MIDTERM TCW REVIEWER 1st Sem 2024-2025 PDF

Global Interstate System – is an institutional arrangement of governance that addresses regional or globalized issues that go beyond the scope of a nation-state. (Chase-Dunn, 1981) State – a system of centralized rule that succeeded in subordinating all other institutions and groups, temporal and...

Global Interstate System – is an institutional arrangement of governance that addresses regional or globalized issues that go beyond the scope of a nation-state. (Chase-Dunn, 1981) State – a system of centralized rule that succeeded in subordinating all other institutions and groups, temporal and spiritual (Heywood 2011). Emerged in 15th and 16th century in Europe. In the contemporary world, the concept of sovereignty remains central to the organization of states and international relations, but it has evolved and faces new challenges due to the changing global landscape. While the traditional understanding of sovereignty as absolute authority within defined territorial boundaries persists, several contemporary factors have influenced and shaped the way sovereignty is perceived and practiced Internationalism – puts emphasis on diversity and celebrates multiculturalism, while globalism focuses more on the economic aspect of the exchanges among countries and society. Global governance refers to the coordination and management of international affairs and challenges through the cooperation of multiple actors, including states, intergovernmental organizations, non- governmental organizations (NGOs), multinational corporations, and other stakeholders. It is an evolving concept that seeks to address global problems that transcend national boundaries and require collective action. In the contemporary world, global governance has become increasingly relevant due to the interconnectedness of economies, the spread of technology, and the growing awareness of shared global challenges The Global Interstate System The criteria for statehood and the elements that are commonly used to determine whether a territory qualifies as a sovereign state can vary depending on international law, conventions, and the recognition of other states. Below are some of the key elements often considered when evaluating whether an entity meets the requirements for statehood: 1. Defined Territory: A state must have a clearly defined territory with recognized borders. The territory should be distinguishable and identifiable on the map. 2. Permanent Population: A state should have a settled population residing within its borders. The population does not necessarily need to be homogenous but should be stable and self-sustaining.  3. Effective Government: A state should have an organized and functioning government capable of exercising control over its territory and population. This includes the ability to enact and enforce laws, provide public services, maintain order, and represent the state in international affairs. 4. Capacity to Enter into Relations with Other States: A state must possess the capacity to conduct international relations and interact with other states. This involves the ability to negotiate treaties, engage in diplomacy, and participate in international organizations. 5. Independence: A state should be free from the control of any external authority and should not be subject to undue influence from other states or organizations.  6. Intent and Willingness: The entity seeking statehood must express a clear intention to be recognized as a sovereign state. This intention is often demonstrated through actions and declarations that show a desire for independence and self-determination. 7. Recognition by Other States: While recognition by other states is not a formal requirement for statehood, it is a crucial factor. The entity seeking statehood needs to be acknowledged as a sovereign state by a significant number of other states in the international community.  State and Sovereignty Internal sovereignty and external sovereignty are two aspects of the broader concept of sovereignty, each referring to different dimensions of a state's authority and control. Internal Sovereignty: Internal sovereignty relates to a state's exclusive authority to govern within its territorial boundaries without interference from external actors. It signifies a state's ability to exercise effective control over its domestic affairs, including its government, laws, policies, and institutions. External sovereignty refers to a state's recognition as an independent and equal member of the international community. It is the acknowledgment by other states and international entities that a particular state possesses the right to govern itself without external interference in its external affairs. The United Nations (UN) serves as the primary organization for international cooperation, peace, and security. It is the only international organization for international cooperation that can authorize the use of force against an aggressor. Its primary concern is collective military security (Chapter VII of the UN Charter) through the facilitation of peaceful settlement of disputes among member-states (Chapter VI) or by commanding allegiance of the entire UN membership; sanctions. While its primary objective is to ensure peace and order, the UN as an organization can be a conflict actor in itself or an instrument for action driven by the interests of particular states  The United Nations Charter established Five Principal council organs in 1945 1. The Economic and Social Council’s(ECOSOC) primary objective is to advance the economic, social and environmental dimensions of sustainable development. It serves as a gateway of the UN’s partnership with the rest of the world for the coordination, policy review, dialogue, recommendations, and implementations of international development goals. 2. The Trusteeship Council was established as a main organ of the UN (Chapter XIII) to provide international supervision of Trust Territories that are under the administration of seven members-states, to ensure that adequate steps are being made to prepare the peoples of Trust Territories for self governance. 3. The International Court of Justice is the United Nation’s principal judicial organ (Chapter XVI). Its role is to settle legal disputes between states (contentious cases) and to provide advisory opinions on legal questions referred by the UN organs and specialized agencies, in accordance to international law (advisory proceedings) (International Court of Justice, 2018). 4. The Security Council (SC) is the most potent organ with the power to make legally binding resolutions. It is compromised of the strongest military states and is a concrete manifestation of the reality of power dynamics. 