Midterm Study Notes - MHR 405 (2) PDF

APPENDIX: RESEARCH IN ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR Hypothesis Variables Correlation and causation Observational research Experimental research A hypothesis is a formal statement of the expected relationship between two variables. Variables are simply measures that can take on two or more values A formal...

APPENDIX: RESEARCH IN ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR Hypothesis Variables Correlation and causation Observational research Experimental research A hypothesis is a formal statement of the expected relationship between two variables. Variables are simply measures that can take on two or more values A formal hypothesis stemming from equity theory might be this: The less fair people perceive their pay to be, the more likely they will be to quit their jobs. - Here, a variable that can take on many values, perceived fairness, is linked to a variable made up of two values, staying and leaving. Correlational research attempts to measure variables precisely and examine relationships among these variables without introducing change into the research setting. Correlational research sacrifices some of the breadth and richness of the observational techniques for more precision of measurement and greater control. A correlation between variables, however, does not automatically mean that the change in one variable is the cause of the change in the values of the other variable. Causation indicates that one event is the result of the occurrence of the other event Causation “Correlation does not imply causation” and “Causation may imply correlation” Example: Failing school and having a bad teacher doesn’t mean that that’s the reason you failed 1. Need more variables (money, workplace environment, and 2. Correlation = Stress and Job satisfaction 3. Causation = not directly related Observation research is a qualitati no ve research technique where researchers observe participants' ongoing behavior in a natural situation - The researcher proceeds to examine the natural activities of people in an organizational setting by listening to what they say and watching what they do. The difference between our everyday observations and the formal observations of the trained behavioral scientist is expressed by those keywords systematic and objective. Experimental research is a study conducted with a scientific approach using two sets of variables. The first set acts as a constant, which you use to measure the differences of the second set. - ex. Effect of light quality and light intensity (sunlight, various LEDs and SON-T lamps) on photosynthesis, morphogenesis and development of plants. CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Organization Prediction versus explanation Evidence-based management Contingency approach Organizations are social inventions for accomplishing common goals through group effort. Social Inventions: When we say that organizations are social inventions, we mean that their essential characteristic is the coordinated presence of people, not necessarily things. Most organizations own many things, such as equipment, technology, and offices. The field of organizational behavior is about understanding people and managing them to work effectively. The field of organizational behavior is concerned with how to get people to practice effective teamwork. Certain behaviours are necessary for survival and adaptation. People have to do the following: - Be motivated to join and remain in the organization - Carry out their basic work reliably, in terms of productivity, quality, and service - Be willing to continuously learn and upgrade their knowledge and skills - Be flexible and innovative The field of organizational behaviour is concerned with all these basic activities. Innovation and flexibility, which foster adaptation to change, are especially important for contemporary organizations. Group Effort: The final component of our definition of organizations is that they are based on group effort. At its most general level, this means that organizations depend on interaction and coordination among people to accomplish their goals. Organizational behavior refers to the attitudes and behaviors of individuals and groups in organizations. Human resources management refers to programs, practices, and systems to acquire, develop, motivate, and retain employees in organizations. Human capital refers to the knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) embodied in an organization’s employees. Today, the main factor that differentiates organizations is their workforce and human capital. Social capital refers to the social resources that individuals obtain from participation in a social structure. It has to do with interpersonal relationships, social ties, and one’s network of relationships with others who can assist in work and careers. In addition to human capital, social capital is also important for individuals and organizations. Internal Social Capital refers to relationships developed in one’s own organization External Social Capital refers to relationships developed with external constituents outside of one’s organization. Social capital can be internal as well as external. Organizational behavior is especially interested in determining why people are more or less engaged, motivated, satisfied, or prone to resign. Management is defined as the art of getting things accomplished in organizations through others. The third goal of organizational behavior is