONLY. Avoid throwing anything like plastic wrappers anywhere which may clog or block the drainage system. Socio-economic impact of flood  It is easy to say, and admittedly, floods have a tremendous socio- People often use landslides and mudslides to mean one thing. They economic impact. Its main effect is to retard development. A flood-stricken are also known as landslips, slumps or slope failure. There are many types of area must first be restored to normal before any development activity can be landslides such as Block Slide, Rockfall, art Flow, Creep and so on, and we shall carried out. Restoration can take time. The social and emotional traumas look at them on the next page. inflicted on the people usually have a short-term inhibiting effect on the community's drive. Hence, a little time can elapse before any concerted move What is a Landslide and a Mudslide? for normalization can take place. In simple terms, a landslide is a massive movement of rock, soil, debris or earth material downwards along a hill or slope due to the force of gravity. The Flood damage is incalculable. Assessment of damage attributable to movement may be flowing, spreading, falling, toppling, sliding and so on. This floods alone is difficult. Floods usually occur in association with other natural can be dry debris movement or water-saturated (muddy) earth material. destructive phenomena such as tropical cyclones. Except in rare cases such A mudslide (also known as mudflows or mudslides) on the other hand, is a as the Angat River disaster of the late 70's where loss of lives and property is fast-moving landslide usually along a channel or canal. identifiable due to the flood alone, it is difficult to segregate damages caused When they occur, they may cover a very small area — uphill to downhill or by a flood and those which resulted from the associated phenomenon. may travel over several miles from the source. Depending on the volume and Therefore, precise quantifiable damage is always difficult to estimate. In speed, it can wipe out anything in its path such as houses, cars, trees and addition to the directly determinable losses, the indirect potential losses. electricity poles. These results from unproductivity in many areas Landslides occur everywhere, although some places are more prone to it than - of business, in trade, in commerce, etc. All these losses can wipe out others. whatever gains that may have been achieved in economic development. How do landslides form? Flood Advisory A General Flood Advisory is simplified flood bulletin issued for Whenever there is a natural disturbance or instability in a piece of non-telemetered river basins whenever there is a significant amount of land on a hill, slope, mountain, or generally upland area, there is a potential rainfall recorded based on past/current observation and the forecast rainfall for a landslide. This is because the earth material of the hill or mountain is from the numerical weather prediction models, satellite-based information, held in place by the natural bonding of the material and the gravity acting and estimates from radar. It is issued to the public on a regional basis through on it. This means that, when the earth material loses its bonding, either NDRRMC at 7:00 am and 7:00 pm through weathering, erosion, or too much water in the bedrock, the weight of the overlying rock will give way and gravity will pull the earth downhill. Flood Bulletin Flood forecasts issued by the respective river basin centers like The possibility and scale of landslides usually depend on these conditions. Pampanga, Agno, Bicol, Cagayan, and Cagayan De Oro, are prepared twice Slope: Landslides and mudflows flow faster on steeper slopes and may be daily during flood watch. The water level is monitored based on the more destructive. assessment levels (Alert, Alarm, and Critical) which means 40%, 60%, and 100% of the river is full respectively. Water: When more water accompanies landslides, they travel farther and faster. More water is even more destructive as the pressure and power of its Introduction to landslides and mudflows eroding force are more. Like other natural disasters, landslides and mudslides are one of the most powerful and destructive natural and environmental events. They come Earth movements: Generally, hills and mountains stay in place if nothing almost when no one expects them and they can occur and destroy things in bothers them. When earthquakes, tremors, and volcanoes occur, they shake a very short space of time. the land and disturbs the boding of the bedrock. When this happens, landslides are ripe. Places and location that may be prone to landslides include the following: Before a landslide or mudslide Location: Be aware of your environment. If you travel or are on vacation Slopes, the bottom of slopes and canyons are examples of locations somewhere, look around and make sure you understand where the threat that may be prone to landslides and mudflows. Southern California, for may be. Look out for slopes and tricky landscapes. Contact your