Midterm Study Sheet PDF

Midterm Study Sheet **Introduction - Week 1** - [Feudiam/Monarchs -] Kings and emperors who believed that God or a higher power had appointed them to rule the people of the area - **[Liberal Democracy -] A form of democracy in which the power of government is limited, and the free...

Midterm Study Sheet **Introduction - Week 1** - [Feudiam/Monarchs -] Kings and emperors who believed that God or a higher power had appointed them to rule the people of the area - **[Liberal Democracy -] A form of democracy in which the power of government is limited, and the freedom and rights of individuals are protected, by constitutionally established norms and institutions (wants to give power to the people)** - **Think of socialism as the freedom of individuals.** - **[Socialism/Social Democracy -] Social and economic doctrine that calls for public rather than private ownership or control of property and natural resources. According to this view, individuals do not live or work in isolation but live in cooperation with one another.** - **Marxism - The political and economic theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, later developed by their followers to form the basis for the theory and practices of communism** - **Communism (Russia) - Advocating class war and leading to a society in which all property is publicly owned and each person works and is paid according to their abilities and needs** - [Fascism (another version of Freudian/monarchs) -] Fascism is a far-right form of government in which most of the country's power is held by one ruler or a small group (e.g. Hitler and the Nazis). Fascist governments are usually totalitarian and authoritarian one-party states. - **[Nationalism -] the idea that the nation belonged to the people, who therefore should be ready to rise to defend the nation as the French had done. Not only should the people rule, but governments and people should speak the same language. In fostering patriotism and citizen participation, nationalism could help to foster democratic politics. However, in many places, it also led to bloody conflicts.** - **[Liberalism -] Classical liberalism aimed to free the individual intellectually through freedom of thought and expression, politically through constitutional government with guaranteed individual rights, and economically through unregulated free enterprise and free trade.** - **[Imperialism -] a policy of extending a country's power and influence through diplomacy or military force. Ruled by an emperor** - [Dreyfus Affair (1894-1906) -] At the end of 1894, French Army Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a graduate of the French Polytech School and a Jew of Alsatian origin, was accused of handling secret documents to the Imperial German military. Much of the early publicity surrounding the case came from anti-Semitic groups, to whom Dreyfus symbolized the supposed disloyalty of French Jews. - [Global Interrelatedness -] World history is a pattern of global interconnectedness, which has grown and tightened over time at an accelerating pace. Understanding world history requires analyzing the pattern. - **Ecological Imperialism - the concept of the expansion of European powers and their impact on the environment during the colonial era** - **Transported living organisms that carried disease pathogens that caused an Afro-Eurasian biological complex** - **Spread smallpox, measles, diphtheria, chickenpox, bubonic plague, and influenza.** - **The impact of ecological imperialism in the Americas and Australasia helped the establishment of European economic and political domination in those regions. The disease-induced mortality in the local culture helped Europeans ensure dominance.** - The greatest technological advance since the invention of agriculture was the industrial revolution with breakthroughs in the late eighteenth century that mechanized cotton textile production, made the steam engine more reliable, and many more. These led to many other inventions possible. - The period 1914--1991 was filled with the multiphased terminal crises (WWI, the Depression, and WW2) of this European-dominated system and with signs of what may be a new system emerging. - The most important sequel to the passing of European dominance was the emergence of two new powers of much larger scale: the United States and the Soviet Union, which emerged out of the Bolshevik Revolution. - For four decades after 1945, many analysts thought the rivalry between the two nuclear superpowers in itself defined the pattern of global interrelatedness. - As each superpower sought to win allies, it appeared for a time as if a new system of the United States and its democratic, capitalist allies made up the "free world"; the Soviet Union and other socialist states formed the "socialist bloc"; and the rest of the world postcolonial emerged. - **[Social Darwinism and Racist Nationalism]** - - - - - - [The Challenge of Democracy -] In 1871, **democracy (meaning the equal right of every individual regardless of race, wealth, or social status to cast a vote in the choice of those who governed)** was limited in Europe to Switzerland, and even there women had no vote. - Between 1870 and 1914, the **franchise (the right to vote)** was gradually extended to wider and wider categories of the male European populations---the various restrictions based on occupations, wealth, or residence that had been removed except gender. - As countries introduced compulsory elementary school education It became harder to deny the vote to a mass society, none of whose members, whatever their wealth, was no longer completely lacking in education. **Imperialism & Africa - Week 2** - **[Tools of Empire:] Weapons (e.g. Guns), Medicine, Transport (e.g. Trains, Steam Engines), Communication (e.g. Telegraph, Underground Cables)** - **[Motivations for New Imperialism] (Why white men thought they could control African people?):** - - - - [1884 Conference in Berlin -] Trying to figure out rules (you must actively control the land and can not just claim land) to avoid conflicts among themselves when taking over Africa and have "effective control". - **[Indirect Rule -] a system of government of one nation by another in which the governed people retain certain administrative, legal, and other powers.