management. Evidence-based management involves translating principles based on the best scientific evidence into organizational practices. By using evidence-based management, managers can make decisions based on the best available scientific evidence from social science and organizational research rather than personal preference and unsystematic experience. For many years, experts interested in organizations were concerned with prescribing the “correct” way to manage an organization to achieve its goals. There were two basic phases to this prescription, which experts often call the classical viewpoint and the human relations movement. The Classical Viewpoint tends to advocate a very high degree of specialization of labor and a very high degree of coordination. Scientific Management advocated the use of careful research to determine the optimum degree of specialization and standardization. Bureaucracy: a system of government in which most of the important decisions are made by state officials rather than by elected representatives Bureaucracy has the following qualities: - A strict chain of command in which each member reports to only a single superior - Criteria for selection and promotion based on impersonal technical skills rather than nepotism or favoritism - A set of detailed rules, regulations, and procedures ensuring that the job gets done regardless of who the specific worker is - The use of strict specialization to match duties with technical competence - The centralization of power at the top of the organization The Contingency Approach to management recognizes that there is no one best way to manage; rather, an appropriate style depends on the demands of the situation. - Thus, the effectiveness of a leadership style is contingent on the abilities of the followers, and the consequence of a pay increase is partly contingent on the need for money. *Review all roles ^* Managerial Activities Fred Luthans, Richard Hodgetts, and Stuart Rosenkrantz studied the behavior of a large number of managers in a variety of organizations.24 They determined that managers engage in four basic types of activities: - Routine communication. This includes the formal sending and receiving of information (as in meetings) and the handling of paperwork. Traditional management. Planning, decision making, and controlling are the primary types of traditional management. Networking. Networking consists of interacting with people outside of the organization and informal socializing and politicking with insiders. Human resource management. This includes motivating and reinforcing, disciplining and punishing, managing conflict, staffing, and training and developing employees. Prediction VS. Explanation - The second goal of organizational behavior is to explain events in organizations—why do they occur? Prediction and explanation are not synonymous. Ancient societies were capable of predicting the regular setting of the sun but were unable to explain where it went or why it went there. In general, accurate prediction precedes explanation. Three goals of organizational behaviour are (prediction, explanation, and management CHAPTER 2: PERSONALITY AND LEARNING Personality * - Conceptual criteria defining personality traits * - Comparison with other kinds of individual differences Dispositional, situational, and interactionist perspectives * - Trait activation theory Personality traits - Five-factor model (a.k.a. Big 5, OCEAN, CANOE) * - Locus of control - Self-monitoring - Self-esteem - Positive and negative affectivity - Proactive personality - General self-efficacy Operant learning - Rewards versus reinforcers - Factors that encourage behavior - Positive and negative reinforcement * - Factors that discourage behavior - Extinction and punishment Social cognitive theory Observational learning Self-efficacy beliefs versus general self-efficacy (personality trait) Personality: refers to an individual’s characteristics patterns of thought, emotion, and behavior, together with the psychological mechanisms- hidden or not - behind those patterns - Funder (2016) - In life and in psychology, advantages and disadvantages have a way of being so tightly interconnected The Big Five** (most important causes of behavior**): The model with the most extensive evidence, currently. O - Openness to Experience C - Conscientiousness E - Extraversion A - Agreeableness N - Neuroticism Dispositional approach is where individuals possess certain characteristics or traits that influence their attitudes or behaviours Situational approach argues that characteristics in the work environment influence people’s attitudes and behavior Interactionist approach posits that organizational behavior is a function of both dispositions and the situation. Trait activation theory: Trait Activation Theory suggests that employees will seek out work environments in which they can easily express their unique personality and derive intrinsic satisfaction from it. -. However, this theory suggests that 'activating' these personality traits is only in situations where they are valued on the job (i.e., where expression of the trait is beneficial for quality work) lead to an improvement in , and the subsequent potential for exogenous enhancement. Compensation (such as salary and other benefits). - A key concept here is fit: putting the right person in the right job, group, or organization and exposing different employees to different management styles. Five-Factor Model of Personality 1. Extraversion: High extraverts enjoy social situations, while those low on this dimension (introverts) avoid them. Extraversion is especially important for jobs that require a lot of interpersonal interaction, such as sales and management, where being sociable, assertive, energetic, and ambitious is important for success. 