Psychology Notes PDF

Psychology Notes Topics in psychology are always larger and more complex than one perspective can understand and explain. ​ Psychologists need to adopt diverse perspectives, study diverse populations, and train diverse people to conduct research. ​ Diversity and col...

Psychology Notes Topics in psychology are always larger and more complex than one perspective can understand and explain. ​ Psychologists need to adopt diverse perspectives, study diverse populations, and train diverse people to conduct research. ​ Diversity and collaboration allow for a more complete and accurate understanding of human behavior ​ Psychologists must guard against assuming that what is true in Western cultures is true elsewhere in the world. ○​ WEIRD sample: Research participants from Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic. Different Goals of psychology ​ Understanding broad patterns of behavior ○​ Evolutionary perspective ○​ Cultural perspective ​ Understanding roles of body and brain ○​ Biological-neuroscience perspective​ ​ Understanding thoughts and feelings ○​ Cognitive perspective ○​ Emotional perspective ​ Understanding stable and changing patterns of behavior ​ Development perspective ​ Personality perspective ​ Social perspective ​ Clinical perspective There are several “big ideas” regarding the human mind and behavior that arise from these different perspectives: 1.​ Psychological, biological, social, and cultural factors interact to influence behavior and mental processes. 2.​ Behavior is shaped by conscious understanding and by unconscious processes.  3.​ Human perceptions and biases filter our experiences of the world through an imperfect personal lens. 4.​ Human behavior involves typical functioning and disruptions to typical functioning, both providing insights into how the mind and behavior operate. 5.​ Applying psychology can change our lives, organizations and communities in positive ways. Psychology is broader and more scientific than popular media often portrays. ​ Psychological science: The scientific study of mind and behavior. Psychological science is: ​ Critical ○​ Curiosity and wonder are combined with healthy skepticism. ​ Summative ○​ Multiple sources of evidence are considered, and conclusions are not absolute. ○​ Understanding of phenomena grows over time, as new information is presented. There are difficulties in accurately observing human phenomena and making non-biased conclusions. ​ Overconfidence effect is the tendency to be overly sure of what we know ​ Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek out, pay attention to, and believe only evidence that supports what we are already confident we know. Learning about the principles of psychological science and potential biases can help you to overcome biases and recognize them elsewhere. ​ Recognize fake news and misinformation ​ Find reliable sources of information Recognize fake news and misinformation ​ Everybody has a study to quote ○​ “Science says/shows…” ○​ “A study has proven…”  ○​ “Psychology says” Psychology has existed for a little over a century. ​ Psychology is young compared to other sciences. ​ It began in Western Europe ​ Early psychology was sometimes based on false assumptions and used unethical research methods. Early psychology developed in two distinct and independent ways. ​ Scientific approach: Intellectual endeavors and science experimentation at universities ○​ Originated with Wilhelm Wundt in Germany and William James in the USA ​ Study of perception, thought, and behavior ​ Clinical approach: therapeutic interventions for psychological disorders in medical settings ○​ Originated with Sigmund Freud in Austria, then England ​ ​ Psychotherapy, psychiatry, clinical practice Brief History of Psychology ​ The two approaches are merged. Scientific evidence from research is used to help people with psychological problems. ​ Psychology is focused on adhering to strict ethical guidelines and using open science practices that emphasize transparency of research. ○​ Begin in the 1930’s by USPHS originally called “Tuskegee study of Untreader Sphilis in the Negro male on 600 black men. ○​ Was stopped on November 1972 Psychological scientists conduct research to answer questions by establishing empirical evidence and avoiding pseudoscience. ​ Evidence: The available body of facts or information indicating whether a belief or proposition is true or valid ​ Empirical: Based on astute observation and accurate measurement. ○​ The best evidence is empirical. Pseudoscience: A collection of beliefs or practices mistakenly thought to be based on valid science. Interactive Psychology: People in Perspective uses information gathered by psychological experiments performed in strict accordance with the scientific method. Sometimes pop psychology, pseudoscience, and misperceptions about psychological science are dangerous. ​ Homeopathy ○​ Forgoing evidence-based medical treatments for homeopathic remedies can place people at great risk. ○​ Some