** - **The warrant chief system emanated as a matter of necessity from the lack of preexisting chieftaincy traditions in some parts of Africa.** There were parts of British colonial territories, such as the Igbo region of eastern Nigeria, which had no tradition of chieftaincy intuitions. - Depending on whether there were local rulers who could be taken under \"protectorate\" and tied into a colonial hierarchy with only a few Europeans at the top. I**n some cases, local rulers became corrupt petty tyrants due to the lack of control by the European administrators**. - [Spanish-American War -] Started in Cuba because Americans hoped to give the Cuban and Filipino people independence from Spanish rule. - Once they gained independence from the Spanish rule it fell under the American rule because they saw themselves as better than and needed to control/"help" other people especially to make them more manly. - [Adaptations of African Peoples:] - African peoples can be classified based on how they adapt to their environments and obtain food. - Four adaptations are distinguished: agriculture, pastoralism, fishing, and hunting and gathering. - Africa has over eight hundred languages, belonging to five language families with common structural traits indicating a common origin. - [Key Characteristics -] African societies shared two key characteristics that had significant implications for the 20th century. - **Firstly, ethnic and kinship divisions made it challenging to achieve large-scale political integration.** - **Secondly, Africa\'s limited exposure to European expansionism until the late 19th century led to specific problems.** - [African Integration into European Control -] the slave trade played a significant role in Africa's integration into the Europe-centered global pattern. T**he European export of African slaves rapidly expanded as Europeans introduced the plantation system of agriculture in the Americas**. - It is estimated that around **12 million slaves** were exported to the Americas, primarily from West and Central Africa, with many perishing during the journey. - [Colonial Role -] - **Settler colonies allowed political participation for white people but few rights for Africans.** - **In peasant colonies, European administrators focused on administration rather than political participation and rarely allowed Africans to be involved in politics**. - The economic impact of colonial rule was detrimental, as African prosperity relied on single-crop agriculture or exports of raw materials produced by mining, with highly unequal working conditions for Africans and whites. This led to what is referred to as \"the development of underdevelopment\" by radical critics. - The African response to European imperialism took various forms, including armed resistance and accommodation. Ethiopia successfully defended itself against imperialism in 1896 but fell to Mussolini in 1935. - **[Nigeria -]** Is Africa's most populous state and one of its most important. They speak several languages, - Under British rule, the economy shifted towards the sea, and the slave trade gave way to legitimate trade. - The British government took over the trading company in 1900 and reorganized the country into the Lagos Colony and separate Northern and Southern Protectorates. - Governor Lugard implemented the indirect rule to govern the regions. - **[Development Under the British -] The introduction of a uniform monetary system and the expansion of trade, facilitated by the railway, transformed the country.** - Missionary education also brought about cultural and administrative shifts. However, progress slowed between the world wars, with limited industrialization and low per capita incomes. - [The Rise of Nigerian Nationalism -] In 1920, **a political association called the National Congress of British West Africa was formed, representing Gambia, Sierra Leone, Gold Coast (now Ghana), and Nigeria. They demanded an end to racial discrimination in civil service appointments, control of specific administrative functions, and the establishment of a university in West Africa.** - Small concessions were made, such as the elective Lagos town council in 1920 and the inclusion of elected African representatives in the legislative councils of Nigeria, Sierra Leone, and the Gold Coast in the years that followed. This led to the rapid formation of political parties in Lagos and the emergence of newspapers to support these parties. - [South Africa: A History Of Two Struggles -] **The history of South Africa was shaped by two main struggles:** - **The first was between the British and the Afrikaners for political control** - **The second was between Europeans and Africans.** - [The Union of South Africa: Politics and Economy] - **The Boer War** led to the unification of South Africa in 1910. The Afrikaners gained political control, while the rights of nonwhites were reduced. The economy shifted from mining to industrial self-sufficiency. - **The National Party was formed in 1913 to oppose ties to Great Britain and enforce racial segregation.** Several laws were passed to restrict African landownership, control movements, and impose residential segregation. These laws laid the groundwork for apartheid. Several milestones measure changes in racial policy. - The Native Land Act of 1913 confined African landownership to native reserves, which were based on former chiefdoms and contained only 7 percent of the land for 78 percent of the population. - A system of passes controlled Africans' movements elsewhere in the country. - The Native Urban Areas Act of 1923 imposed residential segregation. - The Native Representation Act of 1936 effectively removed Africans in the Cape Province from the common voter rolls. Thereafter, Africans in each province voted separately to select whites to represent them in parliament. - Another law of 1936 enlarged the native reserves, but only to 13 percent of the country's land surface while extending segregation elsewhere. - To reduce white unemployment, special laws barred nonwhites from better jobs (the "color bar"). The doctrine of apartheid ("apart-ness") had not yet been proclaimed as such, but its bases were in place. - [Nonwhite Responses to the Consolidation of White Supremacy -] For nonwhites, political developments between 1910 and 1948 meant a steady erosion of rights, against which protest proved less and less effective. - In 1912, the South African Native National Congress was formed. Its name was shortened in 1923 to the African National Congress (ANC), and it is still the most influential political organization among South African blacks. Influenced by South Africa's pass system in operation. - Alfred Xuma, a U.S.