2. Emotional stability/neuroticism: People with high emotional stability (low neuroticism) are self-confident and have high self-esteem. Those with lower emotional stability (high neuroticism) tend toward self-doubt and depression. 3. Agreeableness: More agreeable people are warm, considerate, altruistic, friendly, sympathetic, cooperative, and eager to help others. Less agreeable people tend to be cold and aloof. Agreeableness is most likely to contribute to job performance in jobs that require interaction and involve helping, cooperating, and nurturing others, as well as in jobs that involve teamwork and cooperation. Most strongly related to organizational commitment 4. Conscientiousness: More conscientious people are dependable and positively motivated. They are orderly, self-disciplined, hardworking, and achievement striving, while less conscientious people are irresponsible, lazy, and impulsive. Persons who are high on conscientiousness are likely to perform well on most jobs, given their tendency toward hard work and achievement. Most strongly related to higher organizational financial performance 5. Openness to experience: More open people tend toward creativity and innovation. Less open people favor the status quo. People who are high on openness to experience are likely to do well in jobs that involve learning and creativity, given that they tend to be intellectual, curious, and imaginative and tend to have broad interests. Self-Monitoring: which is the extent to which people observe and regulate how they appear and behave in social settings and relationships. - How does self-monitoring affect organizational behavior? For one thing, high self-monitors tend to gravitate toward jobs that require, by their nature, a degree of roleplaying and the exercise of their self-presentation skills. Sales, law, public relations, and politics are examples. Self-Esteem is the degree to which a person has a positive self-evaluation. People with high self-esteem have favorable self-images. People with low self-esteem have unfavorable self-images and tend to be uncertain about the correctness of their opinions, attitudes, and behaviors. - In general, people tend to be highly motivated to protect themselves from threats to their self-esteem. Positive Affectivity: People who have high levels of positive affectivity experience positive emotions and moods and tend to view the world in a positive light, including themselves and other people. It is one of the strongest predictor of employee engagement Negative Affectivity: is a personality variable that involves the experience of negative emotions and poor self-concept. Additionally, experience moods like fear and anxiety and view the world in a negative light. Locus of control refers to individuals’ beliefs about the location of the factors that control their behavior. High internals believe that the opportunity to control their own behavior resides within themselves, while high externals believe that external forces determine their behavior Proactive Personality: an employee who often anticipates the needs of their team before others do, and they work toward meeting those needs - Taking initiative to improve one’s current circumstances or creating new ones is known as proactive behavior. It involves challenging the status quo rather than passively adapting to present conditions. General self-efficacy (GSE) is a general trait that refers to an individual’s belief in their ability to perform successfully in a variety of challenging situations.105 GSE is considered to be a motivational trait rather than an affective trait, because it reflects people’s belief that they can succeed at a variety of tasks rather than how they feel about themselves. Behavioural Plasticity Theory: people with low self-esteem are more susceptible to external and social influences than those who have high self-esteem—that is, they are more pliable. Thus, events and people in the organizational environment have more impact on the beliefs and actions of employees with low self-esteem. - One of the most interesting differences between people with high and low self esteem has to do with the plasticity of their thoughts, attitudes, and behavior, or what is known as behavioral plasticity. Operant Learning: a method of learning that uses rewards and punishment to modify behavior. - Positive reinforcement works by presenting a motivating/reinforcing stimulus to the person after the desired behavior is exhibited. - Examples: pleasant things, such as food, praise, money, or business success. - - Negative reinforcement occurs when a certain stimulus (usually an aversive stimulus) is removed after a particular behavior is exhibited. Behavior is learned quickly when it is reinforced immediately and continuously Examples: unpleasant things, such as nagging or the threat of fines. Rewards VS. Reinforcers - When organizations confuse rewards with reinforcers, it is usually meant in that way - because rewards are not dependent on the desired behavior. Organizations and individual managers frequently “reward” workers with things such as pay, promotions, fringe benefits, paid vacations, overtime work, and the opportunity to perform challenging tasks. Such rewards can fail to serve as