Migration & Citizenship Lecture Notes PDF

Migration & Citizenship: Lecture Notes Week 1: A new paradigm for understanding human mobility Migration as an intrinsic part of broader processes of development and social transformation (instead of a “problem to be solved” or a “solution to problem”) Central theoretical premise: Migration is bot...

Migration & Citizenship: Lecture Notes Week 1: A new paradigm for understanding human mobility Migration as an intrinsic part of broader processes of development and social transformation (instead of a “problem to be solved” or a “solution to problem”) Central theoretical premise: Migration is both moulded by and helps to mould broader processes of change (development, social transformation, globalization,...) Migration Myths 1. We live in times of unprecedented mass migration 2. Border restrictions reduce migration 3. Development in poor countries will reduce migration 4. Migrants steal jobs and drive down wages Migration Facts 1. Current global migration is not exceptionally high (‘neither exodus nor invasion’), and main changes have been directional 2. Restrictions interrupt circulation, discourage return, push migrants into permanent settlement and create illegality 3. Development initially leads to more migration by increasing people’s capabilities and aspirations to migrate 4. Immigrants come to fill vacancies, not to take jobs Week 2: Analytical categories; some examples Internal and international migration Temporary and permanent Origin and destination Motives Forced/voluntary Illegal, undocumented vs ‘regular’ Categories of entry Labour migrants Investment Students Refugees and asylum seekers Family members Ethnic/ religious ties Undocumented immigrants  Tourist Many more categories of entry exist, for example, in the US: “Those who seek to immigrate to the United States from countries with relatively low levels of immigration may be eligible to seek immigration under the Diversity Immigrant Visa Program” Administrative categories, statistics Netherlands, up until 2021: Western: Person with migration background from one of the countries in Europe (excluding Turkey), North America and Oceania, and Indonesia and Japan. Non Western: Person with migration background from one of the countries in Africa, Latin America and Asia (excluding Indonesia and Japan) or Turkey (Some) theories of migration Functionalist theories: Neoclassical approach (micro) New economics of labour migration Push-pull model Human capital Structural theories: Historical structural models World systems theory US-Mexican migration seen through neo-classical migration theory: Economic Incentives: Higher wages and better job opportunities in the United States attract workers from Mexico, where wages are relatively lower, and employment opportunities are less abundant. Labor Demand and Supply: The U.S. has a higher demand for labor, especially in certain sectors such as agriculture, construction, and service industries, which encourages workers from Mexico to migrate to fulfill this demand. Equilibrium of Wages: In theory, if migration continues, wage levels between Mexico and the U.S. could eventually balance out, reducing the incentive for further migration. Capital flows: Money flows to Mexico in the form of remittances. Neoclassical migration theory: The decision to migrate is a function of the discrepancy of the economic opportunities available at the destination, and the lack of it at the place of residence. Thus, wage differentials, unemployment levels etc determine migration decisions Critiques: Agency is missing in model Assumes individuals are main decision-making unit Doesn’t explain why people do NOT migrate New economics of labour migration Household is main decision making unit Migration as an investment Agency of the household Human capital theory Migration as an investment that increases one’s human capital People decide to invest in migration, similar to how they invest in education Helps to explain ‘selectivity’ of migration Roy-Borjas model of immigrants’ selection ▪ Immigrants as self-selected group, more able and more highly motivated than their fellow citizens ▪ Which workers tend to engage in migration processes, the more or the least skilled? ▪ The self-selection of immigrants is determined by the distribution of incomes in the country of origin relative to the country of destination Roy-Borjas model: Critique ▪ The terms “favourable” and “unfavourable” and positive/negative self- selection are normative. - E.g., low-skilled migration to a country with abundance of high-skill workers may increase aggregate welfare ▪ The assumption that costs of migration are constant proportion of wages for all types of immigrants is too restrictive - E.g., high-skilled immigrants have relatively lower costs than low- skilled immigrants; - Attitudes towards risks are also different depending on skill level Neglects social networks: family and friends; ethnic concentrations (information) Institutions in the destination country are largely neglected - Immigration policies affect the composition of immigrants: EU Blue Card or Start up visas - Welfare state 38 Structural theories Migration as a constituent part of broader historical development and international relations Migration as one of the manifestations of capitalism, imperialism and the unequal terms of trade between developed and underdeveloped countries States, multinational corporations and employment agencies as drivers of migration processes in their own right Migration as a way of mobilizing cheap labour for capital, which primarily serves to keep wages down and boost profits of businesses and economic growth in destination countries Dependency theory / World systems theory Not nation states, or individuals as unit of analysis, but the world as an interrelated system ‘Peripheral’ regions have been incorporated into a world economy controlled by ‘core’ capitalist nations Core countries control most of the world’s wealth and resources, while peripheral countries are often exploited for their labor and raw materials.  