-educated physician, became president of the ANC in 1940 and broadened it into a mass movement of national scope and toppled Xuma from ANC leadership in 1949. - The ANC and the many other political organizations that emerged during the interwar years all faced common problems. - - **The Great War - Week 3** **Why Ottoman Empire was so important before WW1?** - **Muslim empire was run by a sultan (who controlled the government and religion)** - **Controlled the knowledge of Ancient Egypt** - **Longest-lasting empire at the time** - **Germany and Egypt were used to contract the difference between modern technology (Germany) and the three-level government controlled by the British (Egypt)** Germany helped the Sultan to build a railway and became more modernized. Russia was controlled by the tsar and it was not modernized because they controlled everything in Russia (No middle class or modern things) **What family controlled each Empire?** - **Habsburg Family: Austria-Hungary and Spain** - Everybody had different beliefs and languages but was under the control of the same empire and still had nationalism. - Created parliaments in Austria and Hungary so the people feel represented because the government in that parliament has the same language and culture - **Winsor Family: British Empire** - **Hohenzollern Family: German Empire** - **Romanov: Russian Empire** [Causes of World War 1] - **Austria-Hungary wanted to go into Serbia and get the "bad guys". Serbia said they couldn\'t come into the country but they would look for them and arrest themselves. War is declared between Austria-Hungary and Serbia.** - The Austrian government suspected that Princip\'s terrorist group, the Black Hand, had support from the head of intelligence in Serbia. As a result, Austria-Hungary threatened and then declared war on Serbia. This led to other major European powers joining the war, making it the most costly war the world had seen at that time. - **The idea of South Slav nationalism inspired the assassination of the Prince in Austria-Hungary.** - **Causes of war; Militarism, Nationalism, patriotism, social Darwinism, and [alliances]** - Leaders believed that in a conflict, the first country to abandon its allies would be the ultimate loser. A weak or disloyal ally would soon find itself with no allies at all. - **Europe was divided into two combinations of great powers: the [Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria, and Italy and the Triple Entente of France, Russia, and Britain.]** [ ] - **Alliances made it easier to go to war.** The more aggressive partners were reckless because they relied on allied help. The less aggressive partners were afraid to hold back their allies for fear of appearing unreliable and ending up alone in the next crisis. - The rulers of Austria-Hungary felt confident in attacking Serbia because they believed they had the support of Germany. - Germany had given Austria-Hungary the freedom to handle the Serbian issue as they saw fit. - When Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, Russia began mobilizing its forces. Tsar (Ruler of Russia) Nicholas II wanted to go to war only with Austria-Hungary, but his military experts said that wasn\'t possible. They told him he had two choices: stay at peace or go to war on all fronts. - Germany thought they could defeat France before moving on to fight Russia - **They had created a "death zone" which was trenches lining the whole country from the ocean to Switzerland (western front)** - They would shoot anybody that walked towards the trenches and the offense had just kept lining up and walking toward it. - **[Militarism;] the belief or desire of a government or people that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or promote national interests.** - Militarism dominated Europe, with military influence deeply embedded in decision-making. - Most European leaders, except the French president, wore military uniforms to symbolize the high status of soldiers and generals. Generals and military leaders were closely allied with industry and finance, creating a \"military-industrial complex\" that fueled military expansion. - **Armament (military weapons and equipment)** buildups were framed as defensive but often increased tensions. - In 1914, the public and political leaders underestimated the scale of a modern war. People greeted the declarations of war with enthusiasm, seeing it as a test of national strength. - Social conflicts and domestic tensions had been building within European nations, leading to strikes and unrest. Many saw war as a unifying force and a way to divert attention from internal crises. - Neither the public nor the statesmen anticipated the devastation of the war, which eventually led to two major conflicts that ended Europe's global dominance. - People from colonies would be brought in to build the trenches because they were expendable. - **The collapse of Europe's world dominance began with an assassination in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914. Gavrilo Princip, a nineteen-year-old terrorist, shot and killed Archduke (Prince of the imperial family of Austria) Franz Ferdinand and his wife, which ultimately led to significant geopolitical changes.** - The conflict between Serbia and the Austro-Hungarian Empire turned into a world war because European leaders believed that their countries\' safety relied on having strong alliances. [Consequences of WW! ] - Approximately **10 million young men were killed** and 20 million were left disabled. In France, over 1.3 million men died. - Civilians also suffered significant casualties, with millions dying from malnutrition in Germany due to the British blockade and in Russia where the economy was unable to handle the demands of war and normal needs. - Governments increased their control over citizens to mobilize resources, setting a precedent for future crisis management. - The war\'s enormous costs strained the global economy for generations. - This led to the rise of communism in Russia and helped Adolf Hitler come to power in Germany. [The Multinational Empire ] - **Austria-Hungary was a diverse state with people from many ethnic groups.