local example, has many steep slopes and weak rocks, making that area a great authorities and tell them about your observations. When you drive around location for landslides. Regions with more seismic activity or earth hills or mountains, keep your eyes and ears open for signs of debris falling. movements are also locations that may be prone to landslides. Seismic Plan communications with your family so that you know where they are and activity causes disturbances in the land and breaks up the bedrock. Areas with what you will do in an event of a landslide. Have an emergency kit in a safe high rainfall amounts and slopes are also great conditions for landslides. and reliable place? Talk to neighbors and discuss an escape plan. If possible, Human activity: evacuate before it happens. Human activities such as mining, building, and road constructions have often exposed the land and slopes to landslides. When roads are cut During a landslide through hills, or tunnels are dug, or crops are farmed along slopes, there is Landslides and mudslides happen very fast and there may be very always the risk of landslides and mudflows. Wildfires and deforestation also little time to act. Move away quickly from the path of the mudflow or make a location prone to landslides. landslide to another location. Do not try to stay close and take photographs. Landslide debris move from uphill to downhill, therefore, avoid low-lying Frequency of landslide events: areas or valleys. If there is a way to sound an alarm, do so. Anywhere that there has been a mudslide or landslide is an area that Listen and look out for signs of further flows in that area, as the is prone to it. Chances are, it will happen again, because the conditions for it flowing debris often knock against surrounding slopes and sets off new to happen may still be present. flows. Effects of landslides After a landslide No one can outrun an approaching landslide or mudflow. They are so fast Stay away from the location until the emergency workers and the and powerful that they wipe out trees and rocks in their way. They cause experts confirm that it is safe to go back. Look out for loose wires, broken massive destruction in many ways such as: utility lines, and hanging objects, as they may be hazards. Report them to your rescue officials. Get in touch with emergency officials or listen to the Loss of lives: Landslides and mudslides kill between 25 and 50 people every radio or TV on what to do. year in the USA alone. Globally, it is believed that the number of deaths is highly underestimated. FIRE Fire is the rapid oxidation of a material in the exothermic chemical process of Destruction of property: In 1980, Mount St Helens in Washington USA combustion, releasing heat, light, and various reaction products. erupted and causes a rock debris landslide believed to be the biggest in history. The landslide traveled about 14 miles, wiping away highway bridges, Understanding the Nature of Fire buildings, and roads. It is known that the amount of debris in this avalanche In order to understand the behavior of fire, one must have an can fill 250 million dump trucks understanding of the chemical principles that control its origin and spread and the physical phenomena that result from its behavior. Fire itself is a Economic costs: Landslides bring huge costs to communities and cities chemical phenomenon, all fuels are (synthetic or organic) chemical affected, by clean up and rebuilding destroyed infrastructure. In 2005 it cost compounds and when fuel is ignited, the result is a chemical reaction with the USA $3.5 billion in damage repair. predictable physical effects.  Human Reaction to Fire The 3 Elements of the Triangle Fire eats up oxygen and produces toxic gases, since these gases are often having no taste or smell, we may not even be aware of them but Heat - Everything has an ignition point, or a temperature at which it will their effects can be devastating such as danger of losing muscle combust. From a grass paddock to a concrete building, everything has a point coordination, mental alertness making any action more difficult to make. at which it will begin to burn, adding to the intensity of a fire. As something Mental - Brain can be affected by way of we are acting brilliantly when in fact burns, it also heats up the materials surrounding it, raising their temperature we are acting in an ineffectual manner some affected the nervous systems until that item is ready to combust as well. acting like anesthetic and causing no action at all. Fuel - There are three types of fuel; solid, liquid and gas. Everything around us is made up of one of these fuel types and is a potential fuel source in the Physical - HUMAN TOLERANCE TO FIRE event of a fire. A fire will continue to burn until all available fuel has been 150 F - We can tolerate for limited period of time 250 F - Fifteen minutes consumed. (15mins. Oxygen - Making up about 20% of the air around us, oxygen will cause a fire 290 F – Drops to five minutes (5mins.) to burn hotter and faster. A good mental visual