Globalization and international trade create economic dependencies, often bringing core-country businesses into peripheral regions. These foreign investments disrupt local economies and can push workers to migrate. Former colonial relationships play a role in migration. Thus: Migration is the cause of under-developed and growing inequality No ‘catching up’ a la neo-classical approach, but the opposite US-Mexican migration seen through world systems theory The U.S. is a core country with economic power, while Mexico has traditionally been a semi-periphery or peripheral country in the global economic system. U.S. investments in Mexico, have sometimes disrupted local businesses and traditional farming practices, leading to economic hardship for Mexican workers Economic policies like NAFTA (the North American Free Trade Agreement) created conditions that allowed U.S. agribusinesses to compete with Mexican farmers, resulting in job losses in Mexico. This economic disruption became a factor, leading Mexican workers to migrate to the U.S. for employment opportunities. World Systems Theory explains migration as part of a broader pattern of global economic inequalities, where workers from economically disadvantaged regions migrate to wealthier countries in response to economic pressures driven by global capitalism. Critique (Structural theories Migration is seen as too deterministic: individuals do have some choice (Again) agency of individuals is overlooked Functionalist theories Individual perspective Migration is a choice Migration is function of supply and demand of labor Migration as an equilibrium tool to optimally distribute labor Structural theories Macro lens Migration choice is constrained Structural/historical factors determine migration Migration increases geographical and class- based income gaps Agency Functionalist and structural theories help us explain why people migrate, but both are too one-sided Rather top-down, largely rule out agency (humans as ‘reactors’ to macro forces) Migration as an ‘Agency within constraints’ approach Neoclassical migration theory: Individuals migrate due to economic opportunities at the destination and/or lack thereof at the origin in order to maximise expected utility Welfare magnet hypothesis More generous welfare provisions tend to attract potential migrants. The existence of generous welfare provisions is more likely to attract migrants who are more likely to use such provisions. This generally means migrants who are low-skilled and have low earning potential. How does the selectivity of immigrants change when one deals with the welfare state? ▪ Suppose, an immigrant has to choose between two countries, which only differ in the presence of welfare state ▪ Country 1 does not have welfare, country 2 has a minimum guaranteed income. ▪ Workers with skill level below Sp threshold select country 2 and those above this threshold select country 1. Thus, welfare state will mainly affect low skilled immigrants. Dual labour market theory International migration is caused by structural and chronic demand within advanced economies for lower-skilled workers to carry out production tasks Theory challenges the popular idea that wealthy nations mainly need high-skilled migrant workers Changes in the economic and labour market structure of receiving countries drive the demand for particular labour skills Native workers do not want and can afford to refuse 3D jobs (dirty, difficult and dangerous), which results in a ‘dual’ labour market, where immigration is high even in times of high unemployment: - Primary labour market: well paid, prestige, security - Secondary labour market: low paid, informal, precarious, 3D Policies and the dual labour market Countries develop different policies to attract high-skilled and low-skilled labour Policies that attract high-skilled migration are increasing Policies and labour market segmentation Guest worker agreements Labour market flexibilization: temporary work, casualization of labour and sub contracting For example in NL: - In 2019: 770,00 labour migrants, of which about half employed through a temp agency - Working in Logistics, horticulture, food industry , metal industry, agriculture - About 65% of labour migrants is housed through the temp agency Week 3: Forced vs. voluntary migration: Not binary, rather extremes on a continuum UNHCR: An asylum-seeker is someone whose request for sanctuary has yet to be processed Possible outcomes of an individual asylum claim: Option 1: Recognition of Refugee Status Option 2: Rejection of Refugee Status, but other form of protection Option 3: Rejection of the asylum application THE 1951 GENEVA CONVENTION - „Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees“ of 28 July 1951 and the Protocol of 1967 - Defines who is a refugee and sets out the rights of induvial who are granted asylum and obligations of states towards these individuals Key Elements (Geneva Convention): Article 1: Definition of a refugee: [A person who,] owing to