** - Some of the groups felt mistreated by the dominant Austrians and Hungarians. By the 20th century, their desire for independence was fueled by events on the empire\'s borders and the emergence of independent nations like Italy for oppressed ethnic groups. - In Vienna, there was fear that a rebellion by an ethnic minority could lead to the end of the empire. - The concern was that Serbia could support the South Slavs within the empire, leading to unrest. - The assassination of the archduke was seen as an attempt to spark a war that would destroy the Austro-Hungarian Empire. - The Austro-Hungarian government took the assassination as a historic opportunity to eliminate the Serbian influence. [Nationalism and interdependence ] - **World War I was fueled by nationalism, people identified more as French, Germans, or Russians rather than Europeans. Global interdependence was rising, but national self-preservation remained the dominant goal.** - Some international institutions and movements, like the International Office of Public Health, global trade unions, and the International Court of Arbitration, emerged before the war, but nationalism overshadowed these efforts. - Education systems across Europe reinforced nationalism and patriotism. Universal conscription prepared young men for military service, further strengthening nationalist sentiment. [Battlefronts, 1914-1918 ] - **The Ottomans threatened British interests and defeated British forces in key battles, but internal issues, including the Armenian massacres, led to their collapse.** - Britain's naval blockade crippled Germany, which retaliated with submarine warfare, eventually drawing the U.S. into the conflict. On land, the war became a prolonged stalemate, with trench warfare leading to massive casualties. - **1917: The Turning Point** - **Russia withdrew from the war, and the U.S. entered on the side of the Entente (France, Russia, and Britain). Germany's decision to resume unrestricted submarine warfare and its failed attempt to provoke Mexico quickened U.S. involvement.** - Despite early German advances in 1918, the combined forces of the Entente, reinforced by U.S. troops, led to Germany's defeat. The collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and internal German rebellion forced the Kaiser to flee, and Germany signed an agreement on November 11, 1918. [Home Fronts, 1914-1918] - World War I impacted both soldiers and civilians, with everyone expected to contribute to the national effort. - Factories, farms, and shops became part of the war front, and governments controlled citizens\' lives to support the war effort. - **The war introduced unprecedented levels of government control, setting precedents for future governance.** - **Government Power** - **The war expanded government roles, creating emergency powers and reducing parliamentary control in countries like Britain and France.** - **Germany developed a system called \"war socialism\" with strict economic control, rationing, and government intervention.** - **Economic Impact** - **Governments raised taxes, sold bonds, and printed money to finance the war, leading to inflation.** - **Postwar economies faced severe financial strain, with governments in debt and citizens experiencing a reduced standard of living.** - **Social Changes** - **The war provided new opportunities for marginalized groups, including women and African Americans, by opening up jobs traditionally held by men.** - **Trade unions gained recognition, but economic disparities deepened, leading to strikes and discontent.** - **Long-Term Effects: The war accelerated trends such as government authority, corporate power, and social mobility, but also intensified class tensions.** **Russian/Bolshevik Revolution & Communist Manifesto - Week 3** **[Liberalism -] Willingness to respect or accept behavior or opinions from one's own; openness to new ideas. A political and social philosophy that promotes individual rights, civil liberties, democracy, and free enterprise** **[Capitalism -] An economic and political system in which private owners control a country's trade and industry for profit. It allows the opportunity for wealth but also creates more proletariat.** **[Socialism -] A political and economic theory of social organization that advocates that the means of production, distribution, and exchange should be owned or regulated by the community as a whole** **[Communism -] A political theory derived from Karl Marx, advocating class war and leading to a society in which all property is publicly owned and each person works and is paid according to their abilities and needs.** **[Marxism -] The political and economic theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels were later developed by their followers to form the basis for the theory and practice of communism. Class conflict** - **[Marxist-Leninism:] holds that a two-stage communist revolution is needed to replace capitalism. A vanguard party, organized through democratic centralism, would seize power on behalf of the proletariat and establish a one-party socialist state, called the dictatorship of the proletariat. The Bolshevik Revolution aimed to liberate Russians by applying this theory. Marx saw global imperialistic capitalism as a cause for an international revolution. Lenin adapted Marxism for Russia, where industrial workers were a small minority, advocating for a tightly controlled party to lead the proletariat in a \"democratic centralism.\"** **[Bolshevism/Bolsheviks -] committed in principle to destroying the social and economic bases of the European-dominated system worldwide.** - **The Bolsheviks combined a globalist ideology with an effective model of leadership, organization, and mass mobilization.