Theories of Personality (11th Edition) PDF

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 5 REASONS to buy your textbooks and course materials at SAVINGS: 1 Prices up to 75% off, daily coupons, and free shipping on orders over $25 CHOICE: 2 Multiple format options including textbook, eBook and eChapter rentals CONVENIENCE: 3 Anytime, anywhere access of eBooks or eChapters via mobile devices 4 SERVICE: Free eBook access while your text ships, and instant access to online homework products STUDY TOOLS: 5 Study tools* for your text, plus writing, research, career and job search resources * availability varies Find your course materials and start saving at: www.cengagebrain.com Source Code: 14M-AA0107 Engaged with you. www.cengage.com Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Theories of Personality Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  ELEVENTH EDITION Theories of Personality DUANE P. SCHULTZ University of South Florida SYDNEY ELLEN SCHULTZ Australia Brazil Mexico Singapore United Kingdom United States Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights restrictions, some third party content may be suppressed. Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. The publisher reserves the right to remove content from this title at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. For valuable information on pricing, previous editions, changes to current editions, and alternate formats, please visit www.cengage.com/highered to search by ISBN#, author, title, or keyword for materials in your areas of interest. Important Notice: Media content referenced within the product description or the product text may not be available in the eBook version. Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Theories of Personality, Eleventh Edition © 2017, 2013 Cengage Learning Duane P. Schultz and WCN: 02-200-203 Sydney Ellen Schultz ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright Product Director: Jon-David Hague herein may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, Content Developer: Michelle Clark except as permitted by U.S. copyright law, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner. Product Assistant: Kimiya Hojjat Marketing Manager: Melissa Larmon For product information and technology assistance, contact us at Art and Cover Direction, Production Cengage Learning Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706. Management, and Composition: For permission to use material from this text or product, submit all Lumina Datamatics, Inc. requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions. 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Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.cengagebrain.com. Printed in the United States of America Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2015 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  brief Contents Preface xiii CHAPTER 1 Personality: What It Is and Why You Should Care 1 The Psychoanalytic Approach 35 CHAPTER 2 Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis 37 The Neo-psychoanalytic Approach 79 CHAPTER 3 Carl Jung: Analytical Psychology 81 CHAPTER 4 Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology 108 CHAPTER 5 Karen Horney: Neurotic Needs and Trends 135 The Life-Span Approach 157 CHAPTER 6 Erik Erikson: Identity Theory 159 The Genetics Approach 191 CHAPTER 7 Gordon Allport: Motivation and Personality 193 CHAPTER 8 Raymond Cattell, Hans Eysenck, the Five-Factor Theory, HEXACO, and the Dark Triad 213 The Humanistic Approach 245 CHAPTER 9 Abraham Maslow: Needs-Hierarchy Theory 247 CHAPTER 10 Carl Rogers: Self-Actualization Theory 271 The Cognitive Approach 291 CHAPTER 11 George Kelly: Personal Construct Theory 293 The Behavioral Approach 315 CHAPTER 12 B. F. Skinner: Reinforcement Theory 317 The Social-Learning Approach 339 CHAPTER 13 Albert Bandura: Modeling Theory 341 v Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. vi Brief Contents The Limited-Domain Approach 369 CHAPTER 14 Facets of Personality: Taking Control, Taking Chances, and Finding Happiness 371 CHAPTER 15 Personality in Perspective 407 Glossary 419 References 425 Author Index 475 Subject Index 492 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  contents Preface xiii CHAPTER 1 Personality: What It Is and Why You Should Care 1 Take a Look at the Word 1 Research in the Study of Personality 24 The Role of Theory in Personality Theories 29 Questions about Human Nature: What Are We Like? 31 Chapter Summary 33 Review Questions 33 Suggested Readings 34 The Psychoanalytic Approach 35 CHAPTER 2 Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis 37 The Life of Freud (1856–1939) 38 Freud Comes to America 42 The Final Years 42 