homeopathic remedies are dangerous in themselves. An essential element of psychological literacy is critical thinking ​ Three key critical-thinking questions: ○​ What scientific evidence supports this claim? ○​ Has this topic been studied empirically? ○​ Am I listening to (or reading) someone else’s opinion, or is this information based on facts that are accepted by unbiased experts? Evolutionary Perspective: The psychological perspective on behavior that seeks to identify how humans’ evolutionary past shapes certain cultural universals that all human beings share, such as preference for fairness. Cultural Perspective: The psychological perspective that seeks to understand how cultural context affects people’s thoughts and preferences. ​ Culture: The rules, values, customs, and beliefs that exist within a group of people who share a common language and environment. ​ Studies cultural variations in the way people think and behave to determine how the environment shapes human experience. Evolution and culture often work together in their influence on human thought, preferences, and behavior. ​ Nature/biology/ evolution interact with nurture/environment/culture to predict both broad patterns of human behavior and individual behavior. Cognitive Perspective: The psychological perspective that studies the mental processes that underlie perception, thought, learning, memory, language, and creativity. Psychology Notes Chapter 2 ​ Confidence in our intuitions does not mean they are correct. We focus on confirming evidence and disregard it. ​ The science of psychology overcomes biased conclusions and narrow experiences. ○​ Psychology systematically collects and averages evidence across many people. ​ Psychologists are empiricists, meaning they base beliefs on systematics, objective observation of the world. ○​ Scientific method: The process of basing one’s confidence in an idea on systematic. ​ Theory-date cycle: The process of the scientific method in which scientist can collect date to confirm or disconfirm a theory When data do not confirm the hypothesis, researchers may redesign the study, or include more participation Replication: When a study is conducted more than once on a new sample of participants. The results of psychological research are peer-reviewed and made public. Journal: A periodical containing peer- reviewed articles on a specific academic discipline, written for a scholarly doctrine. Variable: Something of interest that varies from person to person, or situation to situation Measured Variable: A variable whose values are simply recorded ​ These are included in every study Manipulated variable: A variable whose values the researcher controls, usually by assigning different participants to different levels of that variable. Operation definition *: The specific way of measuring or manipulating an abstract variable in a particular study. By establishing operational definitions, researchers operationalize the variables they study. ​ Operationalizing a variable usually means turning it into a number, which can be recorded and analyzed. Variables can be operationalized in different ways. ​ Self-Reporting: Periploe describe themselves in ​ Direct observations: Three types of research methods are used to test theories: 1.​ Descriptive 2.​ Correlational 3.​ Experimental​ Descriptive Research: A type of study in which researchers measure one variable at a time Survey research is descriptive research based on self=report, which provides concise summaries of many people. ​ Commercial survey organizations (e.g. Gallup, Pew) Contact people and ask self-report question about operationalized variable ​ Survey research usually contacts between 1500 and 2500 regardless of the size of interest. Sample: The group who participated in research, and who belong to the large group that the researcher is interested in understanding. Population of interest: The full set of cases the researcher is interested in Random sampling: a way of choosing a sample of participants for a study in which participants are selected without bias, for example, by dialing random digits on the telephone or pulling names out of a hat. ​ The results from a random sample can be generalized to the larger population, even if the sample is relatively small. Observational Research: A descriptive research method in which psychologists measure their variable of interest by observing and recording what people are doing. ​ Technology can be used to record and analyze data. ​ “Big Data” refers to the use of extremely large data sets acquired with technology to conduct research Naturalistic Observation: An observational research method in which psychologists observe the behavior of animals and people in their normal, everyday worlds and environments. Case study: An observational research method in which researchers study one or two individuals, depth, often those who have a unique condition. ​ These findings do not generalize to larger populations but may offer theoretical insights and research inspirations. Correlational