reinforcers, however, because organizations do not make them contingent on specific behaviors that are of interest to the organization, such as attendance, innovation, or productivity. Punishment and Extinction - Punishment involves following an unwanted behavior with some unpleasant, aversive stimulus. In theory, when the actor learns that the behavior leads to unwanted consequences, this should reduce the probability of the response. - Extinction simply involves terminating the reinforcement that is maintaining some unwanted behavior. If the behavior is not reinforced, it will gradually dissipate or be extinguished. Social Cognitive Theory, people have the cognitive capacity to regulate and control their own thoughts, feelings, motivation, and actions. The main components of social cognitive theory are observational learning, self-efficacy beliefs, and self-regulation - Observational learning is the process of observing and imitating the behavior of others. - Self-efficacy beliefs refer to beliefs that one can successfully perform specific tasks and are influenced by performance mastery, observation of others performing the same tasks, verbal persuasion and social influence, and physiological arousal. - Self-regulation occurs when people use learning principles to manage their own behavior, thus reducing the need for external control Observational Learning is the process of observing and imitating the behavior of others. With observational learning, learning occurs by observing or imagining the behavior of others (models), rather than through direct personal experience Self-Efficacy Beliefs VS. General Self-Efficacy (Personality Trait) - General Self-Efficacy (GSE) is the belief in one's competence to cope with a broad range of stressful or challenging demands, whereas Specific Self-Efficacy is constrained to a particular task at hand. CHAPTER 3: PERCEPTION, ATTRIBUTION, AND DIVERSITY Perception Social identity theory * Bruner’s model of the perceptual process Biases in person perception - Primacy and recency - Central traits - Implicit personality theories - Projection - Stereotyping * Attribution - Cues (consistency, consensus, distinctiveness) Biases in attribution - Fundamental attribution error * - Actor-observer effect * - Self-serving bias - Relationship to dispositional and situational perspectives * Diversity - Benefits and challenges - Relationship to social identity and stereotyping Perception: figure out (interpret) the meaning of sensory stimuli - In organizations, this is often social perception (other people) - Three parts: perceiver, situation, target - All three can affect interpretation Perceptions play an important role in organizational behavior. Three types of perceptions that are especially important for organizational behavior are 1.organizational climate perceptions, 2.perceptions of trust, and 3. perceived organizational support. Social Identity Theory - Personal identity is based on unique, individual characteristics - Social identity is based on membership in social groups - We have multiple social identities that might be active at different times - Social identity serves several psychological and sociological functions - Perceived social identity determines ingroup and outgroup - Ingroup is everyone that shares your social identity - Outgroup is everyone that does not share your social identity - Ingroup and outgroup is not necessarily categorical, as the perception can also depend on degree of identification Bruner’s Model - can be used to support learning in different ways. 1. Unfamiliar target encountered 2. Openness to target cues 3. Familiar cues encountered 4. Target categorized 5. Cue selectivity 6. Categorization strengthened - Bruner’s model of the perceptual process suggests that we are very receptive to cues provided by the target and the situation when we encounter an unfamiliar target. Perceptual Biases - Primary bias is the tendency for a perceiver to rely on early cues or first impressions - Recency bias is the tendency for a perceiver to rely on recent cues or last impressions. - Central traits involve personal characteristics of a target person that are of particular interest to a perceiver Implicit personality theories involve personal theories that people have about which personality characteristics go together. Projection is the tendency for perceivers to attribute their own thoughts and feelings to others. Stereotyping is the tendency to generalize about people in a certain social category and ignore variations among them. Attribution: The explanation of causes of behavior. The observer is often interested in determining whether the behavior is due to dispositional (internal) or situational (external) causes. Behavior is likely to be attributed to the disposition of the actor when the behavior (1) is performed consistently (high consistency), (2) differs from that exhibited by other people (low consensus), and (3) occurs in a variety of situations or environments (low distinctiveness). Dispositional Attributions suggest that a person behavior is based off of their personality Situational Attributions suggest that a person's situation or environment is responsible for their behavior and that the person might have had little control over the behavior. Biases in Attribution - - - The tendency of observers to overemphasize dispositional attributions is known as the fundamental attribution error (tend to overemphasize dispositional explanations at the expense of situational explanations) The tendency for actors to be