Instincts: The Propelling Forces of the Personality 43 The Levels of Personality 44 The Structure of Personality 45 Anxiety: A Threat to the Ego 47 Defenses against Anxiety 49 Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development 51 Questions about Human Nature 57 Assessment in Freud’s Theory 58 Criticisms of Freud’s Research 60 Extensions of Freudian Theory 73 Reflections on Freud’s Theory 74 Chapter Summary 76 Review Questions 77 Suggested Readings 78 The Neo-psychoanalytic Approach 79 CHAPTER 3 Carl Jung: Analytical Psychology 81 The Life of Jung (1875–1961) 82 Psychic Energy: The Basis of Jung’s System 86 Aspects of Personality 87 The Development of the Personality 93 Questions about Human Nature 96 vii Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. viii Contents Assessment in Jung’s Theory 97 Research on Jung’s Theory 100 Reflections on Jung’s Theory 105 Chapter Summary 106 Review Questions 106 Suggested Readings 107 CHAPTER 4 Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology 108 The Life of Adler (1870–1937) 109 Inferiority Feelings: The Source of All Human Striving 111 Striving for Superiority, or Perfection 113 The Style of Life 114 Social Interest 116 Birth Order 117 Questions about Human Nature 120 Assessment in Adler’s Theory 120 Research on Adler’s Theory 123 Reflections on Adler’s Theory 130 Chapter Summary 133 Review Questions 133 Suggested Readings 134 CHAPTER 5 Karen Horney: Neurotic Needs and Trends 135 The Life of Horney (1885–1952) 136 The Childhood Need for Safety and Security 139 Basic Anxiety: The Foundation of Neurosis 140 Neurotic Needs 141 The Idealized Self-Image 145 Feminine Psychology 146 Questions about Human Nature 149 Assessment in Horney’s Theory 150 Research on Horney’s Theory 151 Reflections on Horney’s Theory 153 Chapter Summary 154 Review Questions 155 Suggested Readings 155 The Life-Span Approach 157 CHAPTER 6 Erik Erikson: Identity Theory 159 The Life of Erikson (1902–1994) 160 Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development 162 Basic Weaknesses 170 Questions about Human Nature 170 Assessment in Erikson’s Theory 171 Research on Erikson’s Theory 172 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Contents ix Reflections on Erikson’s Theory 188 Chapter Summary 189 Review Questions 189 Suggested Readings 190 The Genetics Approach 191 CHAPTER 7 Gordon Allport: Motivation and Personality 193 Allport Brings Personality into the Classroom and the Psychology Lab 193 The Life of Allport (1897–1967) 194 The Nature of Personality 196 Personality Traits 197 Motivation: What We Strive for 198 Personality Development in Childhood: The Unique Self 200 The Healthy Adult Personality 202 Questions about Human Nature 203 Assessment in Allport’s Theory 204 Research on Allport’s Theory 205 Reflections on Allport’s Theory 210 Chapter Summary 211 Review Questions 211 Suggested Readings 212 CHAPTER 8 Raymond Cattell, Hans Eysenck, the Five-Factor Theory, HEXACO, and the Dark Triad 213 Predicting Behavior 214 The Life of Cattell (1905–1998) 214 Cattell’s Approach to Personality Traits 216 Source Traits: The Basic Factors of Personality 218 Dynamic Traits: The Motivating Forces 219 Stages of Personality Development 219 Questions about Human Nature 221 Assessment in Cattell’s Theory 222 Research on Cattell’s Theory 223 Reflections on Cattell’s Theory 225 Behavioral Genetics 226 Hans Eysenck (1916–1997) 226 The Dimensions of Personality 226 Robert McCrae and Paul Costa: The Five-Factor Model 230 Michael Ashton and Kibeom Lee: HEXACO: The Six-Factor Model 239 Delroy Paulhus and Kevin Williams: The Dark Triad of Personality 240 Personality Traits and the Internet 241 Reflections on the Trait Approach 242 Chapter Summary 242 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. x Contents Review Questions 243 Suggested Readings 243 The Humanistic Approach 245 CHAPTER 9 Abraham Maslow: Needs-Hierarchy Theory 247 The Life of Maslow (1908–1970) 248 Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs 250 The Study of Self-Actualizers 255 Questions about Human Nature 260 Assessment in Maslow’s Theory 261 Research on Maslow’s Theory 262 Reflections on Maslow’s Theory 238 Chapter Summary 239 Review Questions 270 Suggested Readings 270 CHAPTER 10 Carl Rogers: Self-Actualization Theory 271 The Life of Rogers (1902–1987) 272 The Self and the Tendency toward Actualization 274 The Experiential World 276 The Development of the Self in Childhood 276 Characteristics of Fully Functioning Persons 279 Questions about Human Nature 281 Assessment in Rogers’s Theory 282 Research on Rogers’s Theory 283 Reflections on Rogers’s Theory 288 Chapter Summary 289 Review Questions 289 Suggested Readings 290 The Cognitive Approach 291 CHAPTER 