Theories of Personality (Introduction to Personality Theory) PDF

Theories of Personality (Introduction to Personality Theory)  Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION TO PERSONALITY THEORY Learning Concentration: 1. What is Personality?; 2. What is a Theory?; 3. Dimensions for a Concept of Humanity; 4. Research in Personality Theory Introduc...

Theories of Personality (Introduction to Personality Theory)  Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION TO PERSONALITY THEORY Learning Concentration: 1. What is Personality?; 2. What is a Theory?; 3. Dimensions for a Concept of Humanity; 4. Research in Personality Theory Introduction ▪ Why do people behave as they do? ▪ Do people have some choice in shaping their own personality? ▪ What accounts for similarities and differences among people? Introduction ▪ For centuries, philosophers, theologians, and other thinkers have asked these questions as they pondered the nature of human nature—or even wondered whether humans have a basic nature. Until relatively recent times, great thinkers made little progress in finding satisfactory answers to these questions. ▪ More than 100 years ago, however, Sigmund Freud began to combine philosophical speculations with a primitive scientific method. Introduction ▪ Freud, in fact, was the first to develop a truly modern theory of personality, based mostly on his clinical observations. ▪ He developed a “Grand Theory,” that is, one that attempted to explain all personality for all people. Introduction ▪ The general trend over the course of the 20th century was to base theories more and more on scientific observations rather than on clinical ones. Both sources, however, are valid foundations for theories of personality. What is Personality? Individuals within every living species exhibit differences or variability. Indeed, animals such as octopi, birds, pigs, horses, cats, and dogs have consistent individual differences in behavior, otherwise known as personality, within their species. What is Personality? Psychologists differ among themselves as to the meaning of personality. Most agree that the word “personality” originated from the Latin persona, which referred to a theatrical mask worn by Roman actors in Greek dramas. What is Personality? However, personality theorists have not agreed on a single definition of personality. What is Personality? Personality theorists have had a variety of backgrounds. Most, but not all, have been trained in either psychiatry or psychology. Many have drawn on their experiences as psychotherapists; others have relied more on empirical research to gather data on human personality. What is Personality? Although no single definition is acceptable to all personality theorists, we can say that ‘personality’ is a pattern of relatively permanent traits and unique characteristics that give both consistency and individuality to a person’s behavior. What is Personality? Traits contribute to individual differences in behavior, consistency of behavior over time, and stability of behavior across situations. Traits may be unique, common to some group, or shared by the entire species, but their pattern is different for each individual. Thus each person, though like others in some ways, has a unique personality. What is a Theory? ▪ Some people contrast theory to truth or fact, but such an antithesis demonstrates a fundamental lack of understanding of all three terms. Theory Defined… ▪ A scientific theory is a set of related assumptions that allows scientists to use logical deductive reasoning to formulate testable hypotheses. Theory Defined… ▪ First, a theory is a set of assumptions. A single assumption can never fill all the requirements of an adequate theory. Theory Defined… ▪ Second, a theory is a set of related assumptions. Isolated assumptions can neither generate meaningful hypotheses nor possess internal consistency—2 criteria of a useful theory. Theory Defined… ▪ A third key word in the definition is assumptions. The components of a theory are not proven facts in the sense that their validity has been absolutely established. They are, however, accepted as if they were true. Theory Defined… Fourth, logical deductive reasoning is used by the researcher to formulate hypotheses. Theory Defined… The final part of the definition includes the qualifier testable. Unless a hypothesis can be tested in some way, it is worthless. Theory and Its Relatives People sometimes confuse theory with philosophy, or speculation, or hypothesis, or taxonomy. Although theory is related to each of these concepts, it is not the same as any of them. Philosophy First, theory is related to philosophy, but it is a much narrower term. Philosophy means love of wisdom, and philosophers are people who pursue wisdom through thinking and reasoning. Philosophers are not scientists; they do not ordinarily conduct controlled studies in their pursuit of wisdom. Philosophy Theories do not deal with “oughts” and “shoulds.” Therefore, a set of principles about how one should live one’s life cannot be a theory. Philosophy Philosophy deals with what ought to be or what should be; theory does not. Theory deals with broad sets of if-then statements, but the goodness or badness of the outcomes of these statements is beyond the realm of theory. Speculation Second, theories rely on speculation, but they are much more than mere armchair speculation. They do not flow forth from the mind of a great thinker isolated from empirical observations. They are closely tied to empirically gathered data and to science. Speculation o What is the relationship