5. The General Assembly (GA) is the only UN organ with universal representations, with all 193 member states represented in the body. The General Assembly decides on essentials questions with a simple majority, while concerns related to peace and security, budgetary matters, and new membership admissions require a two-thirds majority.  The Security council is composed of 15 members, among them would be the five states which are granted permanent seats by the UN Charter (Chapter V).  The five permanent members, also known as the Permanent Five are: 1. China 2. France 3. Great Britain 4. Russia 5. United States All of which are allies in the Second World War and are nuclear states. Yearly, the General Assembly meets for the annual General Assembly Session and general debate participated by several heads of state. Moreover, the body also elects a General Assembly President and 21 Vice Presidents every sessions for a one-year term. While the assembly may discuss questions relating to international peace and security, it can only make recommendations when a dispute is already being discussed by the Security Council. In reality, the Security Council remains to be the primary decisions-maker of the UN in all matters of international peace and security. However the “Uniting for Peace” Resolution of 1950 ensures that divisive issues in the Security Council are blocking the members to take action may be assumed by the assembly, to bypass the vetoes of the council and recommend measures including the use of force. This resolution, however, has been criticized for being unconstitutional, as it allowed the assembly to usurp the Security Council’s primary role in maintaining international peace and security (Carswell, 2013). Globalism vs Internationalism Globalism and internationalism are related concepts that refer to different approaches to global governance and cooperation among nations. While they share some similarities, they also have distinct characteristics. Globalism refers to a worldview or ideology that emphasizes increasing interconnectedness, interdependence, and integration across national boundaries. It advocates for the free flow of goods, services, capital, and information across borders. Globalists believe in the importance of global institutions and organizations, such as the United Nations, World Trade Organization, and International Monetary Fund, to address global challenges and promote cooperation among nations. They often advocate for global governance mechanisms and the establishment of supranational entities that can regulate global issues and pursue common goals. Examples of globalism can be seen in various aspects of contemporary society, such as: Trade: Globalists support free trade agreements and the reduction of trade barriers to promote economic integration and maximize global welfare. Examples include the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP). Climate Change: Globalists argue for international cooperation to address climate change and environmental issues. The Paris Agreement, signed by numerous countries in 2015, exemplifies globalist efforts to mitigate global warming through collective action. Human Rights: Globalists emphasize the importance of universal human rights and advocate for international human rights instruments and organizations, such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Amnesty International. Internationalism, on the other hand, refers to a more nation-centric approach to international cooperation. It emphasizes the importance of maintaining the sovereignty and independence of individual nations while recognizing the benefits of collaboration and diplomacy. Internationalists focus on bilateral and multilateral relationships between nations, working together on specific issues of mutual interest or concern.  Examples of internationalism include: Diplomacy: Internationalists prioritize diplomatic negotiations and agreements between individual nations to address shared challenges or conflicts. This can be seen in efforts to resolve disputes through diplomacy, such as peace treaties or negotiations mediated by international bodies. Humanitarian Aid: Internationalists promote providing aid and assistance to nations in need during times of crisis or natural disasters. International organizations like the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement work on the principles of internationalism to provide humanitarian support globally. Regional Cooperation: Internationalists often emphasize cooperation within specific regions to address regional challenges. Examples include the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the European Union (EU), which promote regional integration and collaboration in their respective areas  Introduction International mass media has played a vital role in enhancing globalization as it linked societies closer, with the exchange of ideas, culture, and multiple information. It has managed to do so with the help of capitalism. However, the process of globalization of culture constitutes a debate on whether mass media has been pluralistic and neutral in facilitating the flow of ideas, or has it been an instrument for the domination of western culture. One of the fuels, consequences, and manifestations of globalization is the flow of culture from one geographical area to another. Culture in a simpler terms, refers to humans’ way of life – how we present ourselves, what are the choices we make and how, how we relate with one another, how we pursue our aspirations. Culture are articulated in symbols or illustrations that convey meanings. It is also manifested in language or a system of symbols that enable members of a society to communicate with one another. It is observed in our values (what we deem good, desirable, and important), beliefs (what we deem true), and practices (how we do things). Most importantly it is enshrined in our norms (rules, roles, and expectations that we have and others have relative to our membership in a society). We, humans, are carriers of cultures. We learn culture from our homes and our communities through direct instruction from our parents or through observations and participations in community affair - Cultural socialization. Later on, when we go out and interact with people from other groups, we experience a different culture – cultural exchange  One tendency is for us to interpret the other culture using our own frame of mind and negotiate which aspect of this culture align with ours. Acculturation is the process through which individuals or groups from one culture come into contact with and adopt practices, values, and customs from another culture. This often happens in the context of immigration, colonization, or globalization. example: Global Popularity of K-Pop: The rise of K-pop around the world has led to the blending of Korean and Western music styles, fashion, and dance, with fans from diverse cultures adopting elements of Korean culture. Accommodation refers to the process of making adjustments or adaptations to accommodate the needs or preferences of individuals or groups from different cultural backgrounds. Examples: Language Interpretation Services: Providing interpretation services in healthcare settings, legal proceedings, and educational institutions to facilitate communication between individuals who speak different languages. Cultural Sensitivity Training: Providing training to employees in diverse workplaces to raise awareness about cultural differences and promote respectful interactions.  