well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country; or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence as a result of such events, is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it. Article 33: Prohibition of expulsion or return (“refoulement”) 1. No Contracting State shall expel or return (“refouler”) a refugee in any manner whatsoever to the frontiers of territories where his life or freedom would be threatened on account of his race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion. Internally Displaced Persons (IDP) UN report from 1998: “Persons or groups of persons who have been forced or obliged to flee or to leave their homes or places of habitual residence, in particular as a result of or in order to avoid the effects of armed conflict, situations of generalized violence, violations of human rights or natural or human-made disasters, and who have not crossed an internationally recognized State border.” Human smuggling - Facilitation, for financial/material gain, of irregular entry into a country, where the migrant is not a national or resident - Payment of intermediaries to cross borders - Consensual; (business) transaction - Not authorized by states Human trafficking - Use of threat, force, coercion, deception... -> no voluntary participation - Purpose of exploitation - Not necessarily involving border crossing - Not authorized by states Impact of Covid (Human Smuggling) - Increase of human smuggling during the pandemic - Lack of legal immigration opportunities and closed borders → growing demand for smugglers - Irregular, dangerous and expensive options as the only way to cross borders Impact of Covid (Human Trafficking) - Trafficking went even further underground, adopted quickly to the “new normal” - Recruitment of victims moved online during the pandemic  - Sexual exploitation of adults and children moved from bars, clubs and massage parlours to private homes - “Use” of social distancing measures - Due to living conditions, trafficking victims faced higher risk of infection, often unable to access PPE - Traffickers abandoned victims without means for survival - Rescued victims could not return home, receive assistance A child: A child is any person below the age of 18 years. (UNCRC, Article 1) Unaccompanied child: An ‘unaccompanied minor’ is a child ‘who arrives in the territory of the Member States unaccompanied by an adult responsible for him or her whether by law or by the practice of the Member State concerned, and for as long as he or she is not effectively taken into the care of such a person; it includes a [child] who is left unaccompanied after he or she has entered the territory of the Member States.’ Qualification Directive (2011/95/EU), Article 2 (l). Separated child: A ‘separated child’ is a child outside their country of origin who has been separated from both parents, or from their previous legal or customary primary caregiver, but not necessarily from other relatives. 5 Reasons to be sceptical about climate change as a cause for mass migration 1. Use of adaptation strategies 2. Majority of people move over short distances 3. Most of such moves are temporary 4. People in poor areas of the world lack the resources to move large distances 5. Most vulnerable people are trapped at home THE PROBLEM WITH CATEGORIES – CATEGORICAL FETISHISM Criticism 1: Categories (esp. migrant vs. refugee) do not reflect the way migratory processes work in the real world - People with different motives can travel together - Individuals might fit more than one category - Individuals can change categories - Categories are usually focused on places where migration occurs (origin or destination country → oversimplification) Criticism 2: Construction of categories is not a neutral process! - Who has the power to create categories? - Creation of hierarchical systems of rights - International law gets interpreted nationally (national interests, constantly subject to changes) Criticism 3: Categories are not clear-cut - Overlap political and economic factors as migration drivers - Especially in longer conflicts it becomes increasingly difficult to separate economic and political factors from each other Criticism 4: Categorize don’t acknowledge moving between space and time  - Often dichotomous thinking: origin country vs. destination country - Ignores complex chain of separate migration decisions, often over long time frames Conclusions of Crawly & Skleparis (2018): - Need to challenge construction of policy categories that are based on binary, static and linear understandings of migration processes - Acknowledge that people don’t neatly fit in only category, or can also change categories - Recognize the real live consequences of using such categories - More critical awareness, also amongst academics The 2015 Refugee “Crisis” A perfect storm (Lucassen, 2018)? 