of this is a bushfire that 350 F – Tolerated for less than a minutes before the skin is damaged worsens in strong, hot winds. Emotional - When fire strikes different reaction takes place most people are CLASSES OF FIRE stunned for a moment, but then they begin to take “EMOTIONAL SHOCK“ that The fire classification system categorizes fires into groups based on render them incapable of taking action promptly or sometimes not at all. the type of fuel involved. Each fire class is represented by a letter of the alphabet (with the exception of 'electrical fires') and an easy to identify icon. Panic and Danger This is designed to help users select the correct fire extinguisher to deal with When the fear of imminent danger overwhelms certain persons, they a specific fire event. usually get excited and by the basic instinct of self-preservation, they moved. These becomes contagious and everybody attempts to escape from Fire Extinguisher “DANGER” so the crowd becomes guided by primitive impulse and reacts no A fire extinguisher, flame extinguisher, or simply an extinguisher, differently from a horse of animals engaged in. is an active fire protection device used to extinguish or control small fires, often in emergency situations. It is not intended for use on an out-of- Chemistry of Fire control fire, such as one which has reached the ceiling, endangers the user The diffusion flame process (fire) is a rapid self-sustaining oxidation (i.e., no escape route, smoke, explosion hazard, etc.), or otherwise process accompanied by the evolution of heat and light of varying intensities. requires the expertise of a fire department. Typically, a fire extinguisher FIRE consists of three basic elements, as represented by the fire consists of a hand-held cylindrical pressure vessel containing an agent triangle: HEAT, FUEL and OXYGEN. These basic components have been which can be discharged to extinguish a fire. recognized in the science of fire protection for over 100 years. This is The Fire Triangle. Actually, it's a tetrahedron, because there are four Heat elements that must be present for a fire to exist. Heat can be generated by work processes and is an essential part of some There must be oxygen to sustain combustion, heat to raise the material to its processes such as cooking. This heat must be controlled and kept away ignition temperature, fuel to support the combustion and a chemical from fuel unless carefully controlled. Heat generated as a by-product of a reaction between the other three elements. process must be dealt with properly. The concept of Fire Protection is based upon keeping these four elements separate Heat Safeguards Plug appliances and lights into separate electrical outlets Ensure employees s are aware of their responsibility to report Avoid using extension cords. If you require an outlet in an area where dangers there is none, have one installed by a qualified electrician. Control sources of ignition Use extension cords safety - not under carpets or across walking Have chimneys inspected and cleaned regularly areas Treat independent building uses, such as an office over a shop as Use only one device per outlet separate purpose groups and therefore compartmentalize from each other Arson Ensure cooking food is always attended Deliberately started fires pose very significant risks to all types of Use the Electricity Supply Board's Safety webpage workplace. The possibility of arson should be considered as a component of Have regard to relevant Authority Safety Alerts, e.g. Mobile Phone your risk assessment and it is one that you can do much to control. The "Expert XP-Ex-1", Filling LPG Cylinders majority of deliberately started fires occur in areas with a known history of Use the Code of Practice For Avoiding Danger From Underground vandalism or fire-setting. Typically, local youths light the fires outside the Services premises as an act of vandalism, using materials found nearby. Appropriate Ensure employees are Smoking security measures, including the protection of stored materials and the Provide no-smoking signs at appropriate location efficient and prompt removal of rubbish, can therefore do much to alleviate this particular problem. Smoking You should therefore seek advice from the local Gardaí or the fire Provide no-smoking signs at appropriate locations authority who will involve the other agencies as appropriate. Occasionally, Ensure smoking area(s) are away from flammable materials arson attacks in the workplace are committed by employees or ex- Arrange for cigarettes and matches to be disposed of safely and away employees. Employers and other workers should be aware of this potential from other combustible rubbish threat and be alert for early signs, such as a series of unexplained small fires. Again, the Gardaí or the local fire authority can provide further useful Portable Heaters guidance. Do not use portable heaters unnecessarily. They should have emergency tip-over switches, and thermostatic Provide adequate security: exterior/interior lighting, intrusion limiting