** - **This combination inspired imitation in other countries, though it was not widely adopted enough to prevent eventual Soviet failure.** [Russia 1905 -] Duma and the Soviets are created. T**he Duma is an elective body and a parliament chamber. Soviet means council and it was an autonomous workers movement.** - Tsar outlawed the Soviets and controlled the Duma so he still had full control over everything in Russia. [Russia 1912] - **Nicholas II: Nicholas II was the last tsar of Russia. He was deposed during the Russian Revolution and executed by the Bolsheviks.** - **Kerensky: was a moderate socialist revolutionary who served as head of the Russian provisional government from July to October 1917** - **Karl Marx: is best known for his theories that led to the development of Marxism. His ideas also served as the basis for communism.** - **Vladimir Lenin: was the founder of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks), inspirer and leader of the Bolshevik Revolution (1917), and the architect, builder, and first head (1917--24) of the Soviet state.** - It has a small number of factories that are out there and controlled by France, As well if you opposed the Tsar in any way you were risking exile, imprisonment, or execution. [Society and Politics ] - Russian society remained socially and economically backward into the 20th century, with a predominantly peasant population and an autocratic regime. Peasants, often illiterate and land-poor, had a history of endurance and periodic violent rebellions. - Russia's small middle class developed slowly, and political liberals sought a constitutional monarchy, though many intellectuals believed revolution was the only. - In 1861, the tsar emancipated the serfs, not out of humanitarian concern, but for economic reasons, aiming to modernize agriculture and increase grain exports. - By the late 19th century, Russia had become a significant grain exporter, even during famines, financing industrialization largely through food exports and foreign loans. - Russia's industrial output doubled between 1900 and 1913, but its per capita income lagged far behind major industrial powers like the U.S. and Germany. - **Industrialization led to severe social consequences: the peasantry was heavily taxed, and workers in rapidly growing cities faced long hours, poor conditions, and no legal means to protest.** - Marxism gained influence among urban workers, leading to increasing unrest. - **Bloody Sunday (1905) marked a turning point when a peaceful petition to Tsar Nicholas II resulted in a massacre, triggering the 1905 Revolution. The 1905 Revolution revealed widespread dissatisfaction across Russian society, but it was ultimately a precursor to the 1917 Revolution. In response to the revolution, Tsar Nicholas II reluctantly made concessions, including establishing a parliament (Duma) and a constitution.** - Military defeat in the Russo-Japanese War (1904--1905) further exposed the tsarist regime's incompetence and discredited the government. - However, the tsar soon withdrew most of these reforms, leaving the Duma powerless and the autocracy intact. - By the onset of World War I, Russia remained an autocracy with a rigged electoral system, and the grievances of the middle class, workers, and peasants were unresolved. [Lenin's Russia 1917 ] - The outbreak of World War I exposed the regime's failings even further. The Russian government struggled to mobilize the country for total war, mismanaging the home front and military alike. - Nicholas II's decision to personally command the army only worsened the situation, and the influence of Rasputin over the royal family further eroded the government's credibility. - By 1917, widespread discontent, combined with food shortages, led to riots in Petrograd, where soldiers refused to fire on rioters and instead joined them. **Nicholas II was forced to abdicate in March 1917.** [The Provisional Government and Lenin's Return] - **After the tsar\'s abdication, the Provisional Government, composed of Duma liberals, came to power, but it quickly became unpopular.** - It was committed to continuing Russia's involvement in World War I, even as soldiers deserted the front, and grassroots democracy emerged through soviets (workers\' and soldiers\' councils) that challenged the government's authority. - Vladimir Lenin saw an opportunity and, with the help of Germany, returned to Russia in April 1917. He called for an end to the war, redistribution of land, and food for the cities, encapsulated in his slogan **"Peace, Land, and Bread."** - **Lenin's Bolshevik faction, representing the Soviets, advocated for an immediate revolution, unlike the Mensheviks, who believed Russia needed further industrialization before a proletarian revolution.** [The Bolshevik Revolution (October/November 1917)] - Lenin's message resonated with the masses, and by November 1917, Bolshevik influence in the Soviets had surged. **The Provisional Government, weakened by internal divisions and external threats, was easily overthrown in the October Revolution.** - The Bolsheviks, though a minority, seized power, capturing key government buildings in Petrograd with little resistance. Lenin had successfully turned his radical vision into reality. [Lenin's Policies and Civil War] - After coming to power, Lenin made peace with Germany through the **Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918), surrendering much of Russia's territory and population.** - **Lenin abolished private land ownership, seized food from peasants to feed the cities, and nationalized industries and banks in what became known as \"War Communism.\"** - **These measures, combined with the brutal methods of the secret police and the execution of the tsar's family, led to widespread disillusionment.** - **The Bolshevik regime fought a bloody civil war (1918--1921) against \"White\" counterrevolutionary forces and foreign intervention. Despite these challenges, the Red Army, led by Leon Trotsky, prevailed.** [New Economic Policy (NEP) and Consolidation of Power] - By 1921, Russia's economy was in ruins. To stabilize the situation, **Lenin introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP), which reintroduced elements of free enterprise in agriculture and retail trade while maintaining state control over heavy industry.