Midterms Dev Psych PDF

Developmental Psychology MIDTERMS - Maturation occurs at puberty (sex maturity); STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT spermatozoa divide into four cells, ova divide...

Developmental Psychology MIDTERMS - Maturation occurs at puberty (sex maturity); STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT spermatozoa divide into four cells, ova divide but only one remains fertile Male Sex Cell Maturation Process Prenatal conception to birth 1. Spermatogenesis- the overall sperm production that occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the Infancy birth to the end of 2nd testes. week - undifferentiated germ cell - do not have specialized structures or functions,they do not Babyhood end of the 2nd week to have the capability to fertilized an egg end of the 2nd year. - spermatogonia - diploid cell meaning it contains Early Childhood 3-6 years old two complete sets of chromosomes 2. Meiosis- Meiosis 1 (REDUCTION ) Meiosis 2 (SEPARATION) PRENATAL - ensures genetic stability - begins at conception and ends at birth, is 3. Spermiogenesis- transformation of spermatids approximately 270 to 280 days or nine months into mature sperm cell. HOW LIFE BEGINS? 4. Sperm Maturation- undergo further maturation - Fertilization union of a male and female sex cell. These cells are developed in the reproductive Female Sex Cell Maturation Process organs, the gonads (glands that produce - Oogenesis - immature egg cells, called oocytes, hormones) develop into mature ova - male: spermatozoa/spermatozoon are - In the division of the ovum, one chromosome produced in the testes, from each pair is pushed outside the cell wall - female: ova/ovum are produced in the ovaries. and forms a polar body. Three polar bodies are - There are 23 chromosomes (approximately formed in the process of division. Unlike the 3,000 genes in each chromosome) in each sex spermatids, the polar bodies cannot be cell, and each chromosome contains genes, the fertilized, while the fourth cell, ovum, can. If, true carriers of heredity. however, the ovum is not fertilized, it disintegrates and passes from the body with the PRELIMINARY STAGES menstrual 1. Maturation - 16,777,216 possible combinations of the 23 - process by which sex cells prepare for chromosomes reproduction, by chromosome reduction through cell division 1. Ovulation - escape of one mature ovum during - Chromosome reduction: Each sex cell the menstrual cycle. It is believed that the two undergoes division to reach 23 chromosomes ovaries alternate in producing a ripe ovum (haploid cells). during each menstrual cycle. - The ovum finds its way to the open end of the Fallopian tube nearest the ovary from which it Shan | 1  was released. When the length of the menstrual 1. Artificial insemination cycle: twenty-eight days, ovulation occurs - Simplest form between the fifth and the twenty-third days of - Brass is which sperm is injected into a woman’s the cycle, with the average on the eleventh day vagina - multiple ova may be released, leading to 2. In vitro fertilization (IVF) nonidentical multiple births. - ovary is surgically removed, fertilized in a 2. Fertilization - occurs at the time of conception. laboratory and implanted in women’s uterus It normally occurs while the ovum is in the 3. Cryopreservation or egg freezing fallopian tube. - eggs are harvested with the intention of - takes place within twelve to thirty-six hours and conceiving a child at a later date with the help usually within the first twenty-four hours after of IVF the ovum has entered the tube. Dizygotic twins/ Fraternal twins - conditions affecting fertilization: An - Two eggs being fertilized by two different unfavorable condition in the female sperms reproductive organs, lengthening of menstrual - Can be same or different sex cycle due to glandular deficiency, An - Tend to run in the families unfavorable condition of the ovum and - The tendency has a genetic basis spermatozoa Monozygotic twins/ Identical twins - Results from cleaning of one fertilized egg cell, 1. Ejaculation and Sperm Transport - During coitus split into 2 and generally identical or sexual intercourse, sperm are expelled from - Developmental Lag: Twins, especially the male reproductive system through the premature, tend to develop slower than urethra. singletons. 2. Penetration of the Egg - Singleton When a single ripe egg (ovum) is 3. Fusion of Genetic Material fertilized by one sperm, it typically develops into 4. Formation of Zygote one baby, Hereditary endowment, determined once and for all at GENES the moment of conception affects his later development DNA ( Deoxyribonucleic Acid) in two ways. - A genetic material found in all living cells - Contains 4 chemical units called bases; 1. heredity places limits beyond which the A- Adenine T- Thymine C- Cytosine G- Guanine individual cannot go. 2. hereditary endowment is entirely a matter of Genetics - The study of heredity chance; there is no known way to control the Heredity - Is the genetic transmission of characteristics number of chromosomes from the paternal side from biological parents to offsprings that will be passed on to the child. Chromosomes - Call of the NA that consists of smaller segment ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGY called genes - conception to artificial means - Is the fundamental units of heredity - Provides couples having difficulty in conceiving Human Genome - Complete sequence of genes naturally with means to augment their fertility Every human has a unique genome but it is not meant to be a recipe in making a particular human, but rather 2 a reference point that shows the location of all human 4. Rapid growth and development - fastest rate of genes. growth, greater growth and development take place during this period than at any other time Chromosomal abnormalities - cause by missing or extra throughout the individual’s entire life. chromosome 5. High risk of physical and psychological hazards 6. Parental Attitudes are formed This is the time X- Female when significant people in the individual’s life X or Y - Male are forming attitudes toward him. XXY - Male; tall stature; tendency toward low 1Q, especially verbal Cephalocaudal Principle XXX ( Triple X) - Female; normal appearance, menstrual - Development proceeds from the head to the irregularities, learning disorders, intellectual disability lower part of the trunk. XXY (Klinefelter) - Male; sterility, underdeveloped - An embryo's head, brain, and eyes will develop secondary sex characteristics, small testes, learning disproportionately large until parts catch up disorders with the development. XO (Turner) - Female; short stature, webbed neck, Proximodistal Principle impaired spatial abilities, no menstruation, infertility. - development proceeds from parts near the underdeveloped sex organs center of the body to outer ones. Fragile X - Minor-to-severe intellectual disability more - The embryo's head and trunk develop before severe in males; delayed speech and motor the limbs, and the arms and legs before the development, hyperactivity; the most common fingers and toes. inherited form of intellectual disability GESTATION AGE Down syndrome - Is the period between conception and birth - The most common chromosomal abnormality - The normal range of gestation is between 37-41 - For about 40% of all cases of moderate to weeks. severe intellectual disability - Is usually dated from the first day of menstrual - The condition is also called trisomy 21 cycle ng babae na nag eexpect ng baby. - During these three stages of gestation, the PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT STAGES original single-celled zygote grows into an The prenatal period, in spite of its relatively short embryo, then a fetus, to birth (or parturition) length, is important for four reasons: - also called antenatal development 1. The hereditary endowment is fixed - the genetic makeup is fixed, once and for all, at this time. 2. Environment strongly influence development - The environment inside the mother’s body plays a significant role in shaping how the baby’s genetic potential is realized. 