Assimilation refers to the process by which individuals or groups adopt the cultural norms, values, and practices of the dominant or host culture, often at the expense of their own cultural identity. Examples: Social Assimilation: Immigrants may adapt their social behaviors and norms to conform to those of the dominant culture. This could include changes in clothing styles, social interactions, and recreational activities. Language Assimilation: Immigrants to a new country may gradually adopt the dominant language of that country, such as immigrants to the United States learning English as their primary language. Global media cultures refer to the diverse and interconnected forms of media content, communication, and expressions that transcend national boundaries and reach audiences worldwide. With the advent of advanced communication technologies and the internet, media content can now easily circulate across the globe, allowing people from different cultures and societies to access and engage with a wide array of media products. Key characteristics of global media cultures include: 1. Media Convergence: Global media cultures result from the convergence of different media platforms and technologies, such as television, radio, print, film, and the internet. This convergence enables the seamless flow of media content across various devices and facilitates the global distribution of media products. 2.Cultural Exchange: Global media cultures foster cultural exchange by introducing audiences to content and perspectives from diverse cultures and societies. This exposure to different cultural expressions can lead to a broader understanding and appreciation of the world's cultural richness. 3. Homogenization and Heterogenization: On one hand, global media cultures can lead to the homogenization of certain cultural elements as popular media products and trends become widespread across the globe. On the other hand, they can also promote heterogenization, allowing local cultures to resist and reinterpret global influences, leading to hybrid cultural expressions. 4. Influence on Identities: Exposure to global media cultures can shape individual and collective identities. Audiences may integrate elements from various media sources into their identities, leading to the formation of transnational or cosmopolitan identities. 5. Language and Translation: Global media cultures often require translation and localization to make content accessible to diverse linguistic audiences. Subtitles, dubbing, or adaptation of content are common practices to bridge language barriers. 6. Transnational Media Companies: Large transnational media corporations play a significant role in shaping global media cultures by producing and distributing content that reaches audiences worldwide. These companies often tailor their content to appeal to international audiences while balancing cultural sensitivities. 7. Media Activism and Social Movements: Global media cultures facilitate the spread of social and political movements. Activists and advocates can leverage digital platforms to reach a global audience and mobilize support for their causes. 8. Global Media Events: Events like the Olympic Games, World Cup, and major entertainment awards ceremonies have become global media spectacles, drawing massive international audiences and promoting a sense of global community. 9. Challenges of Cultural Imperialism: The dominance of certain media cultures from powerful nations can raise concerns about cultural imperialism, where the values and norms of one culture are imposed on others, potentially leading to the erosion of local cultures. 10. Ethical and Regulatory Considerations: The global nature of media requires careful consideration of ethical practices and regulatory frameworks to address issues like misinformation, privacy concerns, and cultural sensitivity.  Global media cultures play a significant role in shaping how people consume and participate in media content on a global scale. They have the potential to promote cultural exchange, mutual understanding, and interconnectedness among diverse populations. However, they also raise important questions about cultural representation, power dynamics, and the preservation of local identities in an increasingly interconnected world. Globalization and Culture Cultural Flows –refer to the movement of ideas, values, practices, and artifacts across geographical, social, and political boundaries. These flows can occur through various channels, including trade, migration, technology, media, and globalization. examples of cultural flows Media and Technology: Social Media and Global Connectivity: Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram enable the instant dissemination of cultural content, trends, and ideas across borders, allowing individuals to connect with others from different cultural backgrounds. Hollywood and Global Film Industry: American films and television shows have a significant global reach, shaping perceptions, lifestyles, and consumer preferences worldwide. Cultural differentialism, also known as cultural relativism or cultural pluralism, is an approach or perspective that recognizes and respects the diversity of cultures and believes that each culture should be understood and evaluated in its own context, without imposing one's own cultural norms, values, or standards. This concept asserts that no culture is inherently superior or inferior to others, and that each culture has its unique way of life, beliefs, traditions, and practices that are meaningful within its historical and social context. Example Social Norms and Etiquette: Respecting cultural norms regarding dress, behavior, and social interaction. For instance, understanding that norms of personal space, eye contact, and physical contact may differ across cultures. Recognizing that gestures, facial expressions, and body language can have different meanings and interpretations in different cultural contexts. Key characteristics of cultural differentialism include Respect for Cultural Diversity: Cultural differentialism advocates for respecting and valuing the diversity of human cultures. It recognizes that cultural practices, beliefs, and values are shaped by historical, geographical, and social contexts and should not be judged solely through the lens of one's own cultural perspective. Avoiding