11 George Kelly: Personal Construct Theory 293 The Cognitive Movement in Psychology 293 The Life of Kelly (1905–1967) 295 Personal Construct Theory 297 Ways of Anticipating Life Events 398 Questions about Human Nature 304 Assessment in Kelly’s Theory 304 Research on Kelly’s Theory 308 Reflections on Kelly’s Theory 312 Chapter Summary 313 Review Questions 313 Suggested Readings 314 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Contents xi The Behavioral Approach 315 CHAPTER 12 B. F. Skinner: Reinforcement Theory 317 Rats, Pigeons, and an Empty Organism 317 The Life of Skinner (1904–1990) 318 Reinforcement: The Basis of Behavior 321 Operant Conditioning and the Skinner Box 323 Schedules of Reinforcement 324 The Shaping of Behavior 326 Superstitious Behavior 328 The Self-Control of Behavior 329 Applications of Operant Conditioning 330 Questions about Human Nature 332 Assessment in Skinner’s Theory 333 Research on Skinner’s Theory 334 Reflections on Skinner’s Theory 335 Chapter Summary 337 Review Questions 337 Suggested Readings 338 The Social-Learning Approach 339 CHAPTER 13 Albert Bandura: Modeling Theory 341 The Life of Bandura (1925–) 342 Modeling: The Basis of Observational Learning 343 The Processes of Observational Learning 348 Self-Reinforcement and Self-Efficacy 350 Developmental Stages of Self-Efficacy 353 Behavior Modification 354 Questions about Human Nature 357 Assessment in Bandura’s Theory 357 Research on Bandura’s Theory 357 Reflections on Bandura’s Theory 366 Chapter Summary 367 Review Questions 368 Suggested Readings 368 The Limited-Domain Approach 369 CHAPTER 14 Facets of Personality: Taking Control, Taking Chances, and Finding Happiness 371 Julian Rotter: Locus of Control 372 Marvin Zuckerman: Sensation Seeking 378 Martin E. P. Seligman: Learned Helplessness and the Optimistic/Pessimistic Explanatory Style 385 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. xii Contents Martin Seligman: Positive Psychology 395 Chapter Summary 404 Review Questions 405 Suggested Readings 405 CHAPTER 15 Personality in Perspective 407 The Genetic Factor 407 The Environmental Factor 408 The Learning Factor 410 The Parental Factor 411 The Developmental Factor 413 The Consciousness Factor 416 The Unconscious Factor 416 Final Comment 417 Review Questions 417 Glossary 419 References 425 Author Index 475 Subject Index 492 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  preface to the Eleventh Edition Each edition of a textbook must be as vital, dynamic, and responsive to change as the field it covers. To remain an effective teaching instrument, it must reflect the develop- ment of the field and continue to challenge its readers. We have seen the focus of per- sonality study shift from global theories, beginning with Sigmund Freud’s 19th-century psychoanalytic theory of neuroses, to 21st-century explorations of more limited person- ality facets or dimensions. And we have seen the basis of personality exploration change from case studies of emotionally disturbed persons to more scientifically based research with diverse populations. Contemporary work in the field reflects differences in gender, age, and sexual orientation as well as ethnic, racial, religious, and cultural heritage. New and Expanded Coverage New biographical material has been included for the theorists, to suggest how the devel- opment of their theory may have been influenced by events in their personal and profes- sional lives. This approach shows students that the development of science through theory and research is not always totally objective. It may also derive from intuition and personal experience later refined and extended by more rational, analytic processes. Social and cultural influences on the theorists’ beliefs about human nature are also described. The sections on personality research have been updated with nearly 400 new refer- ences to maintain the emphasis on current issues. Research findings have been summa- rized throughout the text in “Highlights” boxes; this feature presents bullet point lists to help the student organize and compare the results of research studies. Some of the topics with new and expanded coverage include the following: Do we present our true selves on social media? How does the use of social media influence our personality? How does our personality influence our use of social media? Do selfies show the real you? Updated work on the MMPI, the Rorschach, and the Thematic Apperception Test. The Mechanical Turk—a new way to conduct personality research online. New findings on the Freudian concepts of ego resilience, the Oedipus complex, and defense mechanisms. New findings on dreams, and the use of computers to interpret dreams. Social companion robots to facilitate psychoanalysis. Research on Jung’s Psychological Types conducted in Arab cultures. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) as a result of neglect in childhood. New findings on Adler’s concept of birth order. Over 30 new studies on Erikson’s concepts of ego identity, gender preference, virtual ethnic identity, gender differences in toy preferences, and his stages of development. Cultural differences from Allport’s work extended to the facial expression of emotions. More on the five-factor model of personality and the Dark Triad—an approach that includes narcissism, machiavellianism, and psychopathy. The Smartphone Basic Needs Scale—a self-report inventory designed to measure how Maslow’s hierarchy of needs can be satisfied by smartphone use. xiii Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. xiv Preface to the Eleventh Edition New research findings on self-efficacy and locus of control. Techniques to measure sensation seeking. The relationship between sensation seek- ing and cyberbullying. More on Seligman’s life and his development of positive psychology. Defining and finding happiness. The concept of flourishing. And how learned helplessness was used in developing techniques of torture in the war on terror. Organization of the Text The eleventh edition of Theories of Personality retains its orientation toward undergrad- uate students who have had little previous exposure to personality theories. Our purpose is to reach out to beginning students and ease their task of learning about the study of personality. We have chosen theorists who represent psychoanalytic, neopsychoanalytic, lifespan, genetics, humanistic, cognitive, behavioral, and social-learning approaches, as well as clinical and experimental work. The concluding chapter reviews these perspec- tives that describe personality development and suggests ways to help students draw con- clusions and achieve closure from their studies. Each theory in the text is discussed as a unit. Although we recognize the value of an issues or problems approach that compares theories on specific points, we believe that the issues-oriented book is more appropriate for higher-level students. The theories-oriented text makes it easier for beginning students to grasp a theory’s essential concepts and overall flavor. We try to present each theory clearly, to convey its most important ideas, assump- tions, definitions, and methods. We discuss each theorist’s methods of assessment and empirical research and offer evaluations and reflections. Except for placing Freud first in recognition of his chronological priority, we have not arranged the theories in order of per- ceived importance. Each theory is placed in the perspective of competing viewpoints. A Note on Diversity The first person to propose a comprehensive theory of the human personality was Sig- mund Freud, a 19th-century clinical neurologist who formulated his ideas while treating patients in Vienna, Austria. His work, called psychoanalysis, was based largely on ses- sions with wealthy White European women who came to him complaining of emotional distress and disturbing thoughts and behaviors. From his observations of their progress, or lack of it, he offered a theory to explain everyone’s personality. Freud’s system was important for the concepts he proposed—many of which are now part of popular culture—as well as for the opposition he provoked, inspiring other theorists to examine and promote their own ideas to explain personality. Today, personality theorists and researchers recognize that an explanation based on a small, homogeneous segment of the population cannot be applied to the diverse groups of people sharing space in our world. The situation is similar in medicine. Medical researchers recognize, for example, that some medications and treatments appropriate for young adults are not suitable for children or elderly people. Diseases prevalent in certain ethnic groups are rare in others, requiring differences in medical screening and testing for diverse populations. Contemporary personality theory strives to be inclusive, studying the influences of age, gender, race, ethnic origin, religious beliefs, sexual orien- tation, and child-rearing practices. We see examples of this diversity throughout the text. Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Preface to the Eleventh Edition xv Features For the student, we offer chapter outlines, summaries, research highlights, review ques- tions, annotated reading lists, margin glossary terms, a cumulative glossary, tables and figures, a reference list, and referrals to relevant Web sites. For instructors, the instructor’s manual with test bank has been thoroughly revised and offers lecture outlines, ideas for class discussion, projects, useful web links, and test items. The test bank is available in digital formats. PowerPoint Lecture Slides and elec- tronic transparencies are available on eBank. The transparencies feature select figures and tables from the text loaded into Microsoft PowerPoint. Contact your local sales rep- resentative for details. Duane P. Schultz Sydney Ellen Schultz Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  chapter 1 Personality: What It Is and Why You Should Care Take a Look at the Word Behavioral Assessment Everybody Has One Thought and Experience Assessment Describing Your Personality Gender and Ethnic Issues That Affect How Does Personality Develop? Assessment Ways of Looking at Personality Research in the Study of Personality How Others See Us The Clinical Method Stable and Predictable Characteristics The Experimental Method Unique Characteristics Virtual Research Personality and the Social Media The Correlational Method Are You the Same Person Online? The Role of Theory in Personality How Does the Social Media Influence Our Personality? Theories How Does Our Personality Influence Our Use of The Autobiographical Nature of Personality Social Media? Theories The Role of Race and Gender in Shaping Questions about Human Nature: Personality What Are We Like? Are We in Charge of Our Lives? Free Will versus The Role of Culture in Shaping Determinism Personality What Dominates Us? Our Inherited Nature or Different Cultural Beliefs about Destiny Our Nurturing Environment? Individualism Are We Dependent or Independent of Child-Rearing Practices Childhood? Self-Enhancement Is Human Nature Unique or Universal? A Diversity of Cultures Our Life Goals: Satisfaction or Growth? Our Outlook: Optimism or Pessimism? Assessing Your Personality The Concepts of Reliability and Validity Chapter Summary Self-Report Personality Tests Review Questions Online Test Administration Projective Techniques Suggested Readings Clinical Interviews Take a Look at the Word Let’s start by examining the word you’re going to be dealing with this semester. It not only defines this course, but it will also help define your life as well. Here are three standard dictionary definitions of the word taken at random: The state of being a person. The characteristics and qualities that form a person’s distinctive character. The sum total of all the physical, mental, emotional, and social characteristic of a person. You get the idea. It’s everything about you that makes you what you are—a unique individual who is different, in large and small ways, from everybody else. It’s a simple word, but a difficult concept to truly comprehend, which is why it takes a book and a semester to begin to come to grips with it. We’re going to try to understand it, or at least learn something about it, by exploring the various ideas that psychologists have advanced over the years to try to explain it. 1 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 2 Chapter 1: Personality: What It Is and Why You Should Care We have organized those ideas—those theories—in terms of their different outlooks on human nature, beginning with Sigmund Freud. We will deal with extensions that grew out of his theory of psychoanalysis and talk about the men and women who revised his ideas or rebelled against them. After that, we will move on to what is called the life- span approach, tracking personality development from birth all the way to old age. We’ll then discuss theories that focus on individual personality traits, on psychological health, on predetermined behavior patterns, and on cognitive learning from social situations. We will also introduce current ideas for the 21st century and offer some suggestions and conclusions from our exploration of personality. It’s important to recognize that personality theorists from the last century rarely con- sidered the importance of ethnic and cultural differences. We will see that it is not mean- ingful to generalize to all people from, for example, ideas that one theorist based on clinical observations of neurotic European women, or that another theorist based on tests given to American male college students. Therefore, when we discuss research con- ducted on these theories, and describe their use for real-world problems of diagnosis and therapy, we’ll also try to show the influence of age, gender, race, ethnic and national ori- gin, religious beliefs, and sexual orientation. To make your study easier, we will include Highlights sections, giving brief summaries of research findings, as well as chapter outlines, summaries, review questions, and read- ing lists. Important words will be defined in the margins, and these definitions will also be listed in the