3. Sex is determined at conception - determined the moment the sperm fertilizes the egg, with 1.GERMINAL STAGE (FERTILIZATION - 2 WEEKS) no changes possible afterward. - begins at conception after sexual intercourse, the sperm and egg cells shall meet in one of the 3  two fallopian tubes. (The fertilized egg is called - amnion, the umbilical cord, placenta. - life a zygote. travels to the fallopian tube to the support system that developss uterus - The zygote divides, becomes more complex, b. GROWTH AND DIFFERENTIATION and is implanted in the wall of the uterus. - Embryo grows rapidly and cells differentiate into specialized types of various tissues and organs + 36 hour - Fertilization The zygote enters a period of rapid cell division and duplication c. FORMATION OF THE AMNIOTIC SAC AND FLUID (mitosis). - It surrounds the embryo, filled with amniotic + 72 hour - Cell division it is divided first into 16 fluid that cushions and protects the developing and then into 32 cells, it has 64 cells (while embryo. making its way to the fallopian tube to the uterus, a journey of 3 or 4 day LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS + Cell differentiation some cells around the edge Amnion- is a sac that contains a clear fluid in which the of the blastocyst cluster on one side to form the developing embryo floats. The amniotic fluid provides embryonic disk (thickened cell mass from which an environment that is temperature and humidity the embryo begins to develop) controlled, as well as shockproof. + 1 hour - Implantation form changes into a Umbilical cord - it contains two arteries and one vein, blastocyst (earliest form of embryo, a fluid-filled and connects the baby to the placenta. sphere) which floats freely in the uterus until Placenta - consists of a disk-shaped group of tissues in the 6th day after fertilization, when it begins to which small blood vessels from the mother and the implant itself in the uterine wall offspring intertwine but do not join. 2. EMBRYONIC STAGE (3 weeks to 8) WEEK 3 - 4 NEURULATION - the mass of cells is now known as an embryo - Formation of neural tubes from the ectoderm which will later develop into the brain and WEEK 3 GASTRULATION spinal cord. - the embryo differentiates into three types of + Formation of the Neurons tissue + Development of basic body structures - the 1. Endoderm head begins to form followed by the eyes, nose, - is the inner layer of cells,(digestive and ears, and mouth respiratory systems.) - (liver, pancreas, salivary glands) produces WEEK 4 - 8 ORGANOGENESIS internal body parts - week 4 poppy seed, week 5 sesame seed, week 2. Mesoderm 6 lentil ¼ inch long, week 7 blueberry ½ inch - is the middle layer, which will become the long, 8 week bean circulatory system, bones, muscles, excretory + major organs and body structures start to system, and reproductive system. (surround develop. the internal areas) heart - beats by around week 4, limb buds arms 3. Ectoderm and legs, facial features - eyes, ears, facial - is the outermost layer, which will become the features start taking shapes nervous system and brain, sensory receptors + During this stage organs and major body and skin parts (surface parts) systems such as respiratory, digestive and - ears, nose, and eyes,hair and nails, nervous rapidly develop.. 4  - The fetus continues developing during this + Between 9-12 week of gestation, reflexes begin trimester ( adding weight and taking on the to emerge. (reflexive motions with its arms and features of a newborn) legs) - By the end of the second trimester, the fetus is + 9 weeks - size of a grape,eyes are fully formed much more developed and prepared for but their eyelids will be fused shut until 27 continued growth and maturation in the third weeks. trimester. + 10 weeks - over an ounce, kumwuat fruit - The organs, though still maturing, are largely + 11 weeks - size of a fig formed, and the fetus is increasingly active and + 3rd month of gestation - occurrence of sex responsive to the environment. Differentiation - the heartbeat grows stronger and other - body system further develop. (fingernails, Miscarriage hair, eyelashes, and toenails are coherent during - expulsion of embryo in uteris these) preceding months. - miscarriage that occurs after 20 weeks of - the brain and the central nervous system gestation and is generally characterized as a become more responsive. stillbirth. - - Most miscarriages result from abnormal THIRD TRIMESTER pregnancies - This is the final phase of the fetal stage. considered to be the most painful. 3. FETAL STAGE (9 WEEKS TO BIRTH) - Throughout the third trimester, the fetus gains FIRST TRIMESTER weight quickly, continues to grow and vital - This stage is the longest stage of prenatal organs mature (especially the lungs and brain). development and the final stage of gestation.. - The third trimester ends with the fetus fully + third month the young fetus clearly resembles a developed and ready for life outside the womb. human being (although the head is - Both the mother and the baby are prepared for disproportionately large.) the birthing process. + 9th week to 12 Ossification of bones Week 28 - The fetus may begin turning + Organ systems are functioning, and so the fetus head-down in your uterus as it gets ready for may now breathe, swallow amniotic fluid into birth the lungs and expel it, and occasionally urinate. Week 29 - 32 brain develops most rapidly + Make a variety of specialized responses - The fetus can see and hear most stimuli. + End of the third month, the fetus weighs (1 - Most internal systems are well-developed, but ounce and measures about 3 inches in length) the lungs may still be immature. - By the end of the first trimester, the fetus has all The ninth month is mostly about putting the of its major organs and systems in place, and finishing touch on growth and brain the focus shifts to growth and maturatio development. Week 37 through 40, labor may occur at any SECOND TRIMESTER time. - fetal stage in its Golden Period The fetus drops down into the pelvis and - Lasting from week 14 to week 27, the second prepares for birth. trimester of pregnancy is often thought of as the best part of pregnancy, THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT 5 Fetal Programming Hypothesis - Dr David Barker - Quantitative study of relative hereditary and - conditions in the womb (such as maternal environmental influences on behavior.. nutrition, stress, and hormone levels) can Heritability "program"the development of the fetus, - Statistical estimate of the contribution of influencing long-term health outcomes. heredity to individual differences in a specific trait within a given population. Psychoanalytic Theory - Sigmund Freud - how much of a trait is due to genetics and how Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year): much is the result of environmental influences - focus on oral activities such as sucking. - cannot be measured directly - driven by the libido (sexual energy) and are - by looking at groups of people with known crucial for the infant’s pleasure and satisfaction. genetic relationships and assessing whether or - Crying, communication to indicate needs such not they are concordant, meaning the same, on as hunger. a given trait, behavioral geneticists can estimate - Sucking at the mother’s breast provides both the relative influence of genes and the nourishment and comfort, fulfilling the environment oral stage’s demands and calming the infant’s Concordant - tendency of twins to share the drives. same trait or disorder. - unrelated (no same games) twins (same genes) Psychosocial Theory - Erik Erikson siblings (50% from each parent) Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth to 1 year): - Infants need reliable care and affection from Reaction Range their caregivers to develop a sense of trust in - Potential variability, depending on their world. environmental conditions, in the expression of a - If the caregiver meets the infant’s needs reliably hereditary trait. and affectionately, the infant learns to trust - Ex: In societies in which nutrition has others and view the world as a safe place. dramatically improved, an entire generation has Conversely, inconsistent or rejecting care can grown up to tower over the generation before. lead to mistrust and insecurity. - Genotype-Environment Interaction - The portion of phenotypic variation that results Attachment Theory - John Bowlby from the reactions of genetically different - unique relationship develops between parents individuals to similar environmental conditions. and the fetus long before the child is born. - Many children are exposed to pollen and dust, - Maternal psychic energy is invested in the fetus, but those with a genetic predisposition are the fetus becomes more human to more likely to develop allergic reactions.. the mother and is loved both as an extension of self and as an independent object. Canalization - Early Attachment Relationships: After birth, the - Limitation on the variance of expression of infant’s experiences with primary caregivers are certain inherited characteristics. critical in forming attachment bonds. - Ex: In the ancestral past, an inability to walk or talk would have had profound adaptive NATURE AND NURTURE; INFLUENCES OF consequences. A human who could not do ENVIRONMENT these things would have been unlikely to Behavioral genetics survive. 