Ethnocentrism: Ethnocentrism is the tendency to view one's own culture as superior to others. Cultural differentialism encourages individuals to be aware of their own cultural biases and to avoid making judgments about other cultures based on their own cultural norms. Cultural Relativism: Cultural differentialism embraces the idea of cultural relativism, which posits that each culture's practices and beliefs should be understood and evaluated within the framework of that culture, rather than applying universal or absolute standards. Preservation of Cultural Identity: Cultural differentialism promotes the preservation and protection of unique cultural identities, languages, and traditions, especially in the face of globalization and cultural homogenization. Cross-Cultural Understanding: Emphasizing cross- cultural understanding and dialogue, cultural differentialism encourages people to learn from and engage with different cultures, fostering mutual respect and appreciation. Tolerance and Inclusivity: By acknowledging and respecting cultural diversity, cultural differentialism fosters an environment of tolerance and inclusivity, where people from different backgrounds can coexist harmoniously. Challenges Power Imbalances: Cultural differentialism challenges power imbalances and colonial legacies that historically led to the marginalization and erasure of certain cultures and their contributions. Promoting Human Rights: Cultural differentialism recognizes the importance of human rights and acknowledges that some cultural practices may violate universal human rights principles. It seeks to find a balance between respecting cultural diversity and upholding fundamental human rights.  Demanding for the Balanced Flow of Information: A Fight against Cultural Imperialism Cultural imperialism – the sum of the processes by which a society is brought into the modern world system and how its dominating stratum is attracted, pressured, forced and sometimes bribed into shaping social institutions to correspond to, or even promote, the values and structures of the dominating centre of the system. The concepts of “cultural imperialism” and “ media imperialism” have minor differences but most of the international communication literature considers the latter as a category of the former. Media imperialism – defined by Boyd-Barret the process whereby the ownership, distribution or content of the media in any one country are singly or together are subject to substantial external proportionate reciprocation of influence by the country so affected.  Cultural Homogenization and Heterogenization in Global Media Culture: Cultural Homogenization: Cultural homogenization refers to the process by which local cultures become similar or even identical to one another due to the influence of global media, resulting in the reduction of cultural diversity. This often occurs through the widespread dissemination of Western culture and values, particularly from the United States. Fast Food Chains: Example: The global spread of fast food chains like McDonald's, Starbucks, and KFC is another example. These brands offer standardized products and experiences that can be found in numerous countries worldwide. Impact: Local food cultures can be affected as these chains often replace or compete with traditional eateries, leading to changes in eating habits and culinary preferences. Pop Music: Example: Western pop music, particularly from the United States and the United Kingdom, enjoys immense popularity around the world. Artists like Taylor Swift, Beyoncé, and BTS (although BTS is from South Korea, they incorporate many Western pop elements) have global fan bases. Impact: The widespread consumption of Western pop music can influence local music industries to adopt similar styles, languages (e.g., singing in English), and production techniques, potentially marginalizing traditional music forms.  Cultural Heterogenization: Cultural heterogenization refers to the process by which global media facilitates the preservation, adaptation, and blending of local cultures, resulting in increased cultural diversity and the creation of unique cultural expressions. K-Pop: Example: K-pop (Korean pop music) is a prime example of cultural heterogenization. While heavily influenced by Western pop, hip-hop, and electronic music, K-pop retains unique elements of Korean culture, such as language, fashion, and performance styles. Impact: K-pop's global success has introduced Korean culture to a worldwide audience, fostering a cultural exchange that encourages the coexistence and appreciation of diverse cultural elements.  Telenovelas: Example: Latin American telenovelas have gained international popularity, particularly in regions like Eastern Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. These TV shows often incorporate local customs, traditions, and social issues. Impact: The international appeal of telenovelas allows Latin American culture to reach global audiences while also adapting certain elements to resonate with viewers from different cultural backgrounds. Cultural homogenization and heterogenization are ongoing processes in the global media landscape. While homogenization can lead to the erosion of local cultures and the dominance of Western norms, heterogenization fosters cultural diversity and the adaptation of global influences into unique, localized expressions. Both processes highlight the dynamic and complex nature of cultural exchange in the era of globalization.  Definitions and Meaning of Religions Religions have been diversely defined, both academically, by theorist in the field of social science, and subjectively by people who engage in it. Religion – a unified system of beliefs and practice related to faith, the sacred, higher moral values. Globalization refers to the process by which ideas, beliefs, and practices spread across the world, facilitated by advancements in communication, transportation, and trade. Religion, as a key aspect of culture, has been significantly influenced by globalization. The globalization of religion refers to the process by which religious beliefs, practices, and institutions are becoming increasingly interconnected and influential on a global scale. As globalization facilitates greater communication, migration, and cultural exchange across borders, religious ideas and traditions are spreading beyond their places of origin and impacting diverse societies worldwide.  The Concept of Religion Spirituality refers to the aspect of human experience that involves a connection to something greater than oneself, which can involve a search for meaning in life, a sense of interconnectedness, or a relationship with the divine or sacred. Examples of Spiritual Practices: 1.Meditation and Mindfulness: Techniques aimed at focusing the mind and achieving a state of calm and clarity, often used in Buddhism and other spiritual traditions. 