1) Discomfort with immigration and integration of colonial labour migrants 2) Growing social inequality and widespread scepticism about globalization 3) A growing discontent with Islam 4) Islamist terrorism 5) Rise of radical populist parties Week 4: Citizenship is a legal status, which articulates the relationship between an individual and a state and designates legal entitlements and obligations to parties in that relationship. (Dzankic & Vink, 2022, p. 358) Greek Model of Citizenship - Athenian citizenship: Ethnic understanding of citizenship - Based esp. on writings of Aristotle and Athens - Key feature: Equality of citizens as rulers and as makers of the law - Equality only for those fitting a narrow definition of citizens - Internally highly exclusionary - Required active participation in public deliberation and rotation in office based on lottery rather than election - Inspired idea of citizenship that stresses political participation Roman Model of Citizenship - Some similarities to Greek model, but also differences: - Expands vastly beyond the boundaries of the city - Idea of classless citizenship in Rome: Secession of the plebeians and creation of Tribunes of the People, elected by Plebeian council, that could veto acts of other magistrates - Yet: true power rested with the Roman Senate, still dominated by Patricians Westphalian Model of Citizenship - Modern states as territorial, Westphalian states with a static understanding of borders - Borders as exclusionary to the outside, and binding on the inside  - Citizenship as a mechanism to determine individual membership in an emerging international state system - Universal approach: each human being should have a citizenship - Egalitarian: citizenship should be recognized - Based on birth right acquisition (by birth in the territory or descent) - Obligates states to grant their citizens unconditional residence and to (re)admit them to their territory 1) CITIZENSHIP BY BIRTH (IUS SOLI) - Ius Soli = the right of the soil - Ius Soli: The determination of a person‘s citizenship on the basis of birth in the relevant country where this rule applies. - Derives from English common law - Unrestricted ius soli mostly found in North and South America (until 2004 still in Ireland) - In other countries: restricted ius soli - Provisions also exist to prevent statelessness of children born in the territory 2) CITIZENSHIP BY FAMILY (IUS SANGUINIS) - Ius Sanguinis = the right of blood - Ius Sanguinis: The determination of a person‘s citizenship on the basis of the citizenship of his or her parents (or one parent or one particular parent) or ancestor(s) in direct line at the time of the person‘s birth or at the time of acquisition of citizenship by the person [...] - Derives from Roman law - A gendered dimension of ius sanguinis 3) CITIZENSHIP BY MARRIAGE (IUS MATRIMONII) - Ius Matrimonii = right by marriage - Historically: common practice that women should have (or receive) the citizenship of their husbands - Today most states have facilitated procedures to grant citizenship to spouses irrespective of their gender 4) NATURALIZATION - A mode of acquisition of citizenship, after birth (other than those for which birth in the territory or to citizen parents is a condition) - In a narrow sense: procedure through which citizenship can be acquired: - Requires an application by the person or his/her legal representative and the act of granting citizenship by a public authority - Often linked to conditions (e.g. minimum legal residency length, adequate knowledge of the language or culture, renouncing previous citizenship...) NATURALIZATION: OBTAINING DUTCH CITIZENSHIP Option 1: naturalisatie You have lived in the Netherlands (or the Dutch Caribbean) for an uninterrupted five year period and you meet other conditions that are mentioned below. Option 2: optieprocedure If you have continuously lived in the Netherlands since birth or early childhood, or if you meet other requirements that qualify you as eligible for the option procedure. Option 3: van rechtswege If you are born to a Dutch father or mother, if your Dutch father acknowledges paternity or if you are adopted by Dutch parents then you can apply for Dutch citizenship by law. 5) INVESTOR CITIZENSHIP - Recent years: growing trends in investor citizenship (“golden passports”) or investor residence (“golden visa”) - Aim: attract investors by granting citizenship or residency rights - Inherent risks: security concerns, money laundering, tax evasion, corruption… 6) ACHIEVEMENT-BASED ACQUISITION OF CITIZENSHIP Acquisition of citizenship after birth based on special achievements (in sports, science, the arts, etc.). Can be based on achievements in the past or expected achievements in the future. Example: US „Alien of extraordinary ability“ EXAMPLE: QATAR Citizenship acquisition By descent: - Born to a Qatari father (irrespective of place of birth) - Any person who can demonstrate Qatari descent may apply under certain conditions By birth in the territory: - if parents are unknown By naturalization: - Minimum lawful residence in Qatar for 25 consecutive years - Ability to earn one’s living - Good conduct and behaviour, in addition to absence of previous conviction by final ruling in a crime of dishonor or mistrust, whether inside or outside Qatar - good knowledge of Arabic By marriage: - Only for wifes of naturalized Qataris, 5 years after their naturalization, granted by an Emir’s decision on the virtue of her husband - No dual citizenship is accepted DUAL (MULTIPLE) CITIZENSHIP - The simultaneous holding of citizenship status in two or more states. - In general: a person is entitled to citizenship rights of each country whose citizenship rights they are holding, but also subjects to obligations Issues that are often broad up in connection to dual/multiple citizenship: - National cohesiveness - Divided loyalties - Taxation - Military service … STATELESSNESS The status of a person who is not considered as a national by any state under the operation of its law (Art 1(1) Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons, 1954). Causes: - Conflicting nationality laws - By sex - By state succession - Administrative obstacles - Non-state territories EMPIRICAL THEORIES OF CITIZENSHIP - Citizenship Regime