6 Genotype-Environment Correlation SOME CHARACTERISTICS INFLUENCED BY HEREDITY - The tendency of certain genetic and AND ENVIRONMENT environmental influences to reinforce each Obesity other may be passive, reactive (evocative), and - Extreme overweight in relation to age, sex, active. height, and body type as defined by having a - also called genotype-environment covariance. body mass index at or above the 95th (CORRELATION-RELATIONSHIP) percentile. - works in three ways to strengthen the - The risk of obesity is 2 to 3 times higher for a phenotypic expression of a genotypic tendency child with a family history of obesity, especially - passive and reactive - younger children severe obesity. - active - among older children, adolescents, and - there is not “a” gene for obesity; rather it is a adults. multifactorial condition. - research suggest that 40 to 70 percent of the Passive Correlation risk is genetic - Parents, who provide the genes that predispose - Environmental experiences also contribute to a child toward a trait obesity: - parents:musically inclined creates environment Intelligence where child can gain musical abilities - Best described as shaped by large numbers of - If the child inherited the parent’s musical talent, genes working together. the child’s musicality will reflect a combination Temperament and Personality of genetic and environmental influences.. look - research should also illustrate hereditary Reactive Correlation influences. - Children with differing genetic makeups evoke - psychologists call babies’ unique and different reactions from others. characteristic ways of approaching and reacting - Reactive meaning the other people react to the to environmental stimuli temperament largely child’s genetic makeup inborn and is relatively consistent over the - not musically inclined parents make a special years, although it may respond to special effort to provide musical experiences experiences or parental handling Active Correlation - underlies adult personality - Children get older and have more freedom to - genes directly linked with specific aspects of choose their own activities and environments, personality such as neuroticism and they actively select or create experiences extraversion consistent with their genetic tendencies. - Heritability of personality traits appears to be Niche-picking around 40 percent, and there is little evidence - The tendency to seek out environments of shared environmental influence compatible with his or her genotype. Nonshared Environmental Effects Schizophrenia - The unique environment in which each child - Mental disorder marked by loss of contact with grows up consists of distinctive influences or reality; symptoms include hallucinations and influences that affect one child differently than delusions. another. - highly heritable neurological disorder that also - heredity- similarity nonshared environment - is environmentally influenced. (heritability difference range from 60 to 80 percent.) 7  - INFLUENCES: MATERNAL & PATERNAL FACTORS MOTHER’S ATTITUDE - Teratogen is an environmental agent, such as a - Love of children virus, a drug, or radiation, that can interfere - Desire for companionship with normal prenatal development. - Desire to please her husband or improve a poor 1. Maternal Undernutrition: calorie deficits, low - marital relationship birth weight, stunted babies - Desire to be like her friends who have children 2. Maternal Obesity: cesarean/difficulty in labor - Feelings of inadequacy for the parental role 3. Fetal Undernutrition: schizophrenia, diabetes, - Resentment at having to give up a career and overweight/obesity - Fear of childbirth or of having a defective child 4. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (drinking during - Resentment at the physical discomforts and pregnancy): developmental abnormalities, weight gain associated with pregnancy malformations - Resentment at being overworked or tied down 5. Medical Drugs: harmful during pregnancy, FATHER’S ATTITUDE withdrawal symptoms birth - Desire for a son to carry on the family name 6. Oploids (substance abuse): small babies, orbe associated with him in business preterm labor, death, meconium - A need to prove his virility to himself and others 7. Nicotine/Maternal Age - miscarriage, still birth - Feelings of inadequacy for the parental role and birth defects - Resentment at interference with educational or 8. Marijuana problem solving skills deficit, low vocational plans blood flow in cerebral - Worry about the financial burdens of raising a 9. Methamphetamine less white matter in brain child (developmental delays) - Resentment at being tied down 10. Physical Activities premature baby SIBLING ATTITUDE 11. Paternal Age Higher rates of developmental - Desire for a playmate disorders - Desire to have as many siblings as their friends 12. Infertility poor quality sperm, exposure to - Fear of losing parental affection and attention alcohol and smoking - Fear of having to share a room or toys with the new sibling or having to help care for it MATERNAL ILLNESS - Desire for sympathy from friends who complain 1. AIDS transmission to baby about their own siblings 2. Anxiety accelerate neurological development in newborns GRANDPARENT’S ATTITUDE 3. Stress preterm delivery, immune functioning - Desire for a grandchild to carry on the family 4. Depression violent, delays & antisocial name - Love of children ATTITUDES & FACTORS INFLUENCING THE FORMATION - Desire to feel useful by helping care for the OF ATTITUDES TOWARDS CHILDREN grandchild Fear of being imposed on for financial or other help the child. 1. Person’s earlier experience with children. 2. Friends’ experiences PERSISTENCE OF ATTITUDES 3. Attitude of the Grandparents - Changes in a form of modifications of existing 4. Attitude towards the sex of baby attitudes 5. Glamorized family life and parental role by socmed 8  - These changes in attitudes are quantitative - Complications during birth- maternal stress - Two reasons for persistence of attitude: affects uterine contractions i. They are based on beliefs that individual an - Developmental Irregularities individual considers to be valid and justified ii. Experience/ Past/ Emotional Attitudes CONDITIONS THAT INCREASE LIKELIHOOD OF HAZARSS 1. Maternal age EFFECTS OF ATTITUDES ON FAMILY MEMBERS 2. Gender Differences Male embryos lost through - Favorable attitudes will become less favorable miscarriage are more common than female when the child is born and unfavorable embryos attitudes tends to persist disguised to have 3. Multiple births are more dangerous than single changes for the better. births - When the child becomes aware of these 4. Malnutrition during pregnancy attitudes, this will influence their 5. Excessive smoking during pregnancy attitudes towards the family including 6. Timing of Exposure themselves. 