controls. alarms, guard service, well-secured access openings Turn them off if people leave the room or are going to sleep Prevent access by unauthorized personnel Ensure they are 1M away from anything that can burn Keep flammables properly stored and secured Do not use them to dry clothes Oxygen gas is used Electrical Safety All electrical equipment and installations designed, constructed, in welding, flame cutting and other similar processes installed, maintained, protected, and used to prevent danger for helping people with breathing difficulties Get a qualified electrical contractor to carry out installation and in hyperbaric chambers as a medical treatment repairs to electrical equipment and fittings in decompression chambers Maintain proper pest control to avoid rodent damage to electric for food preservation and packaging wiring and equipment in steelworks and chemical plants. Check electrical equipment and remove defective equipment Ensure electrical cords are in good condition  The air we breathe contains about 21% oxygen. Pure oxygen at high Use the fire extinguisher (if it’s not dangerous) pressure, such as from a cylinder, can react violently with common materials Don’t waste valuable time with the fire extinguisher unless it’s safe such as oil and grease. Other materials may catch fire spontaneously. Nearly to do so. That means that 911 has already been called, everyone is evacuated, all materials including textiles, rubber and even metals will burn vigorously in the fire is small, smoke has not yet filled the room, heat is not oppressive, and oxygen. escape routes are not blocked. With even a small increase in the oxygen level in the air to 24%, it You also need the right kind of fire extinguisher and to know how to becomes easier to start a fire, which will then burn hotter and more fiercely use it. If you’re shopping for a home fire extinguisher, look for multipurpose than in normal air. It may be almost impossible to put the fire out. A leaking ones that fight Class A, B and C fires. Otherwise, you run the risk of actually valve or hose in a poorly ventilated room or confined space can quickly accelerating the fire. increase the oxygen concentration to a dangerous level. The main causes of fires and explosions when using oxygen are: FIRST AID - (BASIC LIFE SUPPORT 1) oxygen enrichment from leaking equipment The objective of this lesson is to familiarize the soldier on basic life use of materials not compatible with oxygen saving techniques in a battlefield setting. use of oxygen in equipment not designed for oxygen service incorrect or careless operation of oxygen equipment A. Basic First Aid Measure 1. Open the airway and restore breathing Fire Prevention: Your Family’s Planned Escape/Evacuation a) Assessment of and positioning the casualty During National Fire Prevention Week, there are a few things you can do at home to improve fire safety and preparedness for the entire year. 1. Check for responsiveness: establish whether he casualty is conscious by gently shaking him and asking, “Are You OK? “ Create an escape plan 2. Call for help. Conduct family fire drills 3. Position the unconscious casualty so that he is lying on his back and Identify hazards on a firm surface. Fire safety tools you should have in your home a. Straighten the casualty’s leg. Take the casualty’s arm that is nearest to you and move it so that it is straight and above his There are a few tools and supplies that every home should have in case head. Do the same to the other arm. of a fire. b. Kneel beside the casualty with your knees near his shoulders, These include: Place one hand behind the head and the neck for support. With your other hand, grasp the casualty under his far arm. Smoke alarms c. Roll the casualty towards you using a steady, even pull. His Carbon monoxide detectors head and neck should stay in line with his back. Fire extinguishers in every room Fire sprinklers d. Return casualty’s arm to his side. Straighten his legs. Reposition A fireproof lock box for essential documents yourself so that you are now kneeling at the level of the casualty’s shoulder. However, If neck injury is suspected and Of course, you should regularly test equipment like smoke alarms and carbon the jaw thrust technique will be used, kneel at the casualty’s monoxide detectors to make sure they have batteries and are in working head, looking toward his feet. order. Check fire extinguishers for an expiration date; these should be replaced every few years.  2. Opening the airway of an unconscious or not breathing casualty this forehead to maintain the backward head tilt and maintain an open airway. With your other hand, keep your fingertips on the a. Call for help and then position the casualty. Move the casualty bony part of the lower jaw near the chin and lift. on his back. b. Open the airway using the jaw-thrust or head tilt/chin lift method 2. Take a deep breath and place it your mouth around the casualty mouth. 