research: A type of study that measures two (or more) variables in the same sample of people, and then observes the relationship between them. Scatter plot: A figure used to represent a correlation ​ The x-axis represents values for one variable, and the y-axis represents values for the other variable. ​ A positive correlation between two variables indicated that high values of one variable are linked with high values of the other variable. ​ Dots on the scatterplot will slope upward, from left to right A negative correlation between two variables indicated that high values of one variable are linked with low values of the other variables. ​ Dots on the scatterplot will slope downward, from left to right. When two variables have zero correlation, there is no systematic relationship Positive and negative correlations allow predictions of a person’s score on one variable based on his or her score on the other variable. ​ The stronger a correlation is, the more accurate the predictions can be  ​ The strength of the relationship between variable is indicated by Although correlations can help us make predictions, they do not allow the conclusion that one variable causes another. ​ “Correlation is not causation.” ​ Three criteria must be met to conclude causation. ○​ Two variables must be correlated ○​ One variable must precede the other ○​ There must be no reasonable alternative explanations for the pattern of correlation Correlational studies can satisfy the first criterion, but often not the second, and never the third ​ If the variables are measured at the same time, there is no way to know if one variable temporally preceded the other. We cannot rule out alternative explanations in correlational studies. ​ Third Variable Problem: For a given observed relationship between two variable, an additional variable that is associated with both of them, making the additional variable Experimental Research: A study in which one variable is manipulated, and the other is measured. Experimental research can provide evidence. ​ Independent variable: The manipulated variable in an experiment ​ Dependent variable: The measured variable in an experiment Experiments are designed to meet the criteria for causation by reducing third-variable problems. ​ Random Assignment: A procedure used in experimental research in which a random method is used to decide which participants will receive each level of the dependent variable. ○​ An essential element of an experiment Experiment (or treatment) group: In an experiment, a group or condition in which some proposed cause is present. Control (or comparison) group: In an experiment, a group or condition in which some proposed cause is not present. Control (or comparison) Group: In an experiment, a group or condition in which some proposed cause is not present Placebo condition: in an experience, group of condition in which people expect to receive a treatment but are exposed to only an inert version, such as the sugar pill In a double blind procedure neither the experimenters nor the participants know who is in the experimental group or control group, in order to reduce the influence of bias on behaviors or expectation. Experiments hold special status in psychological science because they can establish criteria. ​ Correlation is establish ​ Temporal precedence is assured with the experimental method. ​ Manipulating The word “random” is used differently in science. It indicates an important scientific process. Random sampling: A way of choosing a sample of participants for a study. Some scientists specialize in descriptive, correlational, or experimental research methods. However, researchers often choose the best design method to answer their research questions. The theory-data cycle is iterative ​ This means researchers build support for a theory in a systematic program of research that may progress from descriptive to correlational to experimental designs. Consuming research requires a mindset of both curiosity and criticism. ​ Remain open to new discoveries ​ Evaluate strength of evidence and validity of the study Validity: the appropriateness or accuracy of a conclusion or decision. ​ Construct Validity: The specific assessment of how accurately the operationalizations used in the study capture the variable of interest. ○​ Reliability: The degree to which a measure yields consistent results each time it is administered ○​ In an experiment, construct validity also depends on how well an independent variable is manipulated. External Validity: The degree to which it is reasonable to generalize from a study’s sample to its population of interest. ​ Relies on random sampling techniques Two levels of generalizability are considered: 1.​ From the sample to the population of interest 2.​ From the population of interest to other populations of interest a.​ To determine this, the same study must be replicated on new groups b.