Methods Notes.pdf

Methods in psychology – Brief Class Notes Goals of psychology  Psychology aims at understanding human behaviour from a scientific point of view  Psychologists have to Check assumptions Observe accurately Weigh evidence objecti...

Methods in psychology – Brief Class Notes Goals of psychology  Psychology aims at understanding human behaviour from a scientific point of view  Psychologists have to Check assumptions Observe accurately Weigh evidence objectively Draw valid conclusions  Scientific methods: Minimizing error and bias at every step  This process involves some goals -Accurately describing and measuring behaviour -Explaining behaviour -Predicting behaviour -Controlling behaviour -Improving the quality of life (applied psychology) Goals: A brief examination  Description: - Reporting what really happens - Objective observation - Data/ Facts vs. interpretation - Operational definition: Defining a concept entirely by the operations used in measuring it (if a concept cannot be defined operationally, then it cannot be used in scientific operations) Inference is not acceptable in a statement of facts  Explanation Why did it happen? How two of more events are related? Correlation and causation In search for explanations psychology applies scientific methods  Prediction - What will happen? - Using the discovered relationships   Control - How to control? - Behaviour modification  Improving the QOL - Practical implications  Methods differ regarding: Kind of knowledge they yield Type of behaviour to which they are best suited Methods can sometimes be applied in combination to gain a broader perspective  Psychology as a science Is psychology a science? Empiricism: Primacy of sensory experience (experience – observation – experimentation) Rationalism: Primacy of reason (formulation of hypotheses and theories) Search for laws Determinism (causal) Replication Scientific Method  Why do psychologists use scientific methods? To study relationships in a pure manner (free from errors and biases) Scientific method: A system for reducing bias and error in the measurement of data Steps: Perceiving the question; forming a hypothesis; testing the hypothesis; drawing conclusions; reporting results Some questions cannot be studied empirically and scientifically  Some concepts A Variable: Any characteristic of an object, event or person that can take two or more values (Ex: The position that people take on welfare issues [V1] will be positively related to their annual income [V2] Experimental approach: Best suited for developing the knowledge suitable for prediction (causal relationships); experimental manipulation Many questions studied by psychologists cannot be answered experimentally Sometimes experiments can be impractical and unethical When lab research is not possible co-relational approach can be used Example: Effect of punishment on social and emotional development of children (ethical issues regarding experimental manipulation)   Correlation and causation In co-relational approach variation is obtained through some kind of a selection procedure and not through experimental manipulation (Ex. Personality, attitudes) Correlation is the term used to describe such relationships in which events occur in some systematic pattern but are not necessarily caused by one another. While it is possible to make accurate predictions based on co-relational data, causal connections cannot be established Despite its limitations the co-relational approach permits the researchers to discover relationships that might otherwise go undetected CA also allows investigators to examine problems that are beyond the scope of laboratory experimentation (Ex: Cigarette smoking and life expectancy)  Methods Naturalistic observation Observation in natural surroundings Examples: Animal researchers, developmental psychologists Advantages: Realistic picture Disadvantages: Observer bias: Effects of being observed; Researcher’s expectations (selective observation) Hypothesis generation Case studies Study of one individual, event, or any other entity in great detail Freud’s case studies Clinical case studies (all aspects of life are covered) Issue of generalization (cannot be generalized) Example: Studies on people with brain damage; organizational effectiveness Surveys Large number of people are studied Sample selection (random – representation of the population) Questionnaires, interviews, tests etc. can be used Internet surveys Anonymous surveys Ex: Pre election surveys, marketing research, opinions regarding issues Construction of questions is a difficult task Dealing with the ‘courtesy bias’ The experimental method Experiment is observation under controlled condition Experimental psychologists set up simplified versions of problems to be studied Main features of an experiment Variables: Independent, dependent, relevant and nuisance variables Control of relevant and nuisance variables Operational definitions of variables Experimental and control groups Importance of random assignment Confounding of variables The influence of expectations The experimenter effects Demand characteristics: Social desirability Single blind and double-blind studies The ethics of psychological research Rights and wellbeing of the participants must be weighed against the study’s value for science Participants must be allowed to make informed decisions Informed consent Deception Debriefing Withdrawing participation Confidentiality