glossary in the back of the book. In addition, check out the Web sites in our “Log On” features included in each chapter. For direct links, log on to the student companion site at www.cengagebrain.com. Everybody Has One Everybody has one—a personality, that is—and yours will help determine the bound- aries of your success and life fulfillment. It is no exaggeration to say that your person- ality is one of your most important assets. It has already helped shape your experiences up to now, and it will continue to do so for the rest of your life. Everything you have accomplished to date, all of your expectations for the future, whether you will make a good husband, wife, partner, or parent, even your health can be influenced by your personality and the personalities of those around you. Your personality can limit or expand your options and choices in life, prevent you from sharing certain experiences, or enable you to take full advantage of them. It restricts, constrains, and holds back some people and opens up the world of new opportunities to others. How often have you said that someone has a terrific personality? By that you typically mean the person is affable, pleasant, nice to be around, and easy to get along with—the kind of person you might choose to be a friend, roommate, or colleague at work. If you are a manager, you might choose to hire this person. If you are ready to commit to a relationship, you might want to marry this person, basing your decision on your percep- tion of his or her personality. You also know people you describe as having a terrible personality. They may be aloof, hostile, aggressive, unfriendly, unpleasant, or difficult to get along with. You would not hire them or want to associate with them, and they may also be shunned, rejected, and isolated by others. Keep in mind that, while you are making judgments about the personalities of other people, they are making the same kinds of judgments about you. These mutual decisions that shape the lives of both the judged and the judges are made countless times, every time we are in a social situation that requires us to interact with new people. Of course, the number and variety of social situations you are involved in are also determined by your personality—for example, your relative sociability or shyness. You know where Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Chapter 1: Personality: What It Is and Why You Should Care 3 you rate on that characteristic, just as you no doubt have a reasonably clear picture of what your overall personality is like. Describing Your Personality Of course, it’s glib and overly simple to try to sum up the total constellation of some- one’s personality characteristics by using such fuzzy terms as terrific and terrible. The subject of personality is too complex for such a simplified description, because humans are too complex and changeable in different situations and with different people. We need to be more precise in our language to adequately define and describe personality. For that reason, psychologists have devoted considerable effort to developing tests to assess, or measure, personality, as we’ll see throughout the book. You may think you don’t need a psychological test to tell you what your personality is like, and, in general, you may be right. After all, you probably know yourself better than anyone else. If you were asked to list the words that best describe your personality, no doubt you could do it without too much thought, assuming you were being honest with yourself. Try it. Write down as many adjectives as you can think of to describe what you are really like—not how you would like to be, or what you want your teachers or parents or Facebook friends to think you are like—but the real you. (Try not to use the word terrific, even if it does apply in your case.) How many words did you find? Six? Ten? A few more? A widely used personality test, the Adjective Check List, offers an astonish- ing 300 adjectives that describe personality. People taking the test choose the ones that best describe themselves. No, we’re not going to ask you to go through all 300 adjectives, only the 30 listed in Table 1.1. Place a check mark next to the ones you think apply to you. When you’re done, you’ll have a description of your personality in greater detail, but remember that in the actual test, you would have another 270 items to pick from. How Does Personality Develop? Our focus here is not on what your personality is like. You don’t need a psychology course to learn that. What we will be studying are the forces and factors that shape your personality. Later in this chapter, and throughout the book, we will deal with TABLE 1.1 Adjective check list Make a check mark