7. Intensity of Exposure HAZARDS - If developmental irregularities are serious and PHYSICAL HAZARDS the child was born without any complications, - Easily recognizable, Do not affect all individuals the child will most likely be atypical. - What happens to the fetus in the womb is as - Fetal brain damage may cause learning important as its heredity. difficulties in the school, like reading disabilities Ovum Period - Twinning affects prenatal crowding, postnatal - Starvation - the ovum or the egg cell will die out life, and social and personal adjustments of starvation if it stay too long in the tube. - Lack of uterine preparation - Implantation PSYCHOLOGICAL HAZARDS cannot occur if the uterine walls are not 1. Traditional Beliefs prepared in time to receive the zygote. - Beliefs that the parents or the mother could - Implantation in the wrong place - if the zygote control the sex of their offspring becomes attached to the wall of the fallopian - Maternal impressions cause developmental tube, it cannot get the nourishment and will die irregularities - Twinning - Smaller twins tend to have lower IQs - Beliefs that twins are caused by evils spirits and and poorer academic performance than their "animal like" larger counterparts, possibly due to prenatal 2. Maternal Stress crowding and prematurity. - heightened general emotionality over long period of time Embryo Period - affects both before and after birth Miscarriages - usually happen between tenth - prolonged maternal stress during fetal stage to eleventh week after fertilization or causes more illness to the first 3 years in the life conception of a child Developmental irregularities - due to maternal malnutrition 3. Unfavorable Attitudes on Part or Significant Fetus Period People - Miscarriages - Not wanting the child - Prematurity - fetuses weighing 2 to 3 pounds - Not wanting a child this time 9 - Preference for a child of a particulars sex 6. UMBILICAL CORD SAMPLING (Cordocentesis or - Dream Child concept Fetal Blood Sampling) - A needle is inserted into the umbilical cord's PRENATAL ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES blood vessels, guided by ultrasound. - Provides direct access to fetal DNA for 1. ULTRASOUND diagnosing blood disorders, infections, and - use high-frequency sound waves to create performing therapeutic procedures like blood images of the developing baby in the uterus. transfusions. - It is essential for fetal monitoring, structural - Fetal loss or miscarriage in 1-2% of cases; assessment, procedural guidance, genetic possible increased risk of bleeding and fetal screening and early detection of unusual defects distress. during the embryonic stage. 7. MATERNAL BLOOD TEST (Including Prenatal 2. EMBRYOSCOPY, FETOSCOPY Cell-Free DNA Tests) - Tiny viewing scope is inserted in the woman's - A sample of the mother's blood is analyzed for abdomen to view the embryo or fetus. fetal DNA or specific markers. - Can assist in diagnosis of non-chromosomal - To detect potential defects such as anencephaly, genetic disorders. spina bifida, Down syndrome, and other abnormalities; also helps monitor pregnancy 3. AMNIOCENTESIS risks. - A sample of amniotic fluid is withdrawn by syringe and analyzed. 8. GENETIC COUNSELING - comprehensive and - Ultrasound is often used during amniocentesis detailed study of the medical history of both the so that the syringe can be placed precisely. husband and wife to determine if, when, and in - It can be used for sex screening of unborn what form physical or mental babies, can detect chromosomal disorders and abnormalities have existed in their families certain genetic defects but there is a small risk of fetal loss or injury. 4. CHORIONIC VILLUS SAMPLING - prenatal test done during pregnancy wherein INFANCY tissues from hairlike chorionic villi (projections - the shortest of all the developmental periods. of membrane surrounding fetus) are removed - birth to approximately two weeks old. from placenta and analyzed. - fetus must adjust to life outside the uterine - more risks of fetal loss than amniocentesis. walls of the mother Medical criteria: adjustment is completed with 5. PREIMPLANTATION GENETIC DIAGNOSIS the fall of the umbilical cord from the navel. - After in vitro fertilization (IVF), a cell is removed Physiological criteria: the infant has regained from the blastocyst and analyzed for genetic the weight lost after birth. defects. Psychological criteria, show signs of - To avoid implanting embryos with known developmental progress in behavior. genetic defects or predispositions. - most infants complete this adjustment in two - No known risks. weeks or slightly less, those whose birth has been difficult or premature requires more time. 10  - Once these adjustments have been made SUBDIVISION OF INFANCY infants resume their growth and development. 1. Period of the Partunate (birth - 15 to 30 minutes after birth) INFANCY IS A PREVIEW OF LATER DEVELOPMENT - The infant continues to be a parasite and makes - Newborns’ development provides a clue as to no adjustment to the postnatal environment. what to expect later on. 2. Period of the neonate (from the cutting of the - As Bell et al. have said (12) - "Newborn behavior umbilical cord to the end of the 2nd week) is more like a preface to a book than like a table - The infant is now a separate, independent of its contents yet to be unfolded. Further, the individual who must make adjustments to his preface is itself merely a rough draft undergoing new environment. rapid revision. There are some clues to the nature of the book in the preface but these are CHARACTERISTIC OF INFANCY in code form and taking them as literally - Each period in the life span is characterized by prophetic is likely to lead to disappointment. certain developmental phenomena that distinguish it from the periods that precede and INFANCY IS A HAZARDOUS PERIOD follow it. - Infancy is a hazardous period both physically - This is true of infancy in spite of its shortness. difficulties of making necessary radical While some of these phenomena may be adjustment to the totally new and different associated with other period, they appear in environment and psychologically the attitudes distinctive forms in infancy. of significant people toward the infant are crystallized Traditional Beliefs about Birth 1. Birth Color - the attitudes of significant people in the infant’s life towards him/her. CHARACTERISTIC OF INFANT 2. Auspicious and inauspicious times to be born. - Not all infants will show the same level of 3. Easy or Difficulty of postnatal adjustments. physical and mental development. 4. Premature babies will never be strong as ones - The following description of the neonate, born at full term. however, deals with the normal, full-term infant. INFANCY IS A TIME OF RADICAL ADJUSTMENT - It is the graduation from an internal to an PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT external environment. SIZE - requires adjustment on the individual part. - Average infants weighs 7 & - Miller - "In all the rest of his life, there will never - 1/2 pounds and measures 19 be such sudden and complete change of locale" - & 1/2 inches length. - Boys are slightly longer and heavier than girls INFANCY IS A PLATEAU IN DEVELOPMENT INFANTILE FEATURES - The rapid growth and development which took - The muscles of the newborn infant are soft place during the prenatal period suddenly small and uncontrolled. comes to a stop with birth. - The bones are soft and flexible because they are - The halt in development is due to the necessity composed chiefly of cartilage or gristle. for making radical adjustment to the postnatal - The skin is soft and often blotchy. environment. - The flesh is firm and elastic. 11  - Set downy hair is found on the head and - Neonatal sleep is broken by short waking back. periods which occur every two or three hours, - The eyes of white newborns are usually with fewer and shorter waking periods during bluish gray. the night than during the day. - Infants with dark skin have dark brown eyes. - Characteristic posture, when prone, is similar to - Natal teeth occur approximately once every the fetus during intrauterine life. By the end of 2000 births. They have "baby" type and are the first month of life, this posture generally usually lower central incisors. outgrown, owing to the tonus of the baby’s musculature PHYSICAL PROPORTIONS - The newborn is not a miniature adult ACTIVITIES OF THE INFANT - The head is approximately 1/4 of the body - Movements of the body appear as soon as the length; the adult head, by comparison is fetus emerges from the mother’s body. Because approximately 1/7 of the total body length. of the neurophysiological immaturity of the - The cranial region, the area over the eye, is infant, one could not expect his movements to proportionally much longer than the rest of be coordinated or meaningful. Nor are they the head, while the chin is proportionally related to events in his environment or under much too small his voluntary control - The nose is very small and almost flat on the face, while the tiny mouth may look a slit if Two general categories of infant’s movement: the lips are narrow. - The neck is short that it almost invisible, and 1. Mass Activities the skin covering it lies in thick fold or - Occurs throughout the entire body when any creases. area is stimulated through the activity is most - In the trunk, the shoulders are narrow while pronounced in the stimulated area. the abdomen is large and bulging. 