2. Prayer: Communicating with a higher power, common in many religions such as Christianity, Islam, and Hinduism. 3.Yoga: A physical, mental, and spiritual practice rooted in Hinduism, aimed at achieving harmony and balance. 4.Pilgrimage: Traveling to sacred sites for spiritual growth and reflection, such as the Hajj in Islam or the Camino de Santiago in Christianity.  Material Sense Materialism or the material sense refers to the focus on physical and tangible aspects of life, often prioritizing economic, bodily, and worldly needs and desires. Characteristics of Materialism: 1.Physical Well-being: 1. Emphasis on health, bodily comfort, and physical fitness. 2.Economic and Financial Focus: 1. Pursuit of wealth, possessions, and financial security as primary goals. 3.Consumption and Acquisition: 1. Valuing the acquisition of goods and services, often linked to status and identity. 4.Scientific and Empirical Understanding: 1. Relating to knowledge and understanding derived from the physical sciences and empirical evidence. 5.Worldly Success and Achievement: 1. Striving for success in career, education, and social status based on measurable achievements. Religious globalization is not a new phenomenon, as religions have historically expanded through trade, conquest, and missionary activities. However, in the contemporary context, technological advancements, international travel, and the rise of social media have accelerated the dissemination of religious information, leading to new dynamics and challenges. This phenomenon has several key aspects: 1. Transnational Religious Networks: Globalization has enabled the formation of transnational religious networks, linking believers, religious leaders, and organizations across different countries and continents. These networks facilitate information exchange, religious education, and cooperation on shared religious goals. 2. Migration and Diaspora Communities: Globalization has led to increased migration, resulting in the establishment of diaspora communities around the world. These communities often preserve and propagate their religious identities, contributing to the global spread of various faiths. 3. Religious Media and Technology: The internet and social media platforms have become powerful tools for religious outreach and communication. Religious organizations and individuals use digital platforms to share religious teachings, engage with followers, and expand their global reach. 4. Interfaith Dialogue and Encounter: Globalization has facilitated greater interfaith dialogue and encounter. People from different religious backgrounds come into contact more 5. Religious Syncretism and Hybridization: The encounter of different religious traditions in a globalized world can lead to religious syncretism and hybridization, where elements from various faiths blend to form new religious expressions. 6. Religious Tourism: Globalization has led to an increase in religious tourism, with people traveling to visit sacred sites, pilgrimage destinations, and religious events, promoting cultural exchange and spiritual exploration. 7. Global Religious Movements: Some religious movements have gained international prominence, attracting followers and support beyond their countries of origin. These movements often address global issues and advocate for social and political change. 8. Challenges to Tradition and Authority: The globalization of religion can challenge traditional religious authorities and practices. Modern believers may encounter diverse interpretations and face choices between preserving traditional practices and embracing globalized religious trends. 9. Ethical and Human Rights Concerns: The globalization of religion raises ethical and human rights concerns when religious beliefs and practices clash with universal human rights principles, such as gender equality and LGBTQ+ rights. The interaction of region and culture resulted in a global-local religion. (Roudometof (2014) developed a model of four distinct glocalization – indigenization, vernacularization, nationalization, and transnationalization. 1. Vernacularization – refers to blending of universal religions with local languages. For instance, Arabic is used as Islam’s sacred language even outside the Arab world, while Greek and Latin remains to be the primary languages of Christianity. 2. Indigenization – transform a universal religion to suit the specifics of a particular ethic group. An example is the practice of Islam by various ethnic groups in the Zamboanga peninsula. 3. Nationalization – constructs a link between the nation and church. The Philippines Independent Church, an independent Christian denomination, is an example of a national modifiers to their religious identification. 4. Transnationalization – has complemented religious nationalism by focusing groups on identifying specific religious traditions of real or imagined national homeland. Iglesia ni Cristo is one good example of this. This Christian organization is national in scope but it has international reach that is easily identified as Filipino in its roots and central authority.  Secularization: Consequence of Modernization Secularization - refers to the belief that religion would lose its significance with economic development and modernization. The thesis can be traced back to the classical works of Auguste Comte, Max Weber, Emile Durkheim and Karl Marx who posited that modernization involves a decline of religiosity among societies and providing different explanations as to why this will occur. Auguste Comte – one of the first theorist of secularization, posited that society undergoes three stages: theological stage, metaphysical stage, and the positivist/scientific stage. Max Weber – argues that the men will undergo modernization which is a process of the disenchantment of the universe with the replacement of bureaucratization, rationalization, and secularization. Emile Durkheim – He argues that the individualization of the societies breaking the bonds of community. Karl Marx – views religion as the opium of the people created by the material conditions. Marx believed that religion would have no place in a communist society where all individuals are treated equally with the eradication of class division and the existence of the state.  Religion and Digital Media Digital Media has revolutionized the way people engage with religion, offering new platform for religious expression, community building, and the dissemination of religious ideas. This comprehensive discussion explores the multifaceted relationship between digital media and religion, examining the impact of digital technologies on religious practices, beliefs, communities, and the wider religious landscape.  