Theory - Theories of citizenship and (im)mobility - Theories of citizenship acquisition LINKING CITIZENSHIP ACQUISITION AND THEORY: BRUBAKER - Comparison of citizenship regimes in France and Germany (in the 1990s!) - Argues that these two countries are diametrically opposed in how they govern access to citizenship - Immigration as a challenge to citizenship regimes (especially the situation of children of immigrants) A TERRITORIAL DIMENSION OF CITIZENSHIP Traditionally: territorial state with a closed state border Changing nature of borders - Building of border fences worldwide /securitization of borders - Creation of invisible borders - Shifting borders externally - Shifting borders internally A CULTURAL DIMENSION OF CITIZENSHIP - Shifting boundaries of membership - Proliferation of integration requirements - Citizen-in-waiting vs. outsiders until shown otherwise - Also: discussions about de-naturalization AN ECONOMIC DIMENSION OF CITIZENSHIP - Wealth-based criteria as a pathway to citizenship  - Economic prerequisites for citizenship acquisition - Golden passports/golden visas à selective openness HOW DOES CITIZENSHIP AFFECT THE ABILITY TO MOVE? - mobility rights linked to citizenship - visa needed vs. visa free travel, pre-clearance systems - countries with expedited ways to citizenships for the super rich (“citizenship by investment”, “golden passports) CITIZENSHIP AND MIGRATION - Citizenship provides mobility rights - Citizenship status is crucial to migration opportunities (facilitate or restrict mobility) - Political and economic contestations over migration also affect regulation of citizenship Three conflicting trends: 1) Resilience of national sovereignty in the context of regional and international norms 2) The tension between the preservation of cultural identities of states and economic benefits of migration 3) The diversification of migration and dual citizenship acceptance Week 5: The immigration regime consists of rules and norms that govern immigrants’ possibilities to become a citizen, to acquire residence and work permits, and to participate in economic, cultural and political life. Migration policy: Laws, regulation and measures that states enact with the objective of affecting volume, origin, direction and composition (or selection) of migration. Non-migration policies. Labour market regulation, taxation, social welfare etc. Why are migration policies so important and interesting? External boundary: Draws a line that separates citizens from immigrants Internal boundary: Separates citizens and foreign residents by associating rights with national citizenship Why are policies less restrictive over time? Post WWII: Rise of international treaties (UN, EU, MERCOSUR), and bilateral treaties (guest worker treaties) ‘Institutionalization’ of migration by states (high/low skilled workers, family reunification etc) Conclusion of De Haas et al. Migration policies have not become more restrictive, but rather increasingly complex through a differentiation of policy instruments and a growing emphasis on criteria such as skills as a tool for migrant selection. More and more, migration policies aim at affecting the selection — rather than the volumes — of migration. Unintended consequences of migration policies: 1. Spatial substitution, 2. Categorical substitution, 3. Inter-temporal substitution, 4. Reverse flow substitution “Citizenship rights define the boundaries of and rules of access to the polity, and the rights, obligations, and identities that tie states and citizens. As such, they touch upon the core of what makes a nation-state.” Two theoretical dimensions Individual rights, attributed to the immigrant Cultural or religious rights that apply to immigrants because of belonging to an ethnic or religious group. 8 policy fields Nationality acquisition Marriage migration rights Protection against expulsion Anti-discrimination provisions Access to public service employment Political representation rights Cultural and religious rights in the education system Other cultural and religious rights Colonial history: Countries with former colonies have developed relationships with the outside world and thus more inclusive citizenship regimes (however, are equally xenophobic) Democratic history: Early democracies much more likely to develop more inclusive conception of national identity, based on civic rather than ethnic terms Theories of liberal convergence Cross-national convergence of policies towards greater inclusiveness due to: 1. Diffusion of supranational norms/institutions 2. Shared commitments of democracies to liberal principles Path dependency of policy traditions 2 versions: 1. Countries have long-lasting policy traditions, and ‘keep doing what they have done so far’ (i.e. no cross-national convergence) Brubaker: “France and Germany continue to define their citizenries in fundamentally different ways because they have been doing so for more than a century” (Brubaker 1992, p. 186). 