2. Specific Activities PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS - Involves activities in certain limited areas of the - Undeveloped state of autonomic nervous body. system at birth, the infant is unable to - Reflexes, definite responses to specific sensory maintain homeostasis stimuli which remain unchanged with repetition - Respiration rate at first ranges from 40-45 of the same stimulus. breathing movement per minute. - Generalized response, Use larger groups of - Neonatal Heartbeat, heartbeat is more rapid muscles that are involved in reflexes and which than that of the adult because the infant's may be aroused by either external or internal heart is small compared with the arteries. stimuli. - Reflex sucking movements occur when the infant is hungry or when the lips are touched. VOCALIZATION OF THE NEWBORN - Hunger rhythms, because hunger - During infancy and the early months of contractions of the infant are more vigorous babyhood, Crying is the dominant form of than those of the adult, the infant experiences vocalization. However, from a long-term point of real pain when he is hungry. view, explosive sounds are more important kind - Elimination of waste products begins few hours of vocalization because speech eventually after birth. Defecation occurs when the infant is develops from them. awake and quiet shortly after feeding. Crying 12  - Begins at birth or shortly afterwards. Pre Birth learning-conditioning or learning by association. cries are rare and dangerous. 3. EMOTIONS OF NEWBORN - complete absence The birth cry is a purely reflex activity which of graduation of responses showing different results when air is drawn over the vocal cords, degrees of intensity. causing them to vibrate.After birth, the infant's 4. BEGINNINGS OF PERSONALITY - Children are cry shows variations in pitch, intensity, and born with characteristics temperamental continuity. differences that are reflected in activity rates Explosive Sounds and sensitivities. It is these differences from - In addition to crying, the newborn infant which the individual’s personality pattern will occasionally makes explosive sounds similar to develop. heavy breathing. - "coos", "gurgles", or "grunts". - more important kind of vocalization because BEGINNINGS OF PERSONALITY speech eventually develops from them. - children are born with characteristic temperamental differences that are reflected in SENSORY CAPACITIES OF INFANTS activity rates and sensitivities: 1. VISION - The infant's visual field is small. 1. easy/flexible - generally cheerful and 2. HEARING - At birth, hearing is the least well adaptable, regular sleep and feeding patterns, developed of all the sensory capacities owing to adjusts well to new situations and people. the stoppage of the middle ear with amniotic 2. difficult/feisty - more prone to irritability and fluid. mood swings, irregular sleep and feeding - improves 4-7 days after birth patterns. 3. SMELL - the sense of smell is well developed at 3. slow to warm up (or cautious) - initially shy or birth, and the ability to distinguish odors is also hesitant in new situations, takes time to adjust present. to new people and experiences. 4. TASTE - the infants generally have positive 4. high sensitivity - reacts strongly to sensory reactions to sweet tastes and negative reactions stimuli (loud noises, bright lights). may become to salty, sour and bitter tastes. easily overwhelmed or overstimulated, 5. SKIN SENSITIVITIES - Skin of the lips is sensitive requiring more soothing and gentle interactions. to touch in the newborn, while the skin on the 5. high activity level - more energetic and trunk, thighs, and forearms are less sensitive. physically active, explores the environment 6. ORGANIC SENSITIVITIES - Sensitivity to hunger frequently and may be restless, needs ample is fully developed at birth, and hunger opportunities for movement and play. contractions occur every ten or fifteen minutes. - it is these differences from which the SENSITIVITIES OF NEWBORN individual's personality pattern will develop. 1. STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS - His awareness is - Individual differences are apparent at birth and more likely to be “one great, blooming, buzzing are shown in responses to food, in crying, and in confusion” James. motor activities. - not keenly aware because eyes, ears are - there is little evidence that the birth trauma, or undeveloped psychological shock that results when the infant - influenced by drugs used during labor is separated from the mother, has any lasting 2. CAPACITY OF LEARNING - Newborn infants are effects on his personality often incapable of even the simplest form of - that infants who are separated from their 13  mothers after birth do not make as good an - two weeks to fully postnatal life. adjustment to postnatal life as infants who remain with their mothers. - Difficulties in adjusting to postnatal life - there is also evidence that the mother's attitude can lead to: (1) Weight loss, (2) Disorganized toward the infant, which is reflected in her behavior (3) High infant mortality rates. behavior, influences the development of his personality. for example, if the mother suspects Factors influencing adjustment include: that something may be wrong with the baby, 1. Prenatal environment her reaction to him may be confused and 2. Birth experience unstable, shifting from day to day or even from a. natural or spontaneous birth - the position of hour to hour. the fetus and its size in relation to the mother's reproductive organs allow it to emerge in the DEVELOPMENTAL TASK OF INFANCY normal, headfirst position. - The infant must make four major adjustments b. breech birth - the buttocks appear first, quickly to resume developmental progress and followed by the legs and finally the head. avoid life threatening situations. These c. transverse birth - the fetus is positioned adjustments are: crosswise in the mother's uterus.. d. instrument birth- when the fetus is too large to 1. Temperature changes: Adjusting to varying emerge spontaneously or when its position temperatures outside the womb. makes normal birth impossible, instruments 2. Breathing: - Beginning to breathe must be used to aid in delivery. independently after the umbilical cord is cut. e. cesarean birth - if x-rays indicate that 3. Sucking and Swallowing - Transitioning to complications will result if the infant emerges feeding by sucking and swallowing instead of through the birth canal, he is brought into the through the umbilical cord. world through a slit made surgically in the 4. Elimination - Organs of elimination start mother's abdominal wall working soon after birth; waste products were previously eliminated through the umbilical - the more difficult the birth, the greater chance cord. of damage and the more severe the damage. - regardless of the kind of birth, two factors have Ways to Support Adjustment a major effect on postnatal adjustment: 1. Temperature Management a. the extent to which the mother is medicated, and 2. Supporting Breathing b. the ease with which respiration is established. 3. Feeding Support 4. Monitoring Elimination 3. Length of gestation - very few infants are born exactly 280 days after MAJOR ADJUSTMENTS conception. Internal to External - prematures ( born two or more weeks early - birth shifts the baby from a controlled, constant less than 19 inches long and weighs 5 pounds 8 environment ounces or less Immediate Adjustments - post matures (born two or more weeks late) 20 - infants face an abrupt change in their sensory or more inches long and weighs 8 or more and physiological experiences. pounds Duration of Adjustments - The birth weight and size - criteria for 14  determining postmaturity and prematurity. Critical Element: - unless he is damaged at birth, the postmature - sensitive, responsive, consistent caregiving. infant usually adjusts more quickly and more - Erikson saw the feeding situation as the setting successfully to his postnatal environment than for establishing the right mix of trust and the infant born at full term. mistrust. Babies need to know they can count on being fed when hungry, which leads them to 4. Parental attitudes trust their mother as a representative of the - influence how quickly and successfully the world. infant adjusts to his postnatal environment. 