1. Jaw thrust method. This method may be accomplished by the rescuer grasping the angles of the casualty’s lower jaw and 3. Blow two full breaths into the casualty’s mouth, taking a breath lifting with both hands, one on each side, displacing the jaw of fresh air each time before you blow. Watch out of the corner forward. The rescuer’s elbow should rest on the surface on of your eye for the casualty’s chest to rise. If the chest rises, which the casualty is lying. The head should be carefully sufficient air is getting into the casualty’s lungs. supported without lifting it backwards or turning it from side to side. If this is unsuccessful, the head should be tilted back very a) Take corrective action immediately by reestablishing the slightly. The jaw thrust is the safest first approach to opening airway. Make sure the air is not leaking from the mouth or the airway of the casualty who has a suspected neck injury out of the casualty’s pinch nose. because in most cases it can be accomplish without extending the neck. b) Reattempt to ventilate. 2. Head tilt/ chin-lift method. Place one hand on the casualty’s c) If the chest still does not rise, take necessary action to forehead and apply firm, backward pressure with the palm to open an obstructed airway. tilt head back. Place the fingertips of the other hand under the bony part of the lower jaw and lift, bringing the chin forward. 4. After giving two slow breaths, which cause the chest to rise, The thumb should not be used to lift the chin. attempt to locate a pulse on the casualty. Feel for a pulse on the side of the casualty’s neck closest to you by placing the first two 3. Check for breathing fingers (index and middle fingers) of your hand on the groove a. Look for the rise and fall of the chest. beside the casualty’s Adam’s apple (carotid pulse). (Your thumb should not be used for pulse taking because you may confuse b. Listen for the air escaping during exhalation by placing your pulse beat with that of the casualty. your ear near the casualty’s mouth. c. Feel for the flow of air on your cheek 4. Airway obstruction: d. Perform rescue breathing if the casualty does not A. Upper airway obstructions often occur because— resume breathing spontaneously. 1. The casualty’s tongue falls back into his throat while he is unconscious. The tongue falls back and obstructs the airway; it is 3. Rescue Breathing. not swallowed by the casualty. a) Mouth-to-mouth method. 2. Foreign bodies become lodged in the throat. These obstructions usually occur while eating. 1. If the casualty is not breathing, place your hand on his forehead, 3. Blood clots may form as a result of head and facial injuries. and pinch his nostril his nostril together with the thumb and index finger of this hand. Let this same hand exerts pressure on  B. Partial airway obstruction. The casualty may still have an air 5. Stop the bleeding and protect the wound exchange. A good air exchange means that the casualty can cough a. Entrance and Exit Wounds: Before applying the dressing, carefully forcefully, though he may be wheezing between coughs. You, the examine the casualty to determine if there is more than one wound. A missile rescuer, should not interfere and should encourage the casualty to may have entered at one point and exited at another point. The EXIT wound cough up the object obstructing his airway on his own. A poor air is usually LARGER than the entrance wound. exchange may be indicated by weak coughing with a high-pitched b. Field Dressing noise between coughs. Further, the casualty may show signs of shock indicating oxygen needs. You should assist the casualty and treat him a. Use the casualty’s field dressing; remove it from the wrapper as though he had a complete obstruction. and grasp the tails of the dressing with both hands. C. Complete airway obstruction. A complete obstruction (no air b. Hold the dressing directly over the wound with the white side exchange) is indicated if the casualty cannot speak, breathe, or cough down. Pull the dressing open and place it directly over the wound. at all. He may be clutching his neck and moving erratically. In an unconscious casualty, a complete obstruction is also indicated if after c. Hold the dressing in place with one hand. Use the other hand to opening his airway you cannot ventilate him. wrap one of the tails around the injured part, covering about one half of the dressing. Leave enough of the tail for a knot. If the casualty is able, he may 4. Opening the Obstructed Airway—Conscious Casualty assist by holding the dressing in place. a. Ask the casualty if he can speak or if he is choking. Check for the d. Wrap the other tail in the opposite direction until the remainder universal choking sign. of the dressing is covered. The tails should seal the sides of the dressing to keep foreign material from getting under it. b. If the casualty can speak, encourage him to attempt to cough; the casualty still has a good air exchange. If he is able to speak or cough e. Tie the tails into a nonslip knot over the outer edge of the effectively, DO NOT interferes with his attempts to expel the obstruction. dressing. DO NOT TIE THE