2. Change takes place along national citizenship traditions Important factors that trigger change: Government composition Strength of anti-immigrant parties Immigrant electorate Civic integration policies “The idea that successful incorporation into a host society rests not only on employment (economic integration) and civic engagement (political integration), but also on individual commitments to characteristics typifying national citizenship, specifically country knowledge, language proficiency and liberal and social values.” Integration policy Historically, seen as a one-way trajectory of becoming similar to the rest of the population (i.e. assimilation) Currently, two-way: migrants AND residents, or three-way (AND transnational connections) Integration policy is increasingly used to increase barriers of entry (thickening) Migration Integration Policy Index (MIPEX) ▪ Tool to compare, analyse and improve integration policy ▪ Do all residents have equal rights, responsibilities and opportunities to help them improve their integration outcomes? ▪ Covers: 56 countries, 8 policy areas (167 indicators) What explains variation in integration policy? According to Solano and De Coninck, three perspectives: 1. Evidence-based perspective: Assumes that policy makers act based on objective factors related to the policy issue Policy makers act based on existing information and knowledge on the topic The number of migrants in a country is an example of the type of knowledge that can drive policymaking on migration and migrant integration 2. Institutionalist perspective: Policies are embedded in larger institutional structure More wealthy and more equal societies are more likely to develop more inclusive policies 3. Partisan perspective: Policies follow dynamics related to political ideologies as well as attitudes in the public opinion and media. The role of political parties and ideologies Week 6 Three theories: Human capital, Social capital, Discrimination Human capital Two reasons why HC is important for ethnic disparities on the labour market: 1. Compositional effects 2. Transferability of skills (and degrees). Compositional effects Compositional differences in terms of: Level of education Language proficiency Work experience Unemployment history Family situation Human capital explanation of ethnic inequality Individual skills determine success on the labor market. Education can be seen as the most important provider of human capital, as it is argued to equip individuals with skills. Explanation for disadvantage: 1. Limited portability of skills from educational institution in the origin country to labor market of the destination country → the wrong skills. 2. Educational institutions in origin countries might be of lower quality → less skills. Therefore: returns to education are lower for people with foreign degrees. Transferability of degrees: Credentialing theory People are not only rewarded for their skills, but also for their degree. Degrees ‘signal’ certain characteristics (quality, knowledge). Because employers do not have complete information about the productivity of job seekers, they use educational degrees as a signal to screen employees. Even if education does not contribute anything to the productivity of employees, degrees are still valuable for employees, as they signal quality. Signaling explanation Signaling theory assumes that education functions as a sorting machine, rather than as a skill provider. People with a foreign degree have inferior signaling value of their degree, because employers may not know what the diploma represents. Social capital “Those with more social capital will better be able to realize their goals or defend their interests. Social capital is a relational resource, having ties to others enables one to have access to their resources, to borrow them, so to speak.” (Flap 2004: 5) “Resources that can be accessed or mobilised through ties in the networks” (Lin 2008) “The aggregate of the actual and potential resources which are linked to the possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalised relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition – or in other words, to membership in a group – which provides each of its members with the backing of the collectively-owned capital, a ‘credential’ which entitles them to credit, in the various senses of the word”.(Bourdieu 1986) Bonding Social Capital Bonding social capital is usually referred to as within-group connections Closure: all members of network connected Closure results in the exchange of resources because of bounded solidarity and enforceable trust “Bounded solidarity” involves a sense of group solidarity that manifests as a reaction to real or perceived threats of a group, and “enforceable trust”, the monitoring and sanctioning capacity of a group (Portes and Sensenbrenner 1993) Bonding: Closure argument “Strength of strong tie”: strong ties result in solidarity (access to ethnic economy) Closure results in reliable information and reciprocity in network, i.e. the more likely the sharing and exchange of resources Sanders and Nee (1996): ‘As a social organisation, the family’s chief advantages are not simply tangible products, such as unpaid labour, but also involve the mutual obligation and trust characteristic of small groups’ Sanders (2002):‘Research leaves little doubt as to the importance of social capital derived through ethnic networks in promoting economic action’ Bonding: Isolation argument Closure limits opportunities to obtain new information Resources accessed through a network of co-ethnics and family members do not provide unique information; they hence do not result in opportunities for upward mobility on the labour market Embedding into ethnic networks may prevent contacts with the host society and thus hamper integration Bonding social capital might result in jobs, but not in better jobs Elliott (1999) concludes that job referrals based on co-ethnic ties result in jobs that are paid worse for immigrants in the US. Bridging social capital Referred to as between-group connections: ‘ties to people “unlike” you in some important way’ Based