5. Postnatal care Outcome of Trust: - Because of the neurophysiological immaturity - Trust enables an infant to let the mother out of of a newborn infant, he must depend on the sight because she has become both an "inner people in his new environment to meet his certainty" and an "outer predictability" (Erikson, needs. 1950). DEVELOPMENTAL CRISES OF INFANCY Developing attachment The Trust vs. Mistrust Crisis - Attachment is a reciprocal, enduring emotional Erikson's Theory: tie between an infant and a caregiver. Both - an extended period of dependency results in contribute to the quality of the relationship. the first stage of psychosocial development - Attachments have adaptive value for babies, being centered on forming a sense of trust. ensuring their psychosocial and physical needs - developing a basic sense of trust versus are met (MacDonald, 1998). mistrust. Trust: Ethological theory, infants and parents are biologically - If successful, infants develop a sense of the become attached to predisposed each other. reliability of people and objects, feeling safe and (attachment promotes a baby’s survival.) loved. Mistrust: Three Main Patterns of Attachment - If unsuccessful, infants develop a sense of mistrust, feeling that those around them cannot Secure Attachment: The most common category be counted on in times of need. - Behavior: Babies are flexible and resilient under - Ideally, babies develop a balance between trust stress. (which lets them form intimate relationships) - Reaction: They may cry when the caregiver and mistrust (which enables them to protect leaves but calm down quickly upon return. themselves). - Emotional Response: They’re generally Trust predominates: comfortable being briefly left with a stranger - predominates, children hope and the belief that but prefer the caregiver at reunion,often smiling they can fulfill their needs and obtain their or approaching them. desires. Mistrust predominates: Avoidant (Insecure) Attachment: Found in 15-25% of - predominates, children view the world as infants. unfriendly and unpredictable, having trouble forming quality relationships. - Behavior: Babies appear outwardly unaffected when the caregiver leaves or returns. 15  - Reaction: They continue interacting with the stranger but may ignore or reject the caregiver Establishing Attachment upon return,sometimes turning away. Characteristic Attachment Style: By 1 year: Babies - Emotional Response: These babies show little develop a specific attachment style. positive or negative emotion Bowlby’s Theory of Attachment: Ambivalent (Resistant) Attachment - Found in 10-15% - styles form from repeated caregiver of infants. interactions. - Consistent Response: Builds expectations of - Behavior: Babies are generally anxious before care. the caregiver even leaves and might seek - Inconsistent Response: Leads to different comfort from them when the stranger expectations. approaches. - Working Models: Set expectations for - Reaction: They become very upset when the relationships, based on caregiver consistency. caregiver leaves and remain so after their - Adaptability: Models change if caregiver return, often displaying angry behaviours like behavior changes. kicking, screaming, and refusing comfort. - Relation to Erikson: Secure attachment relates - Emotional Response: They show a mix of to trust; insecure attachment to mistrust. proximity-seeking and angry behaviors and are difficult to settle 1. Stranger anxiety: Wariness of someone an infant does not know. Disorganized-Disoriented Attachment (DDA) 2. Separation anxiety: Distress when a familiar - : Fourth attachment pattern discovered by Main caregiver leaves. & Solomon (1986). - stem more from the quality of substitute care - Behavior: Infants show contradictory, repetitive, than the separation itself. or misdirected behaviors in stressful situations. - Babies cry less with warm, responsive caregivers - Examples include seeking proximity to a who engage in play before they cry, compared stranger instead of the caregiver and exhibiting to less responsive caregivers fear upon the caregiver's return. - Emotional Respose: Infants appear confused Development of anxiety and frightened - negative reactions to strangers emerge around 6 months, becoming common by 8-9 months Maternal Factors - Involves memory for faces and comparison to - Insensitive, intrusive, or abusive mothers. familiar ones. - Fearful or frightening behavior that increases - Familiar environments may lessen anxiety infant fear. Stability of Care - Unresolved loss or childhood attachment issues. - Stability in caregiving is crucial. Risk Factors - resembling effective mothering. - Maternal Insensitivity: Poor response to the - Consistency and continuity in caregiving help infant’s needs. children form early emotional bonds with their - Marital Discord: Conflict between parents caregivers. affecting the child’s emotional environment. - Parenting Stress: Challenges faced by parents Mutual Regulation impacting their caregiving. - The ability of infants and caregivers to respond 16  sensitively to each other's emotional states. - Feeding is a critical activity during this stage. - Active Participation: Infants signal emotions - This theory was based on what is known as the (smiles) that influence caregiver response epigenetic principle. Fluctuation in Interaction Quality: KOHLBERG’S THEORY PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY - Well-Regulated States: Infants show joy when (0-9 months) needs are met 1. Preconventional morality is the earliest period - Poorly Regulated States: Frustration arises when development of moral caregiver responses are out of sync, such as - At this age, children's decisions are primarily ignoring invitations to play. shaped by the expectations of adults and the consequences of breaking the rules. There are Developmental Implications and Social Learning two stages within this level: - Learning Effective Signals: Babies learn to Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment) communicate and adapt when their signals are Stage 2 (Individualism and Exchange) unsuccessful. - Long-Term Effects: High interactional synchrony - Follows rules to avoid getting in trouble and leads to: wants to get a reward - Better regulation of behavior - Children often make moral decisions based on - Higher compliance with parental requests the physical consequences of actions. - Increased IQ - This level don’t have their own personal sense - More use of mental state words (e.g., “think”) of right and wrong yet. - Fewer behavioral problems (Feldman, 2007) - Don’t have personal code of morality Role in Social Learning SIGMUND FREUD PSYCHOSEXUAL - Reading Behavior: Mutual regulation aids - Oral Stage erogenous zone: mouth infants in understanding and responding to others' emotions. - Foundation for Development: These DEVELOPMENTAL HAZARDS interactions are crucial for later emotional and Physical hazards social growth. 1. Unfavorable Prenatal Environment - The environment an infant has at their prenatal DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES ASSOCIATED stage may extend to the child's postnatal life. ERIKSON’S THEORY: PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT - An example would be a mother drinking (Infancy from birth to 18 months) caffeine or alcohol can impede a fetus’ - Trust vs. Mistrust was developed in infancy development.. - It is the most fundamental stage in life. 2. Difficult and Complicated Birth- ·Often results - They seek a level of trust and depends from the in temporary or permanent brain damage. primary caregiver to provide sense of security. 