​ Most psychology studies are conducted on Internal Validity: The ability of a study to rule out alternative explanations for a relationship between two variables; one of the criteria for supporting a causal claim. ​ This is a requirement in establishing a causal claim. Confound: An alternative explanation for a relationship between two variables; specifically, in an experiment. Studies with confounds have poor internal validity ​ Good research studies take careful steps to eliminate confounds. Three types of validity: 1.​ External validity is especially important in descriptive research. 2.​ Internal validity matters most in experiments, when the goal is to establish cause and effect. 3.​ Construct validity is always important. Evaluating claims in popular media 1.​ What am I being asked to believe? 2.​ What kind of evidence is there? 3.​ How strong is the result?  4.​ Are they making a causal claim? 5.​ Has the study been replicated? Case Study Part 1 ​ Dr. Amy Cuddy, A prominent social psychologist ​ She obtained tenured faculty at Harvard, becoming a best-selling book author, and TEDx’s second most viewed TED Talk. ​ In 2012, she gave her famous TedTalk: “Your Body Language May shape who you are” ​ Claimed in her findings, a carefully designed experiment, that through holding one-minute “power pose”, she was able to both psychologically and physiologically change her participants’ dispositions temporarily, and that this could lead to long term results through a “downstream effect”. Case Study Part 2 ​ After her TesTalk, Other social psychologists started raising concerns and critiquing Cuddy’s findings (For instance, she was accused of p-hacking) ​ Cuddy stood by her work for the most part, but accepted criticism pretty well, too ​ A few years later, fellow social psychologists Dr. Eva Rainhill (from Uni. of Zurich) weighed in on the debating with a replication study in 2015 ​ Some notable changes, though: she had 200 participants and they held their poses for a total of six minutes ​ Rainhill did not replicate the hormonal findings (elevated testosterone, decreases cortisol), but did manage to replicated the “feelings of power” findings ​ In 2018, Cuddy launched a comprehensive systematic review of 55 studies that had clearly demonstrated a link between “Postural feedback” and people feeling more powerful. She could not replicate the hormonal effects from her original study ​ Statistics are used to understand and draw conclusions about the quantified behaviors ​ Descriptive statistics: A graph or computation that describes the characteristics of a batch of scores.  ​ Frequency Distribution: A descriptive statistic that takes the form of bar graph in which the possible scores on a variable Measures of central tendency identify the average or center of a batch of scores Mean: A measure of central tendency that is the arithmetic average of a group of scores. Median: A measure of central tendency that is the middlemost score; it is obtained by lining up the scores from smallest to largest and identifying the middle score. Mode: A measure of central tendency that is the most common score in a batch of scores. Variability: The extent to which scores in a batch differ from each other. ​ Range: The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a batch. ​ Effect size: a numerical estimate of the strength of the relationship between two variables. It can take the form of a correlation coefficient. Institutional Review Board, IRB The ethical principle of Beneficence: The benefits of the study most outweigh the risk of harm. The ethical principle of Justice: Participants bearing the burden of research. The majority of the brains neurons are interneutrons. This indicates the importance of ___ of the brain. B. Connections The Endocrine system is a network of glands that release hormones into your bloodstream. The Biology of You Neurons: The cellular building blocks of the brain Neuroscience: The study of how nerves and cells send and receive information form the brain, body, and spinal cord Processing information in the brain ​ Bottom-up: Receives information from sense ​ Top-down: Influences lower order regions Cerebral cortex: The outermost layer of the brain, which supports: ​ Cognitive skills ​ Complex emotions and complex mental activity The most recent part of the brain from an evolutionary point of view The nervous system Nervous system: A network of neurons running throughout your brain and body ​ Nerves: A collection of neurons that carries signals from the body to the brain. Spinal Cord: The major bundle of nerves, encased in your spine, that connects your body and your brain. ​ Transmits signals from the brain to the body ​ Transmits signals from the body to the brain There are three basic types of neurons: ​ Motor Neurons send signals to make the body take action ​ Sensory neurons carry information from the outside world and within the body to the brain. ​ Interneurons interpret, store, and retrieve information about the world, allowing you to make informed decisions before you act. Central Nervous System (CNS): The system composed of the brain and spinal cord; information from your body travels to the brain by the way of the nerves of your spinal cord. Peripheral Nervous Systems (PNS): The system composed of the nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord; connects the parts of the body to the brain. Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS): A division of the autonomic nervous system that acts on blood vessels, organs, and glands in ways that prepare the body for action, especially in life-threatening situations.  ​ Provides resources for the fight-or-flight response ​ Mobilizes the body to attack, defend, or flee, when encountering a potential threat ​ Works with the PNS to prepare the body for challenges The Endocrine System Hormones: The blood-borne chemicals that travel through the circulatory system enabling the brain to regulate the body’s activities. Endocrine System: A network of glands that produces and releases hormones into the bloodstream to regulate the body’s activities. ​ Works with the CNS to synchronize the brain and the body ​ Slower rate of transmission than the nervous system Adrenal glands: The endocrine glands located on top of the kidney; they produce a variety of hormones, including adrenaline and cortisol. ​ Adrenaline and cortisol ​ Boost energy and increase heart rate, blood pressure, and blood-sugar levels ​ Central to the stress response ​ Activated by the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system. Pituitary Gland: The master endocrine gland, located at the base of the brain, that in addition to producing its own hormones regulates hormone production in other glands. ​ Modulated hunger, sexual arousal, and (via the pineal gland) sleep. ​ Communicates with the male and female sex glands to produce testosterone and estrogen. ​ Oxytocin plays a role in interpersonal trust, love The Cerebral Cortex and mental life Organization of the three fundamental anatomical units (a) in the adult brain and (b) their correspondence with the brain development. The brain is divided into two halves, or hemispheres. Each hemisphere had subdivisions (lobes): ​ Occipital Lobe: A lobe that runs along the back portion of the head. ○​ Contains the primary visual cortex ○​ Largely devoted to vision ​ Temporal lobe- A lobe that runs alongside the ears ○​ Contains the primary auditory cortex ○​ Responsible for the ability to hear and understand language ○​ Person and object recognition ​ Parietal lobe: A lobe that runs alongside the head above and behind the ears: ○​ Contains the primary somatosensory cortex ○​ Contains a map of the body skin surface and sense of touch ​ Frontal Lobe: A lobe located in the front of the head. ○​ Contains the primary motor cortex and map of body’s muscles ○​ Essential for movement and planning ○​ Prefrontal cortex ​ Insular lobe: The cortex that is insulated by the overlying cortex: ○​ Supports sense of taste ○​ Allows perception of internal organs ○​ Primary taste cortex ​ Neocortex: The evolutionarily newest cerebral cortex that is the largest part of the human brain ○​ Supports complex functioning, such as language, though, problem solving, and imagination ○​ The newest part of our brain in terms of evolution ○​ Outermost layer of the brain ○​ Gives the brain a folded, wrinkled appearance ​ Primary sensory areas: The first regions of the cerebral cortex to receive signals from a sensory organ via its sensory nerve. ○​ Allows us to perceive what our sensors are detecting ○​ Dedicated region for each of your five sense ​ Olfactory area of smell ​ Gustatory area for taste ○​ Different parts of the cortex are linked to different parts of the body ​ Primary motor cortex: frontal lobe) The cortex that is responsible for voluntary movements. ​ Association Cortext: The cortext that integ  ○​ Helps produce a meaningful ​ Limbic system: A system often associated with emotion; it bridges the older, lower brain regions that regulate the body with the newer, higher brain structures more related to the senses. ○​ Often described as the “emotional brain” ○​ Plays a role in smell, learning and memory, and motivation ​ Hippocampus: A component of the limbic system crucial for certain aspects of memory, and: ○​ The ability to navigate the environment ○​ The ability to think about the future ​ Located in the inner part of the temporal lobe ​ Amygdala: A component of the limbic system is important for registering the emotional significance of events. ○​ Almond-shaped structure ○​ Located just to the inside of the end of the hippocampus ​ Influences the hippocampus for emotionally significant memories ​ Projects to many regions of the brain and influences thought, decision making, and memory. ​ Basal ganglia: A group of interconnected structures that are an evolutionarily older subcortical motor system: ○​ Necessary for planning and executing movement ○​ Connects the motor regions of the cerebral cortex with spinal cord ○​ Critical for initiating and stopping movement. ​ Thalamus: A subcortical structure deep in the middle of the brain: ○​ Communicated information to and from all the sensory systems (except the olfactory system) ○​ Regulated alertness and consciousness ○​ Plays a key role in relaying sensory information ​ Hypothalamus: the master controller of the brain and body: ○​ Integrates bodily signals with associated feeling and behaviors ○​ Regulates specific functions, ​ Hunger ​ Body rhythms ​ Reward seeking ​ Aggression ​ Brainstem: the lowest region of the brain ○​ Sits on top of and is continuous with the spinal cord  ○​ Collects sensory signals from the body ○​ Send signals down from the brain to create movement and regulate vital functions ​ Pons: An upper brainstem structure that ○​ Controls breathing and relays sensations, such as hearing, taste, and balance, to the subcortex and cortex ​ Medulla Oblongata: A lower brainstem structure thatControls autonomic functions, including: ​ Heart rate ​ Reticular formation: A structure that runs through the brainstem and is connected to many parts of the brain. ○​ Plays a central role in arousal and attention ○​ Regulates sleep and wakefulness ○​ Plays a role in attention deficit hyperactivity ​ Cerebellum: A hindbrain structure located in the brainstem ○​ Supports a variety of functions including ​ Coordination ​ Precision ​ Balance ​ ○​ Associated with the function of the prefrontal cortex Corpus Callosum: The bridge of fibers that connects the two halves of the brain. ​ Allows for rapid communication between hemispheres ​ Allows each side of your brain to let the other side know what’s going on When Brain Activity Happens Single-cell recording: A measurement of the electrical activity of a single neuron. ​ Can be used to diagnose and plan treatment for various disorders ​ Temporal lobe epilepsy, major depression come up parkinson’s disease ​ Studies have identified single neurons that play important roles in specific abilities like recognizing words, faces, and the emotional content of images. Electroencephalography (EEG): The recording of electrical waves from many thousands of neurons in the brain, gathered using electrodes placed on the scalp. ​ EEG waves are synchronized electrical activity across many thousands of neurons ​ Can be used to diagnose brain states such as sleep or wakefulness ​ Allows for spatial localization ​ EEG rhythms can also predict seizure onset. ​ Can also be used in nonmedical applications for biofeedback ○​ Helps to achieve certain brain stages such as Event Related Potential (ERP): A synchronized electrical response to an event. ​ Generated from EEG data ​ Allows scientist to identify otherwise hidden signals ​ Enables researchers to determine not only if you detect a sound but whether you wer Magnetoencephalography (MEG): The recording of the magnetic fields produced by the brain’s electrical currents. ​ Allows for much greater temporal resolution that EEG ​ Allows scientists to determine how different parts of the brain communicate with each other ​ There is a trade-off between temporal resolution (when) and Spatial resolution (where) Positron emission tomography (PET): The injection of radioactive glucose into a person’s bloodstream to measure blood flow associated with higher brain activity or the brain’s use of specific neurochemicals. ​ Increased glucose consumption is related to mental activity ​ Can also indicate specific changes in brain chemistry Issues with PET: ​ Because of the slow decay of the radioactive substance , PET responses are not directly tied to a particular stimulus or a single mental event ​ Measures activity in different brain regions over a relatively long period of time. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (IMRI): A variation of MRI that measures brain function by tracing oxygen in the blood flow through the brain. Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS): An emerging biological streaming for depression and obsessive compulsive disorder that involves stimulating specific parts of the. Case Study ​ At a meeting in 1881 antilocalizationsist Friedrich Goltz and localizationalist David Ferrier faced of to determine who was correct ○​ Does the brain have localize parts/areas that specialize in different functions ​ Goltz performed surgeries on frogs and then dogs, and observed that removing specific parts of their brain had noticeable changes, and also not so much ​ Ferrier performed surgeries on monkeys and did change their behavior; one monkey he made deaf, and another he paralyzed only on one-side of its body ​ In 1935, portuguese doctors perform surgery on a person by drilling two holes into his head, and filling those with ethyl alcohol, which they claimed reduced symptoms of extreme paranoia and anxiety ​ Brought over and altered in the United States by W.J. Freeman II and J.W. Watts which renamed it the “Freeman-Watts Prefrontal Lobotomy” ​ Refined in 1945, Freeman refined it and dubbed it the “transorbital lobotomy”. In this, an orbitoclast, would be pierced through the tear duct to the back of the eye socket where it would penetrate the thin bone that separates the eyes from the frontal lobe ​ The goal was to sever the connection from the frontal cortex to the thalamus. Lobotomists believed that doing so would reduce abnormal stimuli from reaching the frontal area, because they thought stimuli was the cause for extreme behavior. The goal was to never cure, but to make patients more docile so they could live “normal” All neurons have the same basic parts. ​ Dendrite: The part if the neuron that receives chemical messages from other neurons.  ​ Cell body: The part of the neuron that collects neural impulse, contains the nucleus, and provides life sustaining functions for the cell ○​ Also called the soma ​ Axon: The part of the neuron that transmits electrical impulses to other neurons via the terminal branches. ​ Terminal Branch: The part of the neuron that convert electrical signals into chemical messages to other neurons ○​ Also called terminal buttons Myelin Sheath: A layer of fatty tissues that covers and insulates an axon to ensure that electrical messages travel fast and meet less resistance. ​ Gives white matter its light-colored appearance ​ Critical for normal human brian development ​ Increased speed of electrical signal within the neuron ​ Made up of glial cells or glia Glia: The cells that make up the myelin sheath around neurons to insulate, support, and nourish neurons and modulate neuronal function. Action Potential: A rapid change in voltage created by a neuron when it is successfully stimulated to surpass a critical threshold; serves as the basis for neural signaling. ​ Moves like a way disown the length of the neuron ​ Before an action potential, positively charged ions reside outside the cell ​ A voltage differential exists with more positive voltage on the outside of the cell and more negative voltage on the inside ​ Resting potential ○​ Neuron is strongly negatively polarized ​ Action potential generation ○​ When sufficiently stimulated at the dendrite, ion channels open Ion channels: The channels that allow chemical ions to enter and exit the neuronal membrane to generate the voltage for the testing in action potentials. ​ Allow positively charged sodium ions into the neuron ​ Create a chain reaction allowing other channels to open Depolarization: Occur Voltage threshold: The voltage necessary for a neuron to start an action potential. ​ Allows positively charged ions to enter the neuron ​ Electrical signal propagates down the axon to the terminal s branch Repolarization: The portion of the action potential during which the neuron returns to its resting potential. ​ Following an action potential, the flood of ions reverses. Refractory period: The period of time required for a neuron to return to its resting state before it can get another action potential. ​ Only a few milliseconds in duration. Types of signals ​ Excitatory ○​ Move target neuron closer to its voltage threshold ​ Inhibitory ○​ Moves the target neuron further away from its voltage threshold ​ Neurons have an all-or-none response—either a neuron “fires” or it does not. ​ These patterns of activity and inactivity are the brains coffee that makes behavior and mental life possible. Synapse: THe gap where the sending neuron communicates with the dendrites or cell body of the receiving neuron. Neurotransmitter: The chemical messenger released. Receptors on the receiving neurons receive and bind to specific neurotransmitters. Lock and key system ​ Neurotransmitter binding results in ion channels opening or closing causing a change in ion flow across the target neuron cell membrane Genes and Environment: The development of an individual Phenotype: The observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of genotype and environment Genotype: The genetic makeup of an organism composed of the organism’s complete set of genes Allele: A variant form of a gene Epigenetics The study of how the interactions between your genes and the environment regulate gene expressions. ​ Research has found that early experiences influence immune-system response ​ Environmental effects may contribute to increase The Sensory Systems Receive, while the Brain Perceives Sensation and perception are distinct, though related processes. ​ Sensition: The process by which our sensory organs receive stimulus energies from the environment and transduce them into the electrical energy of the nervous system. ​ Transduction: The transformation of sensory stimulus energy from the environment into neural impulses ​ Perception: The neural processing of electrical signals to form an internal mental representation inside your brain on what’s on the outside. Thresholds exist in our ability to perceive different stimuli, and researchers attempt to determine them. ​ Psychophysics: The study of the relationship between the [physical characteristics and of environment stimuli and our mental experience of them ​ Absolute Threshold: The minimum amount of stimulation necessary for someone to detect a stimulus half of the time Perceptual threshold can change