more likely to explain their own behavior in situational terms is the actor–observer effect. (It is not surprising that actors and observers often view the causes for the actor’s behavior very differently) Our tendency to take credit for success and to deny responsibility for failure is known as the self-serving bias (people have a tendency to take credit and responsibility for successful outcomes of their behavior and to deny credit and responsibility for failures) Consistency Cues: reflect how consistently a person engages in a behavior over time Consensus Cues: reflect how a person’s behavior compares with that of others. Distinctiveness Cues: reflect the extent to which a person engages in some - Research indicates that as we gain experience with the behavior of a target person, three implicit questions guide our decisions as to whether we should attribute the behavior to dispositional or situational causes. Does the person engage in the behavior regularly and consistently? (Consistency cues) ​ ​ Do most people engage in the behavior, or is it unique to this person? (Consensus cues) Does the person engage in the behavior in many situations, or is it distinctive to one situation? (Distinctiveness cues) Diversity - Differences among employees - Neurodiveristy as mentioned in the lecture on personality - Cultural background, political ideology, religion, values - Organizational culture (important for mergers) The changing nature of the workplace and increasing diversity have highlighted the importance of valuing and managing employee diversity, which can yield strategic, competitive, and performance advantages for the organization. Racial, ethnic, religious, gender, age, and LGBTQ+ stereotypes can result in discriminatory human resources decisions and are a major barrier to valuing diversity. Organizations can use a number of tactics, including training, to manage diversity. However, to be most effective, diversity should be integrated into all organization policies and practices. CHAPTER 4: VALUES, ATTITUDES, AND WORK BEHAVIOURS Values - Systematic differences in values (generation, culture, etc.) - Hofstede’s values framework Attitudes * - Conceptual criteria defining attitudes * - Comparison with other kinds of individual differences Job satisfaction - Key contributors (a.k.a. causes, antecedents) of job satisfaction: - Fairness, disposition (a.k.a. personality), mood, etc. - Key outcomes (a.k.a. consequences) of job satisfaction: - Absenteeism, turnover, performance, etc. Organizational commitment - Affective, continuance, and normative commitment Values: Tendency to prefer certain states of affair Examples: achievement, power, autonomy, conformity, tradition Traditionalists are portrayed as being respectful of authority and having a high work ethic; Boomers are viewed as optimistic workaholics; Gen X is seen as skeptical, confident, and pragmatic; Millennials are said to be confident, social, and demanding of feedback; Gen Z is depicted as somewhat unfocused but independent and creative Hofstede’s 5 Value Framework 1. Power distance. Power Distance is the extent to which society members accept an unequal distribution of power, including those who hold more power and those who hold less 2. Uncertainty avoidance. Uncertainty Avoidance refers to the extent to which people are uncomfortable with uncertain and ambiguous situations. 3. Masculinity/femininity. More masculine cultures clearly differentiate gender roles, support the dominance of men, and stress economic performance. 4. Individualism/collectivism. More individualistic societies tend to stress independence, individual initiative, and privacy 5. Long-term/short-term orientation. Cultures with a long-term orientation tend to stress persistence, perseverance, thrift, and close attention to status difference Attitudes: Evaluation (positive/negative) regarding specific target - Attitudes —> Behavior… but not always - BELIEF+VALUE⇒Attitude - Attitudes are more specific than/as values. Notice that attitudes involve evaluations directed toward specific targets. - Attitude influences our behavior - Behavior is most likely to correspond to attitude when people have direct experience with the target - Attitudes are tendencies to respond to the target of the attitude. Thus, attitudes often influence our behavior toward some object, situation, person, or group. - Attitudes are a function of what we think and what we feel Job Satisfaction - Attitude towards job - Facet satisfaction VS. Overall satisfaction - Satisfaction is a function of the discrepancy between what individuals want from their jobs and what they perceive that they obtain, taking into account fairness. Dispositional factors, moods, and emotions also influence job satisfaction. Factors such as challenging and meaningful work, adequate compensation, career opportunities, and friendly, helpful co-workers contribute to job satisfaction Organizational Commitment Attitude: that reflects the strength of the linkage between an employee and an organization - Affective commitment: identification with an organization - Continuance commitment: costs of leaving an organization - Normative commitment: ideology or feelings of obligation Changes in the workplace can change the nature and focus of employee commitment as well as employer– employee relationships. Procedural Justice focuses on the fairness of the procedures used to make - Eg. “Everyone accused of murder deserves a lawyer”. Distributive Justice focuses on the fairness of outcomes - Eg. “An