on idea of structural holes A structural hole is a gap in a network between otherwise disconnected segments Bridge: tie that spans a structural hole (across ‘some’ socio- economic characteristic: inter-ethnic) Advantage: unique information and opportunities come into reach Bridging and the labour market: Two arguments. General argument of spanning structural holes: 1. Network diversification More opportunities to gain unique info and new opportunities by spanning structural holes Migrant specific argument 2. Resource argument Social capital as a capital: it is accessing a network with useful resources that yields positive returns. It is access to host country-specific resources that matters What is Discrimination? One well known definition by the US National Research Council: 1. differential treatment on the basis of race that disadvantages a racial group and 2. treatment on the basis of inadequately justified factors other than race that disadvantages a racial group (differential effect)” (Blank et al., 2004, p. 39) Council Directive 2000/43/EC of 29 June 2000 implementing the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial or ethnic origin Article 2 – Concept of discrimination 1. For the purposes of this Directive, the principle of equal treatment shall mean that there shall be no direct or indirect discrimination based on racial or ethnic origin. 2. For the purposes of paragraph 1: a) direct discrimination shall be taken to occur where one person is treated less favourably than another is, has been or would be treated in a comparable situation on grounds of racial or ethnic origin; b) indirect discrimination shall be taken to occur where an apparently neutral provision, criterion or practice would put persons of a racial or ethnic origin at a particular disadvantage compared with other persons, unless that provision, criterion or practice is objectively justified by a legitimate aim and the means of achieving that aim are appropriate and necessary What are grounds for discrimination? Council Directive 2000/43/EC of 29 June 2000 implementing the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial or ethnic origin Article 1 – Purpose: The purpose of this Directive is to lay down a framework for combating discrimination on the grounds of racial or ethnic origin, with a view to putting into effect in the Member States the principle of equal treatment. Jaywalking as an example of indirect discrimination - Apparently neutral provision - Puts persons of a racial or ethnic origin at a particular disadvantage compared with other persons 2023 Statistics: 463 tickets for jaywalking in total 92% to black and Latino persons, even though they comprise less than 50% of the population Police enforcement turns apparently neutral provision into an example of indirect discrimination Legal definition of discrimination in NL Dutch constitution, Article 1: ‘All persons in the Netherlands shall be treated equally in equal circumstances. Discrimination on the grounds of religion, belief, political opinion, race, sex or on any other ground shall be prohibited.’ Equal Treatment Act Chapter I Equal treatment of persons irrespective of their religion, belief, political opinion, race, sex, nationality, heterosexual or homosexual orientation or civil status 1. General provisions Section 1 For the purposes of this Act and the provisions based upon it the following definitions shall apply: a. discrimination: direct and indirect discrimination, as well as the instruction to discriminate; b. direct discrimination: discrimination between persons on the grounds of religion, belief, political opinion, nationality, race, sex, heterosexual or homosexual orientation or civil status; c. indirect discrimination: discrimination on the grounds of other characteristics or behaviour than those meant under (b), resulting in direct discrimination. Theories of Discrimination, Fibbi et al. (2021): 1. Individual level theories 2. Organizational level theories 3. Structural level theories 1) Individual level theories Individual psychological conflicts: Early psychological work: focus on authoritarian personality trades and negative attitudes towards minority groups, today’s conceptualization of prejudice has changed Transition from overt discrimination to more subtle forms of discrimination (esp. since the introduction of civil rights legislation in the 1960s), ambivalence: majority group members may profess quality, while still holding negative attitudes toward minority members (biases against minorities can also be implicit or unconscious) Disassociation between inclusive egalitarian attitudes and unconscious biases (examples: modern racism, symbolic racism, aversive racism) Rationale of Gatekeepers: Taste based discrimination, Becker (1957): overt racism as a “taste” for discrimination → employers are willing to pay for not being associated with minority (animus mon employers, not explained where these preferences come from). Statistical discrimination, Phelps (1972), Arrow (1973): discrimination as a way to manage imperfect information, race/ethnicity/gender used as proxy for productivity in the absence of full information, sometimes described as rational (profit maximizing) but question of accuracy of beliefs about group productivity Intergroup relations: Categorization of groups into “in-groups” and “out-groups”, relies heavily on stereotyping, identification with in-group leads to “in-group favoritism” → privileged treatment of in-group members (stereotyping, discrimination, prejudice towards out-group) Contact theory (Allport 1954): intergroup contact can also lead to decreasing prejudice and conflict between group members (emphasizes equal status of groups in contact, importance of common interests) Threat theory: competition between groups over limited resources can cause feelings of threat. Realistic conflict theory: the higher the competition over limited resources, the higher prejudice and hostility between groups; integrated threat theory: threat not only about tangible resources, but also about values, beliefs, morals... 