In the contemporary world, the concept of the global city has emerged as a significant phenomenon that encapsulates the interconnectedness of economies, cultures, and societies. A global city can be defined as a metropolis that serves as a hub for international business, finance, and cultural exchange. This essay explores the multifaceted nature of global cities, highlighting their economic importance, cultural diversity, and the challenges they face in maintaining their global status. Global cities are key nodes in the global economic system, serving as centers of finance, commerce, culture, and innovation. They play a crucial role in facilitating international trade, attracting foreign investment, and hosting major corporations and institutions. These cities are often characterized by their cosmopolitan nature, multicultural population, and connectivity to the global network of cities.  A global city, also known as a world city or known by other terminologies as “alpha city” or world center is a city regarded as a primary node in the global economic network. a global metropolis, is a major urban center that plays a central role in the global economic system and serves as a key node in the networks of finance, commerce, culture, and communication. Global cities are vital hubs for international trade, investment, and innovation, attracting businesses, professionals, and cultural exchange from around the world. The concept of global cities was popularized in the late 20th century by sociologist Saskia Sassen and urban studies scholar John Friedmann. They identified certain cities as having unique characteristics that set them apart as global players in the contemporary world. Some of the most well- known global cities include New York, London, Tokyo, Hong Kong, Singapore, Paris, Dubai, and Shanghai. However, the list is continuously evolving as cities around the world compete for global prominence.  Key features of global cities include Globalization as a spatial phenomenon, Happens in physical spaces – foreign investment, economic, opportunities, and human capital- move to cities. Globalization is spatial as it is based on places. Global cities are integral to globalization as it is essential to these global cities. 1. Economic Significance: Global cities are economic powerhouses, hosting headquarters of multinational corporations, major financial institutions, and global business centers. They are crucial in facilitating international trade and investment and are often centers of innovation and entrepreneurship. 2. Cultural Diversity: Global cities are melting pots of cultures, with diverse populations representing various nationalities, ethnicities, and languages. This cultural diversity contributes to their vibrancy and cosmopolitan character. 3. Connectivity and Transportation: Global cities have excellent transportation infrastructure, including international airports, extensive public transit systems, and efficient logistics networks. They are well-connected to other cities and regions, allowing for the easy movement of people, goods, and information. 4. Knowledge and Education: Global cities are home to prestigious universities, research institutions, and think tanks. They attract scholars, students, and professionals from all over the world, fostering intellectual exchange and cutting-edge research. 5. Tourism and Hospitality: Global cities often draw a large number of tourists due to their cultural attractions, landmarks, entertainment options, and world-class hospitality services. 6. Financial Centers: Many global cities are prominent financial centers, hosting stock exchanges, investment banks, and financial services firms. They are critical in the global flow of capital and financial transactions. 7. Cultural and Creative Industries: Global cities are hubs for the arts, entertainment, media, and creative industries. They showcase a rich cultural scene and are centers for the production and dissemination of creative content. 8. Influence on Global Affairs: Global cities often have a significant impact on global affairs, as they play host to international organizations, diplomatic missions, and major global summits.  Indicators for Globality 1. Economic Power  For example New York may have the largest stock market in the world, but Tokyo houses the most number of corporate headquarters (613 company headquarters as against 217 in New York). Shanghai may have a smaller stock compared to New York and Tokyo, but it has the World’s busiest container port, moving over 33 million container units in 2013. 2. Economic opportunities in a global city make it attractive to talents from across the world London remains a preferred destination for many Filipinos with nursing degrees. 3. To measure the economic competitiveness of a city the Economist Intelligence Unit has added other criteria like market size, purchasing power of citizens, size of the middle class, and potential for growth.  Singapore is considered Asia’s most competitive city because of its strong market, efficient and incorruptible government, and livability. It also houses the regional offices of many major global corporations. 4. Global cities are also centers of authority  Washington D.C, may not be as wealthy as New York but it is the seat of American state power. Its major landmarks are the White House, the Capitol Building (Congress), Supreme Court, Lincoln Memorial, and Washington Monument. 5. The cities that house major international organization may also be considered centers of political influence  New York headquarters of United Nations  Brussels headquarters of the European Union  Jakarta not just capital of Indonesia, but also the location of the headquarters of the ASEAN 6. Finally, global cities are centers of higher learning and culture  New York City where we can find New York Times Boston where we can visit the Harvard University Los Angeles center of American film industry  Downsides in the Global City  High housing cost  Long working hours  Competitive and precarious labor market  Long commuting times  Urban anonymity and relative social isolations  A fear of strangers and crime after dark  Residential hyper mobility  Challenges of neighborliness and multiculturalism  The Global City and the Poor The rich grow richer and the poor get poorer through the egalitarianism of exchange class division widen cities become more ghettoized as the rich seal themselves off for protection while the poor become ghettoized by default. As a city attracts more capital and richer resident, real estate prices go up and poor residents to far away but cheaper areas. This phenomenon of driving out the poor in favor of newer wealthier residents is called gentrification.  