** - Politically, Lenin maintained strict control. **The Communist Party became the sole governing body of the newly formed Soviet Union in 1922**, crushing any opposition. - Lenin regretted that the revolution had led to a one-party dictatorship rather than a truly egalitarian society. However, he laid the foundation for the authoritarian police state that his successor, Joseph Stalin, would fully realize. [Legacy of Lenin and Bolshevism] - Lenin's success in capitalizing on the war-weariness, land hunger, and economic chaos of 1917 allowed the Bolsheviks to take power. However, the methods required to achieve and maintain that power re-created the very authoritarianism the revolution had sought to overthrow. - This paradox---a revolution for freedom creating a dictatorship---helps explain why communism ultimately failed in Russia decades later. The Bolshevik vision of the future only briefly aligned with the aspirations of most Russians, and force became the means of turning that vision into reality. - Marx envisioned global proletarian revolutions in industrialized nations. - The first communist victory occurred in largely peasant Russia, not through a workers' revolution but via a party dictatorship. - There was no clear Marxist plan for handling a revolution in such conditions. - Lenin's death in 1924 left no clear successor, leading to internal conflict within the Communist Party. - Two main factions emerged: - **Leon Trotsky: Advocated for \*permanent revolution\* and spreading communism internationally.** - **Joseph Stalin: Proposed \*Socialism in One Country\*, focusing on internal development.** - Stalin, son of a cobbler and former serfs, came from a rural Georgian background, unlike the intellectual Bolsheviks. - His control of the Communist Party's bureaucratic apparatus as General Secretary allowed him to outmaneuver rivals. - By 1927, Stalin had consolidated power, ending internal party debate and eliminating opposition. - Stalin's doctrine focused on building socialism in the USSR alone, rather than waiting for international revolutions. - This approach was a pragmatic response to Russia's economic backwardness and isolation. - The policy emphasized rapid industrialization, agricultural collectivization, and political consolidation under Stalin. [Impact on the Communist Party and the Revolution] - **The 1927 party congress banned deviations from Stalin's party line, silencing opposition and driving many old Bolsheviks into exile or retirement.** - Some saw the revolution as ending in a dictatorship under Stalin, similar to previous revolutions' outcomes. - **Stalin's rise marked a shift from the original Bolshevik ideals to a highly centralized, authoritarian regime.** - His policies of internal focus laid the foundation for one of the most repressive regimes in modern history. [Nationalism vs. Class Struggle] - **Nationalism, which was prevalent in countries resisting Soviet influence, opposed Marxist globalism by emphasizing the unique identity of individual peoples.** - In colonial and semi-colonial societies, nationalism was the primary force uniting people against foreign imperialism, often in national liberation struggles rather than Marxist revolutions. - Nationalist unity was seen as crucial for defeating colonial powers, whereas Marxist class conflict could divide these movements. [Overall Impact] - The Bolshevik Revolution provided a powerful model of revolution but did not dominate the overall trajectory of 20th-century history. - This idea will be further explored by comparing the paths of Mexico and India, which did not adopt the Soviet model, with China, which did. [Communist Manifesto] 1. [Historical Materialism:] History is defined by class struggles and conflict between oppressor and oppressed. 2. [Class Struggle:] The modern epoch simplifies class antagonism into two main classes: - **the \*\*bourgeoisie\*\* (owners of the means of production)** - **the \*\*proletariat\*\* (working class).** - These two classes are locked in opposition, with the bourgeoisie exploiting the proletariat for labor. 3. **[Rise of the Bourgeoisie:] The bourgeoisie arose from the ruins of feudal society, becoming the dominant class through control of commerce and industrial capital. They transformed society, promoting urbanization and creating centralized nation-states while dissolving feudal ties.** 4. [Expansion of Capitalism:] Capitalism, driven by the bourgeoisie, rapidly transformed the world, connecting distant regions and creating a global economy. It commodifies everything, from labor to natural resources, leading to constant innovation but also instability. 5. [Crisis of Capitalism]: The capitalist system is inherently unstable and subject to periodic crises (overproduction, economic downturns), and these crises intensify over time. - The very forces that expand capitalism also create its weaknesses. 6. **[Proletariat Revolution]: Marx argues that the proletariat, as the oppressed class, will eventually overthrow the bourgeoisie. The growth of the working class, their increasing poverty, and their collective awareness of their exploitation will lead to revolutionary change.** 7. [End of Class Struggle:] The proletarian revolution will r**esult in the abolition of private property and class distinctions, ending all forms of exploitation. This will pave the way for a classless, stateless society---communism.