2) Organizational level theories Meso Level: Organizations play important role in shaping inequalities  Tilly: develops organizational account of “categorial inequalities” on the basis of rigid social categories such as gender, race, immigrant status, distinctions between categories are used to both distribute and legitimate inequality”, two complementary mechanisms: exploitations and opportunity hoarding Formalization Networks and Opportunity Hoarding Organizational environment – regulatory framework 3) Structural level theories Time: advantages/disadvantages accumulate over time (“Matthews effect”: privileged people have more advantages) also cumulative disadvantages in the US focus mostly on history of slavery and its impact on structures of inequalities today, in European countries often history of colonialism or migration history Scope: Focus not only on discrimination at one point of time and one moment, but also other dimensions within the same domain (e.g. labour markets), but also cumulation with other domains (e.g. housing market, education...) Discrimination not as isolated one-time experience, but part of a system of disadvantages that are transferred across time and domains Institutional Discrimination: “range of policies and practices that contribute to the systematic disadvantage of members of certain groups” either through state or non-state institutions (Example: education systems, discrimination/racism by the police...) Immigration and citizenship law contribute to the creation of hierarchies among migrants that mirror the intersection of non-meritocratic attributes of social group membership such as gender, race/ethnicity, nationality, religion and class Why should we study discrimination? Equal opportunities as an important element of a democratic society: “To deny this right to a minority of our fellow citizens amounts to a total rejection of the principles of democracy” (Abrams, 1968, p. 13) Discrimination based on ethnicity as a waste of potential manpower Warning about rising frustration (particular amongst the second generation) Discrimination: from an overt to a hidden phenomenon How can we study discrimination? 1. Statistical analysis 2. Attitude research - Experimental Research (e.g. in the laboratory) - Survey experiments - Attitude surveys - Interviews with employers 3. Ethnographic observations 4. Victim research - Perceived discrimination - Analysis of legal cases 5. Field experiments - Audit and correspondence studies Field Experiments: One Way to Measure Discrimination Audit/Correspondence Studies Fictitious applications in reply to real vacancies. Simplest design: Each employer receives two fictitious applications, one from a minority and one from a majority candidate. Candidates are equally qualified and matched as closely as possible. They only differ in the characteristic to be studied. Responses are carefully recorded – differences in invitation rates can then be attributed to discrimination. Meta-analysis of correspondence studies Early experiments developed in close connection to civil rights legislation More systematic studies in the 1990s (ILO and UI) Since 2003 strong growth of number of experiments - Trend towards written studies - More countries covered - More complex designs - More multi-methods studies Summary Quillian and Midtbøen, 2021 – 17 key conclusion 1. Discrimination against non-Whites happens everywhere. No evidence of reverse discrimination against Whites. 2. White minorities face less discrimination than non-White minorities. 3. Discrimination levels vary between countries. 4. Both in the US and the UK, discrimination rates have been very stable over the last 25 years. 5. There are only very small differences between immigrant generations. 6. No clear evidence of intersection with gender. 7. Mixed evidence when it comes to occupation and education. 8. Discrimination is lower among larger employers. 9. Discrimination is lower among public sector employers. 10. Greater cultural distance = more discrimination 11. Most affected groups: Muslims and people from Muslim majority countries 12. Criminal background and ethnic minority: no clear results 13. Labour market tightness has no effect on discrimination 14. Unemployment experiences and ethnic minority: no clear results 15. Prejudice seems so play an important role – link to attitude research 16. Patterns of hiring discrimination are different from those for housing discrimination 17. More information about applicants can lower discrimination ( → statistical discrimination) What are potential consequences of discrimination? Society: Implications for democracy Unused human capital Rising frustration among discriminated groups Greater diversity because of migration = more potential victims? Company: Not hiring the best talent Threat to competitiveness Recent research on long-term implication of discrimination for companies Individual: Rising frustration, disillusionment Health problems (both mental and physical) Suboptimal labour market outcomes