3. Multiple Birth- Smaller and weaker than - Develops a sense of trust when caregivers singletons as result of crowding in th womb, provide their needs and lack of this will lead to limiting fetal movement. mistrust 4. Postmaturity - delayed birth can require the - Child can also lack in confidence and view the use of of instruments or surgery. world with apprehension when circumstances 5. Prematurity happen - fetus has not developed enough to protect and 17  sustain itself outside of the womb. CAPABILITIES or CAPACITIES to do certain tasks. with more balanced body proportions and Long term effects of prematurity improved coordination. 1. Physical Development - They don’t need that much reliance on their 2. Development Status caregivers. they become more capable of performing tasks independently, 3. Motor Control - The infant would become more familiar with 4. Speech Development how they do things. Their ability to recognize 5. Intelligence and respond to people and objects around them 6. Socialization shows marked development. 7. Emotional Behavior Babyhood is an Appealing Age 6. Time of Birth - Appealing = helpless, dependent, and easy to - unfavorable conditions during pregnancy can manage affect her physical condition and thus prove - The increased independence of the infant hazardous to her unborn child. coincides with developing individuality and his 7. Infant Mortality interests and abilities - The most critical time in terms of the infant’s - As the baby boy grows more independent and survival the day of birth, resistant to help, he becomes less easy to manage and less appealing. Psychological hazards 1. Unfavorable attitudes on the part of significant Babyhood is a Hazardous Age people - Certain hazards are more common during 2. Name: unusual, common, old fashiones, babyhood than at other ages. Among the embarrassing physical hazards, illnesses and accidents are the most serious. DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS BABYHOOD PATTERNS OF PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT - end of the second week after birth until the 1.Weight, Height end of the second year of life. - four months, the baby's weight - gains relative independence and can perform has normally doubled; at one year, he weighs tasks that were previously done for them.. three times as much as he did at birth, or approximately 21 pounds. At age two, (25 pounds.) Babyhood is the Foundation Age - come mainly from an increase in fat tissue. - many attitudes toward others and toward self, - At four months, (23 and 24 inches;) at one year, and many patterns of emotional expressions are (28 - 30 inches )and at two years, (32 and 34 being established. inches.) - more than one million neural connections are 2.Bones, Teeth formed each second, laying the foundation for - Ossification begins in the early part of the first year, learning, health, and behavior throughout life. but is not completed until puberty. - The fon-tanel, or soft spot on the skull, has closed Babyhood is an Age of Rapid Growth and in approximately 50 percent of all babies by the age Change of eighteen months, and in almost all babies by the - Not only in appearance but also the age of two years. 18  - The average baby at age 1 has 4 to 6 of his 20 temporary teeth , 16 by the age of two. MUSCLE CONTROL - First to appear are at the front, the last to appear - Follows a definite and predictable pattern governed are the molars by the laws of developmental direction. - develops through repeated practice, movement, 3.Nervous System and the gradual strengthening of muscles. - consists primarily. of the development of immature - Each baby develops at their own pace, but these cells present at birth, rather than the formation of milestones generally reflect the typical progression new cells. of motor skills. - Approximately one-fourth of the adult brain - Head Region: Eye Control, Smiling, and Head weight is attained at birth. holding 4.Sense-Organ Development - Trunk Region: Rolling and Sitting, Arm and Hand - age of three months, the baby's eye muscles are Region, Leg Region well-enough coordinated - Hearing, smell, and taste are well developed at SPEECH DEVELOPMENT birth. - 1 to 3 months, babies cry and coo. - The baby is highly responsive to all skin stimuli - 4 to 6 months babies sigh, grunt, gurgle, because of the thin texture of his skin and because squeal, laugh and make crying sounds all sense organs relating to touch, pressure, pain, and temperature are present - Between 6 and 9 months, babies babble in syllables and start imitating tones and speech sounds. PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS - By 12 months, usually speak heir first words 1.Sleep Patterns - mean duration of night sleep: 8 ½ hours to 10 CHARACTERISTICS hours then remains constant during the rest of that year. 1. THEY ARE ACCOMPANIED BY BABYHOOD - During the first three months, the decline in day RESPONSES sleep is balanced by an increase in night sleep. - Certain hazards are more common during first year, wake-fulness-sleep cycles of babyhood than at other ages. Among the approximately one hour in length occur in both day physical hazards, illnesses and accidents are the and night sleep, with deep sleep lasting only about twenty-three minutes most serious. 2.Eating Patterns 2. EMOTIONS ARE MORE EASILY CONDITIONED - From birth until 4- 5 months of age, sucking and - As the baby boy grows more independent and swallowing. resistant to help, he becomes less easy to - Chewing generally appears in the developmental manage and less appealing. pattern a month later than biting. But, like biting, it is in an infantile form and requires much practice COMMON EMOTIONAL PATTERNS before it becomes serviceable. - At birth, the emotions appear in simple, almost completely undifferentiated forms. With age, 3.Patterns of Elimination emotional responses become less diffuse, less - Elimination Bowel - the average, at 6 months, and random, and more differentiated, and they can be bladder control 15 to 16 months. In the case of aroused by a wide variety of stimuli. the former, habits of control are established by the end of babyhood, though temporary lapses may be DEVELOPMENTS IN SOCIALIZATION expected when the baby is tired, ill, or emotionally 1. The type of behavior babies show in social situations excited. aflects their personal and social adjustments - Bladder control, on the other hand, is in a 2. Their social foundations tend to be persistent as rudimentary state at the close of babyhood children grow older. 19  think of them. SOCIAL RESPONSE TO ADULTS 5. Social Concepts - Around 8 months, babies - 2-3 months respond to the emotions of others through facial - 8-9 months expressions although little evidence signifies that babies understand exactly what these emotions are. - 22-24 months 6. Concepts of Beauty - ages of 6 and 24 months, SOCIAL RESPONSE TO BABIES babies begin to respond to different colors. They are - 4-5 months also apt to say that something is “pretty” like music - 9-13 months with a definite tune. - 18-24 months 7. Concepts of Comic - deriving of enjoyment on certain activities. BEGINNING OF INTEREST IN PLAY - Play is free and spontaneous BEGINNINGS OF MORALITY - Move solitarily than socia - The baby has no conscience and no scale of values. - Play is dependent on the physical, motor, and - nonmoral in the sense that his behaviour is not intellect guided by moral standards. - Play equipments are less important - The major purpose of discipline is to teach the child to identify what is right and wrong and then - It is through exploration that the infant learns about to see to it that the baby acts in accordance with the world of people as well as of things." this knowledge. COMMON PLAY PATTERNS OF BABYHOOD FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS 1. SENSORIMOTOR PLAY 2. GAMES 1. EVIDENCE OF IMPORTANCE OF FAMILY 3. EXPLORATORY PLAY RELATIONSHIPS 4. AMUSEMENT 5. IMITATIVE PLAY 2. CHANGES IN FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS - Dream-child concept DEVELOPMENT OF UNDERSTANDING - Degree of dependency 1. Sensory exploration - Parental Anxiety 2. Muscle coordination - Child-training methods 3. Fear of new/strange stimuli - Arrival of new sibling 4. Begins to put words together - Relationships with older siblings 5. Making simple Generalizations - Preference for certain family members CONCEPTS THAT DEVELOP DEVELOPMENTAL CRISIS 1. Concepts of Space - estimation of distance from 1. Weaning - Physical change associated with the ability to eat the grasp of the baby towards an object and digest other than milk or formula. 