between theory and science? Speculation o Theories are not useless fantasies fabricated by impractical scholars fearful of soiling their hands in the machinery of scientific investigation. In fact, theories themselves are quite practical and are essential to the advancement of any science. Hypotheses Although theory is a narrower concept than philosophy, it is a broader term than hypothesis. A good theory is capable of generating many hypotheses. Hypotheses A hypothesis is an educated guess or prediction specific enough for its validity to be tested through the use of the scientific method. Hypotheses A theory is too general to lend itself to direct verification, but a single comprehensive theory is capable of generating thousands of hypotheses. Taxonomy o A taxonomy is a classification of things according to their natural relationships. Taxonomies are essential to the development of a science because without classification of data science could not grow. Taxonomy Mere classification, however, does not constitute a theory. However, taxonomies can evolve into theories when they begin to generate testable hypotheses and to explain research findings. Why Different Theories? If theories of personality are truly scientific Why do we have so many different ones? Alternate theories exist because the very nature of a theory allows the theorist to make speculations from a particular point of view. Why Different Theories? All theories are a reflection of their authors' personal backgrounds, childhood experiences, philosophy of life, interpersonal relationships, and unique manner of looking at the world. Perspectives in Theories of Personality One of the primary functions of scientific theory is to describe and explain how the world works. Psychologists attempt to explain how human thought, emotion, motivation, and behavior work. Yet human personality is so complex that many different perspectives have developed on how to best explain it. 1. Psychodynamic Theories Beginning with Freud, psychoanalytic and then the more general psychodynamic approaches have focused on the importance of early childhood experience and on relationships with parents as guiding forces that shape personality development. Additionally, this view sees the unconscious mind and motives as much more powerful than the conscious awareness. 1. Psychodynamic Theories (Cont…) Psychoanalysis traditionally used dream interpretation to uncover the unconscious thoughts, feelings, and impulses as a main form of treatment of neurosis and mental illness. After Freud, these theorists moved away from the importance of sexuality and more toward social and cultural forces. 2. Humanistic-Existential Theories The primary assumption of the humanistic (currently known as “positive psychology”) approach is that people strive toward meaning, growth, well- being, happiness, and psychological health. States of positive emotion and happiness foster psychological health and pro-social behavior. Understanding these evolved positive aspects of human behavior provides just as much insight into human nature as does understanding the pathological aspects. 2. Humanistic-Existential Theories (Cont…) Existential theorists assume that not only are we driven by a search for meaning, but also that negative experiences such as failure, awareness of death, death of a loved one, and anxiety, are part of the human condition and can foster psychological growth. 3. Dispositional Theories Dispositional theorists argue that the unique and long-term tendencies to behave in particular ways are the essence of our personality. These unique dispositions, such as extraversion or anxiety, are called traits. The field has converged on the understanding that there are five main trait dimensions in human personality. Traits serve the function of making certain behaviors more likely in some people. 4. Biological-Evolutionary Theories Behavior, thought, feelings, and personality are influenced by differences in basic genetic, epigenetic, and neurological systems between individuals. The reason some people have different traits, dispositions, and ways of thinking stems from differences in their genotype and central nervous system (brain structures and neurochemistry). 4. Biological-Evolutionary Theories (Cont…) Because they are based on evolved brain systems, human thought, behavior, and personality have been shaped by forces of evolution (natural and sexual selection) over millions of years. The body, brain, and environment co-exist and coevolve, and so more than any other psychological perspective, this one emphasizes that what we think, feel, and do is always an interaction between nature (biological) and nurture (environment). 5. Learning-(Social) Cognitive Theories If you want to understand behavior, then focus only on behavior, not on hypothetical and unobservable internal states such as thoughts, feelings, drives, or motives. All behaviors are learned through association and/or its consequences (whether it is reinforced or punished). To shape desired behavior we have to understand and then establish the conditions that bring about those particular behaviors. 5. Learning-(Social) Cognitive Theories (Cont…) The cognitive perspective argues that how we think about ourselves and other people, as well as the assumptions we make and the strategies we use for solving problems, are the keys to understanding differences between people. Whether we believe we can do something successfully or not influences our behavior as well as our personality. Perspectives in Theories of Personality Perspectives in Theories of Personality