KNOT OVER THE WOUND. In order to allow blood to flow to the rest of an injured limb, tie the dressing firmly enough to prevent c. Listen for high pitched sounds when the casualty breathes or coughs it from slipping but without causing a tourniquet like effect; that is, the skin (poor air exchange). If there is poor air exchange or no breathing, CALL FOR beyond the injury should not become cool, blue, or numb. HELP and immediately deliver manual thrusts (either an abdominal or chest thrust. (3) Manual Pressure 1. Apply abdominal thrusts. (a) If bleeding continues after applying the sterile field dressing, 2. Apply chest thrusts. An alternate technique to then abdominal thrust direct manual pressure may be used to help control bleeding. Apply is the chest thrust. This technique is useful when then casualty has an such pressure by placing a hand on the dressing and exerting firm abdominal wound, when the casualty is pregnant, or when the casualty is so pressure for 5 to 10 minutes. The casualty may be asked to do this large that you cannot wrap your arms around the abdomen. himself if he is conscious and can follow instructions. 3. Opening the Obstructed Airway—Casualty Lying Down or Unresponsive. (b) Elevate an injured limb slightly above the level of the heart to reduce the bleeding. (c) If the bleeding stops, check shock; administer first aid for control by manual pressure. If the pressure dressing under firm hand pressure shock as necessary. If the bleeding continues, apply a pressure becomes soaked with blood and the wound continues to bleed, apply a dressing. tourniquet. (4) Pressure Dressing: Pressure dressings aid in blood clotting and compress (a) Improvising a Tourniquet. In the absence of a specially designed the open blood vessel. If bleeding continues after the application of a field tourniquet, a tourniquet may be made from a strong, pliable material, such dressing, manual pressure, and elevation, then a pressure dressing must be as gauze or muslin bandages, clothing, or cravats. An improvised tourniquet applied as follows: is used with a rigid stick-like object. To minimize skin damage, ensure that the (a) Place a wad of padding on top of the field dressing, directly improvised tourniquet is at least 2 inches wide. over the wound. Keep the injured extremity elevated. (b) Placing the Improvised Tourniquet (b) Place an improvised dressing (or cravat, if available) over the wad of padding. Wrap the ends tightly around the injured limb, 1. Place the tourniquet around the limb, between the wound and the covering the previously placed field dressing. body trunk (or between the wound and the heart). Never place it directly over a wound, a fracture, or joint. Tourniquets, for maximum effectiveness, should (c) Tie the ends together in a nonslip knot, directly over the be placed on the upper arm or above the knee on the thigh. wound site. DO NOT tie so tightly that it has a tourniquet-like effect. 2. The tourniquet should be well-padded. If possible, place the If bleeding continues and all other measures have failed, or if the limb tourniquet over the smoothed sleeve or trouser leg to prevent the skin from is severed, then apply a tourniquet. Use the tourniquet as a LAST being pinched or twisted. If the tourniquet is long enough, wrap it around the RESORT. When the bleeding stops, check for shock; administer first limb several times, keeping the material as flat as possible. Damaging the skin aid for shock as necessary. may deprive the surgeon of skin required to cover an amputation. Protection of the skin also reduces pain. (5) Digital Pressure: (often called “pressure points”) is an alternative method to control bleeding. This method uses pressure from the fingers, thumbs, or (c) Applying the Tourniquet. hands to press at the site or point where a main artery supplying the wounded area lies near the skin surface or over bone. This pressure may help shut off 1) Tie a halfknot. (A halfknot is the same as the first part of tying a or slow down the flow of blood from the heart to the wound and is used in shoe lace.) combination with direct pressure and elevation. It may help in instances 2) Place a stick (or similar rigid object) on top of the half knot. where bleeding is not easily controlled, where a pressure dressing has not yet 3) Tie a full knot over the stick been applied, or where pressure dressings are not readily available. 