** 8. [Global Implications:] Marx emphasizes that the revolution must be global, as capitalism is a global system. The working class of all nations has the common goal of overthrowing the bourgeoisie. **Versailles 1919 & The Middle East - Week 4** **[Woodrow Wilson\'s Fourteen Points Summarized]** - **Open diplomacy without secret treaties** - **Economic free trade on the seas during war and peace** - **Equal trade conditions** - **Decrease armaments among all nations** - **Adjust colonial claims** - **Evacuation of all Central Powers from Russia and allowing it to define its independence** - **Belgium to be evacuated and restored** - **Return of Alsace-Lorraine region and all French territories** - **Readjust Italian borders** - **Austria-Hungary to be provided an opportunity for self-determination** - **Redraw the borders of the Balkan region creating Roumania, Serbia, and Montenegro** - **Creation of a Turkish state with guaranteed free trade in the Dardanelles** - **Creation of an independent Polish state** - **Creation of the League of Nations** [The Paris Peace Conference (1919):] The conference aimed to draft peace treaties following World War I, with high hopes for a just resolution. U.S. President Woodrow Wilson was a central figure, in promoting moral principles in international politics. [Colonial Issues Post-War:] European powers exploited their colonies for war resources, leading to increased nationalism among non-Western peoples. Non-Western nationalists expected support for self-determination at the conference but were largely ignored. Territories taken from Germany and the Ottoman Empire were designated as \"mandates,\" with little change in actual colonial governance. [Impact on Colonial Rule:] Post-war disillusionment led many colonized nations to seek alternatives, including revolutionary ideas from Russia. Nationalist movements in regions like Egypt and India gained momentum, demanding self-governance and challenging colonial authority. [The Peace Treaties:] Five treaties were produced, including the Treaty of Versailles, which dealt harshly with Germany. New nations emerged from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, but many faced ethnic conflicts and economic challenges. The treaties did not resolve underlying tensions, and many new states were ill-prepared for self-governance. [The German Question:] Debates arose over how to handle Germany, with some advocating for harsh penalties and others for moderation. The Treaty of Versailles represented a compromise, imposing unacceptable terms on Germany without fully crippling it, which contributed to future conflicts. [Disintegration of Alliances:] Wartime alliances tend to dissolve after achieving their objectives, leading to the marginalization of smaller nations at the Paris Peace Conference. [The Big Three Leaders:] Major decisions were made by - **President Wilson (U.S.),** - Wilson advocated for a moral approach and the establishment of the League of Nations. - **Prime Minister Clemenceau (France),** - Clemenceau prioritized French security against German aggression, - **Prime Minister Lloyd George (Britain)** [Treaty of Versailles]: The treaty imposed harsh penalties on Germany, including military restrictions and high reparations, which contradicted the principle of self-determination. [Economic Consequences:] The reparations were excessively high, leading to economic hardship in Germany and highlighting the interdependence of national economies. **[The Middle East]** - Unlike India, most of the Middle East avoided direct European rule until World War I, but the region was significant to European colonial interests due to its position as a prime source of Asian goods before 1500. [Impact of European Revolutions (Post-1800):] The industrial and political revolutions in Europe provoked nationalist revolts in the Ottoman Empire\'s Balkan provinces, such as Greece and Serbia, and widespread economic changes. - The Ottoman--British free-trade treaty of 1838 led the Ottomans into debt and foreign financial control by 1881. Despite this, the Ottoman Empire made reform efforts, laying the groundwork for the future Turkish Republic. - European powers sometimes allied with the Ottoman Empire, such as during the Crimean War, but more often referred to it as the \"sick man of Europe,\" seizing territories when convenient (France in Algeria and Tunisia, Britain in Cyprus and Egypt). - Iran faced even greater difficulties due to a weaker government, leading to foreign influence from Russia and Britain after the 1905--1911 constitutional revolution. By 1900, both the Ottoman Empire and Iran had lost much of their independence. [Political Fragmentation and the Drive for National Independence] - European control grew stronger after WW1 as they divided the territories of the Ottoman Empire. - Many Middle Easterners have since sought to recreate unities of larger scale, such as historically prevailed in the Middle East and the other great Asian centers of civilization. - As this struggle began, European control proved less solid in some places than at first appeared. [Iran] - World War I Impact: Iran declared neutrality but suffered from occupation and fighting. - British Influence Post-War: After the war, Britain sought to make Iran a protectorate through a 1919 treaty, but it was abandoned due to opposition. - Reza Khan\'s Rise: Military officer Reza Khan emerged as Shah in 1925, founding the Pahlavi dynasty and introducing significant modernization (army, education, railways), but also despotism. - British-Soviet Occupation: In 1941, Reza Shah was forced to abdicate when the British and Soviets occupied Iran to support Soviet war efforts. His son, Muhammad Reza Shah, succeeded him. [Ottoman Empire:] - World War I Consequences: The Ottoman Empire sided with Germany, and the British began planning its disintegration. Britain encouraged Arab independence but also aligned with the Zionist movement through the 1917 Balfour Declaration, promising a \"national home for the Jewish people\" in the Treaty of Sèvres (1920): - This treaty divided the Ottoman Empire\'s territories, giving control to Britain and France. Syria and Lebanon were assigned to France, while Iraq and Palestine (now Israel and Jordan) were assigned to Britain. [Turkey:] - Turkish Nationalist Movement: Led by Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk), the nationalist movement emerged after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. By 1922, they succeeded in preventing the division of Turkish territory and declared a republic in 1923. - He came out on top when they created the treaty to end the Ottoman Empire - The Republic of Turkey gained more land because they went to war, as well they stopped being Islamic controlled, and was modernizing Turkey by giving women more rights and schooling - Westernization and Reform: Turkey underwent revolutionary reforms, including the abolition of Islamic institutions and the adoption of secular laws, Western dress, and a new educational system. Women were given the