2. Concepts of Weight - are inaccurate during - When parents fail to observe the child’s readiness babyhood; babies perceive a small object as light and to eat solid food, the delay may lead to weakened a large object as heavy. digestive capability, this could also develop a child 3. Concepts of Time - grasp the concept of time only to become a picky eater. when they are on fairly rigid daily schedules do they 2. Objectivation know morning from afternoon or night - child realises that he is the subject acting on an 4. Concepts of Self - develop later and are based object and has an influence in the world. mainly on what the significant people in their lives - 8-9 months. At first he crawls, and then he walks away from the mother, returning periodically for 20  reassurance and validation. diagnostic of attachment categorization. What is - This is also the time that the child starts to go diagnostic is what the babies do when the through stranger anxiety. He has discovered that caregiver returns. The important component is he has some control over objects, but does not have control over people and when they come and the attachment relationship and how the babies go. The child also does not understand that if they use a caregiver to obtain comfort while in his or cannot see something or someone that it still exists her presence. 3. Self Affirmation - crisis of opposition - when a child says “no” to - “A baby’s attachment style is best determined seemingly everything. by how a mother soothes an upset child rather - 18 months and is usually completed by 2 ½ or 3 than by how that child acts when she is not years old. This is the period where the child goes through to complete the final stage of separation around. from the mother. - Behind the child’s “no” is the desire to be Main & Solomon, 1986 recognized as a person who is already able to - disorganized disoriented attachment. Babies resolve many problems related to him, to ask for with the disorganized pattern seem to lack a his opinion much more often than is generally cohesive strategy to deal with the stress of the done Strange Situation. Instead, they show DEVELOPING TRUST contradictory, repetitive, or misdirected - If we are successful, we develop a sense of the behaviors (such as seeking closeness to the reliability of people and objects in our world. stranger instead of the mother or showing a We feel safe and loved. The risk, however, is fear response upon the caregiver’s entry). that, instead, we develop a sense of mistrust and feel that those around us cannot be 4. Disorganized or Disoriented Attachment counted on in times of need. - It is most prevalent in babies with mothers who are insensitive, intrusive, or abusive; who are DEVELOPING ATTACHMENT fearful or frightening and thus leave the infant 1. Avoidant Attachment with no one to lighten the fear - outwardly unaffected by a caregiver leaving or - Disorganized attachment is a reliable predictor returning. of later behavioral and adjustment - they ignore or reject the caregiver, sometimes problems deliberately turning away. - Avoidantly attached babies tend to show little emotion, either positive or negative. 2. Ambivalent Attachment THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT - extremely reactive to the caregiver’s departure 1.ARNOLD GESELL MATURATION THEORY from the room and generally become very - His theory is particularly relevant to upset. understanding how babies grow, develop motor - tend to remain upset for long periods of time, skills, and adapt to their environment. kicking, screaming, refusing to be distracted - Babyhood is an age of decreasing dependency. with toys, and sometimes arching back and Decrease in dependency results from the rapid away from contact. development of body control. - Note that in all of these cases what the baby does during the caregiver’s absence is not MOTOR DEVELOPMENT IN BABYHOOD: 21  - Babies reach important motor milestones such months. as sitting, crawling, standing, and walking based - According to his theory, both are normal, as the on the maturation of their muscles and nervous differences are due to genetic factors and the system, not from external instruction or natural pace of each child's biological training. maturation. Examples: 2.PIAGET COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY -Lifting the head usually happens around 2-3 months. SENSORIMOTOR STAGE - Rolling over typically occurs at 4-6 months. - Babyhood is a time of rapid cognitive -Crawling usually begins around 7-9 months. development, where babies move from purely - Walking often emerges between 12-15 months. reflexive responses to purposeful actions, gaining an understanding of their world through NATURAL DEVELOPMENT their sensory experiences and motor activities. - development follows a natural progression. The - This stage sets the foundation for the infant's ability to move, grasp objects, or development of more complex thought develop communication is driven by their processes inherent biological timetable, and this process - The main achievement during this stage is cannot be significantly accelerated by external object permanence – knowing that an object factors. still exists, even if it is hidden. It requires the - Parents are encouraged to be patient, allowing ability to form a mental representation (i.e., a their baby to develop at their own pace rather schema) of the object. than trying to push them to achieve milestones - Active exploration using their senses and motor earlier than expected. skills to interact with the world. - Schemas - Infants develop schemas through PREDICTABLE STAGES OF GROWTH: their interactions, which are modified through - created detailed charts outlining the normal assimilation and accommodation. range for various developmental tasks, such as - Egocentrism visual tracking, coordination, and early - Imitation and symbolic thought problem-solving skills. Early imitation leads to more complex cognitive - While babies develop at different rates, there is abilities such as deferred imitation and symbolic a typical pattern that all infants follow. thought, which pave the way for more sophisticated learning in later stages. BEHAVIORAL DEVELOPMENT - behavioral changes can also be linked to 3. JOHN BOWLBY ATTACHMENT THEORY maturation - anxiety and distress that children experience when - sleep patterns, crying, feeding behaviors, and separated from their primary caregivers. emotional responses evolve according to the - This bond is crucial for a child's psychological biological readiness of the child. development and provides a sense of security that influences the child's social, emotional, and INDIVIDUAL VARIATION IN DEVELOPMENT: cognitive development. Likewise, it is noted in - Gesell also recognized that there is variation in Hurlock’s book that during babyhood the timing of these developmental milestones. parent-child relationship is more important than In babyhood, one baby might start walking at 10 ever. months, while another might begin at 15 1. Importance of early bonding. 22  - attachment to a primary caregiver is essential facilities indirectly supports the baby’s for developing trust and emotional well-being. development by enhancing their caregivers' 2. Maternal Deprivation well-being and resources. - Bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypothesis Macrosystem suggests that continual attachment disruption + broader cultural and societal values, beliefs, and between the infant and primary caregiver could norms that shape the baby’s environment result in long-term cognitive, social, and + cultural practices related to parenting, social emotional difficulties for that infant. policies, and economic conditions 3. Separation + reflect the values of the macrosystem and can - If separation from the primary caregiver occurs have a lasting impact on a baby’s physical and during the critical period and there is no emotional well-being. adequate substitute emotional care, the child Chronosystem will suffer from deprivation. - dimension of time, encompassing changes and transitions that occur over the baby’s life span 4. BRONFENBRENNER ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY as well as historical and generational changes - Urie Bronfenbrenner, - significant events in the baby’s family or wider - framework for understanding how various societal changes environmental systems influence a c