Analyzing Global Cities GaWC study GaWC stands for "Globalization and World Cities." It is a research network and academic project that studies the relationships between cities and their roles in the global economy. The term "Global Cities" refers to cities that play significant roles in the interconnected world economy, acting as major hubs for finance, commerce, culture, and information exchange. The GaWC research categorizes cities into different levels based on their integration into the global economy and the extent of their influence. The ranking system classifies cities into Alpha, Beta, and Gamma categories, with Alpha++ being the highest level of global city and Gamma- being the lowest. These rankings are determined based on various factors, including economic power, financial services, cultural influence, political clout, knowledge creation, and connectivity with other global cities. The research aims to understand the complexities of the global urban network and how these cities interact to shape the dynamics of the global economy.  Global City Index Global City Index consist of indicators and parameters used to determine and measure the categories of global cities and to what extent they function as global cities. Global Cities Index uses criteria across five dimensions: 1. Business activity – presence of headquarters, services firms, number of international conferences, value of goods through ports and airports. 2. Human capital – size of foreign-born population, quality of universities, number of international schools, international student population. 3. Information exchange – accessibility of major TV news, number of international schools, international student population. 4. Cultural experience – number of sporting events, museums, performing arts venues. 5. Political engagement – number of embassies, consulates, international organizations, political conferences. Global demography under the contemporary world is a critical field of study that examines the dynamics of human populations on a global scale. It delves into the complex interplay of factors influencing population growth, distribution, and composition across different regions and countries. In the 21st century, unprecedented advances in technology, communication, and healthcare have led to significant changes in global demographics, shaping the current and future landscape of humanity. In this lesson, we shall shift our focus to a very vital and truly indispensable component of Globalization; people. Demography represents the study of statistics such as births, deaths, income, or the incidence of disease, which illustrate the changing structure of human populations and thus poses an effect on globalization on a holistic level  Patterns of Global Demographic Change The current world population of 7.2 billion is projected to increase by 1 billion over the next 12 years and reach 9.6 billion by 2050, according to a United Nations report, which points out that growth will be mainly in developing countries , with more than half in Africa. The population of the world’s 50 least-developed countries is expected to more than double by the middle of this century, with several poor countries tripling their population over the period. By contrast, the population of the developed world is expected to remain steady at around 1.2 billion, with population decline in some wealthy countries. (Bloom et.al, 2015). Global demographic patterns were characterized by several significant trends and changes. – Crude Birth and Death Rate, Global Fertility Rate, Infant and Child mortality decline, Global Life Expectancy, and working age population.  Patterns of Global Demographic Change Infant and Child mortality decline refers to the number of deaths of infants under one year of age per 1,000 live birth in a given population during a specific time period (usually a year). Child mortality typically includes deaths of children under five years old per 1,000 live births during the same time period. Global Life Expectancy refers to the average number of years a person can expect to live, assuming current mortality rates remain constant throughout their lifetime. Global life expectancy at birth had increased from 66.8 years in 2000 to 73.3 years in 2019, and healthy life expectancy increased from 58.3 years to 63.7 years. This was largely due to gains in maternal and child health, and to major investments and improvements in communicable disease programmes, such as HIV, tuberculosis and malaria. But the 2020 data shows how service disruptions contributed to an increase in deaths from tuberculosis and malaria between 2019 and 2020. Working Age Population the working-age population is defined as the group of individuals between certain age ranges who are considered to be of working age and are typically engaged in or available for employment. The specific age range defining the working-age population can vary across countries and regions. However, a common range is usually considered to be between 15 to 64 years old. The working-age population is a crucial demographic for understanding labor markets, economic productivity, and the potential workforce available to support a country's economy. It plays a significant role in shaping the labor force participation rate, unemployment rate, and overall economic growth. The baby boom generation refers to a significant increase in birth rates that occurred after World War II, mainly between the years 1946 and 1964. It is called the "baby boom" because during this period, there was a notable surge in the number of births in many countries, leading to a larger-than-usual cohort of individuals being born. The baby boom generation had a profound impact on global demography. As they reached adulthood, they contributed to significant changes in society, the economy, and various other aspects of life some key points about the baby boom generation and its impact on global demographics: Size, Economic Impact, Retirement and Healthcare, Dependency Ratios, Political Influence, Intergenerational Dynamics  Demographic Change and Its Economic Impact Demographic change is consequential with respect to economic and social development. The economic consequences of population growth, in particular, have long been the subject debate. It was first believe that population growth would lead to the exhaustion of resources. Demographic change, which includes shifts in population size, age structure, fertility rates, mortality rates, and migration patterns, has significant economic implications under global demography. These changes can influence various aspects of the economy, including labor markets, productivity, savings and investment, healthcare, and social security systems. Here are some key economic impacts of demographic change - Labor Force and Productivity, Economic Growth, Dependency Ratios, Healthcare Expenditure, Pension Systems and Social Security, Consumer Behavior and Demand, Immigration and Global Workforce, and Innovation and Entrepreneurship Some key economic impacts of demographic change I. Labor Force and Productivity: Changes in the size and age composition of the population directly affect the size and composition of the