eye for an eye”. CHAPTER 5: MOTIVATION Motivation - Aspects: effort, persistence, direction, goals Relationship between performance, ability, and motivation Sources of motivation: extrinsic versus intrinsic Need theories - Maslow’s hierarchy - ERG theory - McClelland’s theory of needs - Self-determination theory Process theories - Expectancy theory * - Equity theory * - Goal-setting theory, goal specificity, and goal challenge Using motivation theories to diagnose motivation deficits Motivation: the extent to which persistent effort is directed toward a goal Aspects of Motivation - Effort: The first aspect of motivation is the strength of the person’s work-related behavior, or the amount of effort the person exhibits on the job Persistence: The second characteristic of motivation is the persistence that individuals exhibit in applying effort to their work tasks. Direction: Effort and persistence refer mainly to the quantity of work an individual produces - Goals: Ultimately, all motivated behavior has some goal or objective toward which it is directed Relationship between Performance, Ability, and Motivation - Performance=f(Ability×Motivation) The term cognitive ability is often used to refer to what most people call “intelligence” or “mental ability” Performance is a function of the interaction between an individual's motivation, ability, and environment. Motivation is one of the forces that lead to performance. Motivation is defined as the desire to achieve a goal or a certain performance level, leading to goal-directed behavior. Intrinsic Motivation: inter motivation Extrinsic Motivation: reward motivation stems from the work environment external to the task and is usually applied by someone other than the person being motivated. - Example of Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation: For example, reading about something because it's fun to learn is an example of intrinsic motivation. Reading about something to receive praise from an instructor is an example of extrinsic motivation. Need Theories NEEDS→BEHAVIOUR→INCENTIVES AND GOALS Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs - what humans need most 1. Physiological needs. These include the needs that must be satisfied for the person to survive, such as food, water, oxygen, and shelter. 2. Safety needs. These include needs for security, stability, freedom from anxiety, and a structured and ordered environment. 3. Belonging needs. These include needs for social interaction, affection, love, companionship, and friendship. 4. Esteem needs. These include needs for feelings of adequacy, competence, independence, strength, and confidence, and the appreciation and recognition of these characteristics by others. 5. Self-actualization needs. These needs are the most difficult to define. They involve the desire to develop one’s true potential as an individual to the fullest extent and to express one’s skills, talents, and emotions in a manner that is most personally fulfilling. Alderfer’s ERG Theory - needs and motivation 1. Existence needs. These are needs that are satisfied by some material substance or condition. 2. Relatedness needs. These are needs that are satisfied by open communication and the exchange of thoughts and feelings with other organizational members. 3. Growth needs. These are needs that are fulfilled by strong personal involvement in the work setting. McClelland’s Theory of Needs: says that everyone is driven by one of three needs — achievement, affiliation or power. Self-Determination Theory: suggests that all humans have three basic psychological needs—autonomy, competence, and relatedness—that underlie growth and development. Expectancy theory (or expectancy theory of motivation) proposes that an individual will behave or act in a certain way because they are motivated to select a specific behavior over others due to what they expect the result of that selected behavior will be. Equity theory is a theory of motivation that suggests that employee motivation at work is driven largely by their sense of fairness. Goal-setting theory is an organizational psychology theory. (It's also sometimes called the goal setting theory of motivation). According to this theory, goals that are clear, specific, and challenging are more motivating than vague goals or easy goals. CHAPTER 6: MOTIVATION IN PRACTICE *Only section 6.5* Job characteristics model - The five core job characteristics - Relationship with needs theories of motivation Job enrichment Job Characteristics Model Core Job Characteristics Skill Variety: The degree to which a job requires various activities, requiring the worker to develop a variety of skills and talents. Task Identity: The degree to which the job requires the jobholders to identify and complete a workpiece with a visible outcome. Task Significance: The degree to which the job affects other people's lives. Autonomy: The degree to which the job provides the employee with significant freedom, independence, and discretion to plan out the work and determine the procedures in the job. Feedback: The degree to which the worker has knowledge of results. A review of research on the Job Characteristics Model found that all five core job characteristics were positively related to the outcomes in the model (i.e., job satisfaction, growth satisfaction, and internal work motivation) as well as other outcomes, including supervisor satisfaction, co-worker satisfaction, compensation satisfaction, promotion satisfaction, organizational commitment, and job involvement.