next to the words you believe apply to your personality. affectionate ambitious assertive boastful cheerful cynical demanding dominant fearful forceful generous high-strung impatient insightful meek moody optimistic opinionated persistent prudish relaxed sarcastic sensitive sociable submissive tolerant trusting uninhibited vindictive withdrawn Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 4 Chapter 1: Personality: What It Is and Why You Should Care some basic questions about the nature of personality—for example, whether we are born with a certain type of personality or learn it from our parents, whether personality is influenced by unconscious forces, and whether it can change as we get older. We will cover a variety of theories that have been proposed to help answer these and related questions about human nature. After we have discussed them—what they are, how they came about, and what their current status is—we will evaluate how useful they are in answering our questions and contributing to our understanding of how per- sonality develops. We may think of each of these theorists as contributing individual pieces to a huge online jigsaw puzzle, which is why we study their ideas, even though some of their concepts are decades old. Psychologists continue to try to fit these pieces together to bring forth a clearer image, a more complete picture of what makes us the way we are and determines how we look at the world. LOG ON Personality Project – Northwestern University Discusses major approaches to personality theory and offers links to resources, advice for students, and information about personality tests. Personality Theories e-textbook – Professor C. George Boeree Downloadable chapters about major personality theorists and links to relevant web sites. Society for Personality and Social Psychology The world’s largest organization of personality and social psychologists; a division of the American Psychological Association. Members work in academics, industry and govern- ment. The site offers information on training and careers. Ways of Looking at Personality We talked about formal definitions of personality earlier. Now let’s get away from dictio- nary definitions and take a look at how we use the word in our everyday lives. We use it a lot when we are describing other people and ourselves. One psychologist suggested that we can get a very good idea of its meaning if we examine our intentions—what we mean—whenever we use the word I (Adams, 1954). When you say I, you are, in effect, summing up everything about yourself—your likes and dislikes, fears and virtues, strengths and weaknesses. The word I is what defines you as an individual, separate from everybody else. How Others See Us Another way of trying to understand personality is to look to its source. The word goes back to about the year 1500, and derives from the Latin word persona, which refers to a mask used by actors in a play. It’s easy to see how persona came to refer to our out- ward appearance, the public face we display to the people around us. Based on its der- ivation, then, we might conclude that personality refers to our external and visible characteristics, those aspects of us that other people can see. Our personality would then be defined in terms of the impression we make on others—that is, what we appear to be. Viewed from that perspective, personality is the visible aspect of one’s character, Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Chapter 1: Personality: What It Is and Why You Should Care 5 Our personality may be the mask we wear when we face the outside world Cristian Baitg/Photographer’s Choice/Getty Images as it impresses others. In other words, our personality may be the mask we wear when we face the outside world. But is that all we mean when we use the word personality? Are we talking only about what we can see or how another person appears to us? Does personality refer solely to the mask we wear and the role we play? Surely, when we talk about personality, we mean more than that. We mean to include many different attributes of an individual, a totality or collection of various characteristics that goes beyond superficial physical qualities. The word encompasses a host of subjective social and emotional qualities as well, ones that we may not be able to see directly, that a person may try to hide from us, or that we may try to hide from others. Stable and Predictable Characteristics We may in our use of the word personality refer to enduring characteristics. We assume that personality is relatively stable and predictable. Although we recognize, for example, that a friend may be calm much of the time, we know that he or she can become excit- able, nervous, or panicky at