right to vote, and the Turkish language was reformed with the adoption of the Latin alphabet. - Economic Reforms: Turkey introduced central planning for economic development in 1933, focusing on industrialization and infrastructure, which improved the economy. - Political Mobilization: Atatürk established the Republican People\'s Party and promoted political mobilization, democracy, and citizenship. In 1950, Turkey transitioned to a multi-party democracy. [Egypt:] - Nationalism and British Occupation: Egyptian nationalism predated the British occupation of 1882, and anti-British sentiments resurfaced in the 1890s. In 1919, the Egyptian Revolution occurred, leading Britain to declare Egypt independent under a constitutional monarchy in 1922--1923. - Limited Independence: Despite independence, Britain retained significant control, and full independence only came in 1936. However, during World War II, British control undermined Egypt's sovereignty. - Nasser's Leadership: Gamal Abdel Nasser emerged as the leader of a new independence push in 1952. [Palestine:] - Mandate System: After World War I, Palestine became a British mandate under the League of Nations. It contained two conflicting communities: Zionist Jews (seeking a homeland) and Palestinian Arabs (gradually developing nationalism). - Arab-Zionist Conflict: Tensions between Jewish immigrants and Palestinian Arabs escalated, culminating in the Arab Revolt of 1936--1939. Britain struggled to satisfy both communities and by World War II, Jewish resentment towards British policy grew. - Post-War Conflict: After World War II, Britain could no longer manage Palestine and handed it over to the United Nations. This led to the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, followed by armed conflict with Arab states. **[Other Needed Information]** - War Socialism: War Socialism by General Erich Ludendorff, a prominent proponent of the system. In War Socialism, the militarized state exercised controls and regulations over the entire economy. - In Germany, the War Socialist economy was operated by conservative military men and industrialists, who had historically been hostile to socialism. - Its goal was to maximize war production and to control worker discontent that was growing amongst the organized labor movement. - Dialectical Materialism: is defined as a scientific theory emphasizing the relative nature of theories about matter\'s structure and properties, highlighting the continuous transformation of matter from one state to another without absolute boundaries in nature. - Argues that material and economic conditions explain societal development. Thus, the development of ideas and institutions is directly linked to conflict and interaction in the physical world. - League of Nations: The League of Nations was an international organization, headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, created after the First World War to provide a forum for resolving international disputes. - German Parties - Weimar Republic: officially known as the German Reich, was a historical period of Germany from 9 November 1918 to 23 March 1933, during which it was a constitutional federal republic for the first time in history; hence it is also referred to, and unofficially proclaimed itself, as the German Republic. - Empires **Essay Question Outline** [Definition of racism:] difference that is unchangeable (in your blood, race, ethnicity, etc.) Power (have power that you use against a person because of their race) Introduction - Hook: Introduce the concept of racism as a historical and evolving phenomenon. - Thesis Statement: Explore how George Fredrickson's analysis of racism intersects with modern forms of racism, focusing on key ideologies like liberalism, nationalism, and science. - Roadmap: Briefly mention that the essay will connect Fredrickson's work to modern racism through the lenses of liberalism, nationalism, and scientific thought. Overview of Fredrickson's Book and Themes on Racism - Summary of Fredrickson\'s arguments: Define key ideas on historical racism. - Examples of racism discussed: Slavery, segregation, and colonialism. - Fredrickson's view on the evolution of racism: How he links older racist ideologies with modern transformations. Racism and Liberalism - Classical liberal ideals: Freedom, equality, and individual rights. - Contradictions in practice: How liberal societies maintained inequality and exclusion through structural racism. - Modern examples: Voter suppression, and systemic discrimination despite "equal opportunity" rhetoric. - Fredrickson\'s connection: How older exclusionary practices persist under modern liberal frameworks. Racism and Nationalism - Historical nationalism: Nation-building based on ethnic or racial homogeneity. - Fredrickson\'s discussion of nationalism: Examples of exclusionary nationalism (e.g., apartheid, segregation). - Modern racism and nationalism: Rise of xenophobia, anti-immigrant policies, and white nationalist movements. - Continuity between past and present: How modern nationalism echoes historical exclusion. Racism and Science - Scientific racism in history: Pseudoscientific theories used to justify racism (eugenics, phrenology). - Fredrickson\'s exploration of science-based racism: How scientific thought was weaponized to maintain hierarchies. - Modern science and racism: Implicit bias research, genetic essentialism, and racial profiling. - Fredrickson's relevance today: Continuities in the misuse of science to rationalize inequality. Synthesis: How Fredrickson's Ideas Manifest in Modern Racism - The interplay of liberalism, nationalism, and science: Show how these ideologies converge in modern expressions of racism. - Examples from today: Structural racism in education, healthcare, and policing. - How Fredrickson's analysis helps us understand modern racism: Identify parallels and shifts from past to present. Conclusion - Restate Thesis: Fredrickson's insights into racism help explain the persistence of racism in liberal, nationalist, and scientific frameworks today. - Key Takeaways: Summarize the importance of understanding the evolution of racism. - Closing Thoughts: Emphasize the need to critically examine modern ideologies to combat systemic racism.