4) Twist the stick until the tourniquet is tight around the limb and/or (6) Tourniquet: is a constricting band placed around an arm or leg to control the bright red bleeding has stopped. In the case of amputation, dark oozing bleeding. A service member whose arm or leg has been completely blood may continue for a short time. This is the blood trapped in the area amputated may not be bleeding when first discovered, but a tourniquet between the wound and tourniquet. should be applied anyway. This absence of bleeding is due to the body’s normal defenses (contraction or clotting of blood vessels) as a result of the 5) Fasten the tourniquet to the limb by looping the free ends of the amputation, but after a period of time bleeding will start as the blood vessels tourniquet over the ends of the stick. Then bring the ends around the limb to relax or the clot may be knocked loose by moving the casualty. Bleeding from prevent the stick from loosening. Tie them together on the side of the limb. a major artery of the thigh, lower leg, or arm and bleeding from multiple arteries (which occurs in a traumatic amputation) may prove to be beyond DO NOT cover the tourniquet—you should leave it in full view. If the limb is (d) Restlessness, nervousness. missing (total amputation), apply a dressing to the stump. All wounds should (e) Thirst. have a dressing to protect the wound from contamination. (f) Loss of blood (bleeding). 6. Check and treat for shock. (g) Confusion (or loss of awareness). 7. Seek medical aid. (h) Faster-than-normal breathing rate. (i) Blotchy or bluish skin (especially around the mouth and lips). B. Check for shock and administer first aid (j) Nausea and/or vomiting. 1. Shock: The term shock has a variety of meanings. In medicine, it refers to a 4. First Aid Measures for Shock: the first aid procedures administered for collapse of the body’s cardiovascular system which includes an inadequate shock are identical to procedures that would be performed to prevent shock. supply of blood to the body’s tissues. Shock stuns and weakens the body. When treating a Casualty, assume that shock is present or will occur shortly. When the normal blood flow in the body is upset, death can result. Early By waiting until actual signs and symptoms of shock are noticeable, the recognition and proper first aid may save the casualty’s life. rescuer may jeopardize the casualty’s life. 2. Causes and Effects: There are three basic mechanisms associated with shock. These are: Position the Casualty. DO NOT move the casualty or his limbs if suspected fractures have not been splinted. The heart is damaged and fails to work as a pump. Move the casualty to cover, if cover is available and the situation Blood loss (heavy bleeding) causes the volume of fluid within the permits. vascular system to be insufficient. Lay the casualty on his back. The blood vessels dilate (open wider) so that the blood within the Elevate the casualty’s feet higher than the level of his heart. Use a system (even though it is a normal volume [the casualty is not stable object (field pack or rolled up clothing) so that his feet will not bleeding or dehydrated]) is insufficient to provide adequate slip off. circulation within the body. Loosen clothing at the neck, waist, or wherever it may be binding. Shock may be the result of a number of conditions. These include: Prevent chilling or overheating. The key is to maintain body Dehydration. temperature. In cold weather, place a blanket or other like item over Allergic reaction to foods, drugs, insect stings, and snakebites. him to keep him warm and under him to prevent chilling. However, if Significant loss of blood. a tourniquet has been applied, leave it exposed (if possible). In hot Reaction to the sight of a wound, blood, or other traumatic scene. weather, place the casualty in the shade and protect him from Traumatic injuries, such as: burns, gunshot or shrapnel wounds, crush becoming chilled; however, avoid the excessive use of blankets or injury, blows to the body (which can cause broken bones or damages other coverings. to internal organs), head injuries or penetrating wounds (such as Calm the casualty. Throughout the entire procedure of providing first from a knife, bayonet, missle) aid for a casualty, the rescuer should reassure the casualty and keep him calm. This can be done by being authoritative (taking charge) and 3. Signs and Symptoms of Shock by showing self-confidence. Assure the casualty that you are there to help him. (a) Sweaty but cool skin (clammy skin). Seek medical help. (b) Weak and rapid pulse. Food and/or Drink. When providing first aid for shock, DO NOT (c) Paleness of skin (in dark-skinned individuals they may have a give the casualty any food or drink. If you must leave the casualty grayish look to their skin).  or if he is unconscious, turn his head to the side to prevent him Dive Entry from choking if he vomits. The quickest entry to be used to reach a person in distress. Applicable only if Evaluate Casualty. Continue to evaluate the casualty until the depth of the water is known and it is clear from any debris. medical personnel arrives or the casualty is transported to an MTF. Compact Jump The safest type of entry when coming from a high platform with an C. First Aid for Fractures obstruction free entry point. A fracture is any break in the continuity of a bone. Fractures can SWIMMING STROKES cause total disability or in some cases death by severing vital organs Freestyle and/or arteries. On the other hand, they can most often be treated so The fastest swimming stroke to approach a person in distress. It can there is a complete recovery. The potential for recovery depends greatly be performed both in competition