labor force. A shrinking or aging workforce may lead to labor shortages and skill gaps, potentially hampering economic productivity. Conversely, a growing and youthful workforce can boost productivity if properly educated and employed. II. Economic Growth: Demographic changes can influence economic growth rates. Rapid population growth, if accompanied by favorable policies and investments, can provide a demographic dividend, where a large proportion of the population is in the working-age group, leading to increased productivity and economic growth. On the other hand, population decline or an aging population can pose challenges to sustaining economic growth. III. Dependency Ratios: Changes in the age structure of the population affect dependency ratios, which represent the number of non-working individuals (children and the elderly) relative to the working-age population. High dependency ratios can strain social welfare systems and public finances as a larger proportion of the population relies on support from a smaller working-age population. IV. Healthcare Expenditure: Aging populations typically require more healthcare services, which can lead to increased healthcare expenditures for governments and individuals. This places additional pressure on healthcare systems, funding, and long-term care services. V. Pension Systems and Social Security: Demographic changes impact pension systems, as a growing number of retirees relative to the working-age population can strain funding. Governments may need to adjust retirement ages, contribution rates, or benefit levels to ensure the sustainability of social security systems. VI. Consumer Behavior and Demand: Changes in age structure can influence consumer behavior and demand patterns. An aging population may lead to higher demand for healthcare, leisure, and retirement-related products and services, while a youthful population may create higher demand for education and housing. VII. Immigration and Global Workforce: Migration patterns also play a significant role in demographic change and economic impact. Immigration can mitigate labor shortages and support economic growth in aging societies, but it can also raise social and political concerns. VIII. Innovation and Entrepreneurship: Demographic changes can influence innovation and entrepreneurship. Younger populations may foster a more dynamic and innovative business environment, while older populations may contribute to a more experienced and stable workforce. Thomas Malthus, perhaps the first of the population pessimists, argued that the world’s resources would be unable to keep pace with population growth. Food production would expand more slowly than population, and many would lose out in the competition for food. Malthus had a pessimistic view of demographic change and its economic impact, and his ideas are often referred to as the "Malthusian theory.“ Malthus argued that population growth tends to outpace the growth of food production, leading to a perpetual struggle between population and resources.  He proposed two main principles: I. The Principle of Population: Malthus believed that population tends to increase exponentially, whereas the growth of food production increases arithmetically. As a result, the population will eventually surpass the available resources, leading to overpopulation and its related problems. II. Checks on Population Growth: Malthus identified two types of checks that limit population growth: positive checks and preventive checks. Positive checks refer to factors such as famine, disease, and wars that increase the death rate and reduce the population. Preventive checks, on the other hand, include moral restraints (such as abstinence and delayed marriage) to reduce the birth rate and control population growth. In terms of economic impact, Malthus believed that overpopulation and resource scarcity would result in poverty, misery, and social unrest. He argued that as the population expanded, the demand for resources would increase, leading to higher prices and a decrease in the standard of living for the majority of the population. In his view, efforts to alleviate poverty and improve the well-being of the poor would be futile in the long run because any increase in prosperity would lead to higher birth rates, further exacerbating the population- resource imbalance.  Population Neutralism Population neutralism, also known as population stabilization or population stability, is a concept in global demography that advocates for maintaining a stable population size over time. The goal of population neutralism is to achieve a balance between birth rates and death rates, ensuring that the number of births equals the number of deaths, resulting in zero population growth. In other words, population growth by itself has no effect on economic performance. Other factors such as openness to trade, educational attainment and the quality of institutions determine whether economic progress can keep pace with population expansion. Although fast-growing populations tend to experience slower economic growth, when these other factors are taken into account, the negative impact of population expansion disappears. In the Philippines, the advocates of the controversial Reproductive Health Law argues that if the population of the country could be checked using policy measures such as RH Law, then progress and development can be easier attained. The Reproductive Health Law, officially known as the Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012, is a controversial piece of legislation in the Philippines. It was signed into law on December 21, 2012, after a long and contentious debate. The law aims to provide universal access to family planning and reproductive health services, information, and education to all citizens, with a particular focus on marginalized Consumer Markets: Changes in population size, age structure, and income levels impact consumer markets globally. Growing middle-class populations in emerging economies can create new opportunities for businesses to access and serve larger consumer bases, fostering globalization of products and services. Aging Population and Social Services: The aging population in many advanced economies is influencing global trade patterns. The demand for healthcare, pharmaceuticals, and senior care services is increasing, creating new trade opportunities for countries specializing in these sectors. Health and Pandemics: Global demographic changes can influence the spread of infectious diseases and the demand for healthcare products and services. Population size, density, and age distribution can impact the severity and transmission of pandemics, affecting global health and economic interconnectedness  END "Midterms are not a test of your intelligence, but a test of your discipline, perseverance, and preparation.“ Prepared by: Derek Verzosa MPA LPT