as a result of various factors. ​ Signal Detection theory: An approach to measuring thresholds that takes into account both the intensity of the stimulus and psychological biases for a more accurate assessment  ○​ People may have a “liberal bias” (reporting perception more readily) or a “conservative bias” (Reporting perception People can distinguish between similar sensory stimuli that are both above a threshold but that differ in magnitude ​ Just-noticeable difference (JND) or difference threshold: The minimum difference required between two stimuli for an observer to detect a difference half the time. Perception of a stimulus change is not dependent on a fixed absolute value of change but a relative quantity of the stimulus magnitude. ​ Weber ​ The weber fraction is the ratio of the minimum change in maginituyre of Adaptation: A phenomenon whereby an individual stops noticing a stimulus that remains constant over time, resulting in enhanced detection of stimulus changes. ​ Sensory adaptation occurs at the level of the sensory receptors. ​ Perceptual adaptation occurs in the perceptual centers of the brain. ​ Aftereffects are opposing sensory or perceptual distortions that occur after adaptation. Wavelength: The distance between any two consecutive crests or troughs of a wave. ​ Variations determine the quality/hue/color we perceive Frequency: The number of cycles per second of a wave. ​ Relates to wavelength. Higher frequencies= Shorter wavelength. Amplitude: The height of the crests of a wave ​ Variations determine the quantity/intensity/brightness of color Color purity relates to how many different wavelengths comprise the light. ​ With fewer wavelengths, the “purer” and more saturated color appears. ​ “Spectral” colors are produced by only a single Synesthesia  ​ A condition in which stimulation in one sensory modality gives rise to an experience in a different modality; The merging of sense. ​ It’s truly wonderful way of perceiving the world ​ Occurs with a matched pain of an inducer and concurrent. The inducer occurs first, and triggers a concurrent. The concurrent does not substitute the inducer. ​ Is both a developmental condition and acquired ​ Visual types of synesthesia seem to be the most common, and the most common non visual synesthesia is mirror touch. The major structures of the eye serve different functions and are organized to produce the sensation of sight. ​ Cornea: The transparent covering at the front of the eye ​ Pupil: A hole in the iris where light enters the eye ​ Iris: The colored muscle circling the pupil ○​ The iris can increase or decrease the size of the pupil to adjust how much light enters the eye. ​ Lens: A membrane at the front of the eye that focuses the incoming light on the retina. ○​ Accommodation: Adjustments of the lens’s thickness by specialized muscles in order to change the dress to which it bends light. ​ Retina: A surface on the back of the eye that contains the photoreceptor cells, which contains photopigments that are sensitive to light. ○​ When light reaches the photoreceptors, chemical reactions change their shape and generate electricity. ○​ Rod: Photoreceptor cell that primarily supports nighttime vision. ○​ Photo ​ Optic Nerve: A bundle of axons that converge from the retina and transmit action potentials to the brain. ​ Blind spot: An area in the middle of the visual field where there are no photoreceptors and no information can be received Rods and cones differ in important ways that relate to their functions.  ​ First, rods all have the same type of photopigment, but cones contain one of three varieties of photopigments. ​ Second, rods and cones differ in their quantity and distribution across the retina. ○​ Ratio of 20:1, rods to cones ○​ Fovea: A small pit in the center of the retina that is densely packed with cones ​ When seeing in the daytime light , our eyes move to focus stimuli onto the fovea,which brings them into focus ​ Third, cones have more direct connections to neural cells than rods do, whereas rods converge more before communicating with the brain. ​ Fourth, Cones have higher acuity (sharpness and specificity) Whereas rodes have higher sensitivity (Ability to simply detect stimuli ​ Fifth, cones receive mo Color is a psychological property made by the brain, rather than a physical property of the world. Each cone has one of three distinct varieties of photo pigment, which are sensitive to short, medium, or long wavelengths (appro ​ Trichromatic theory: A theory of color perception stating that three types of cones cells, each most sensitive to a specific wavelength of light, Opponent-Process Theory: The yin and yang of color perception Opponent-process theory: A theory of color perception stating that information from the cones is separated into three sets of opposing or opponent channels in the ganglion cell layer. Visual association cortex: The regions of the brain where objects are reconstructed from prior knowledge and information collected by the feature detectors. Prosopagnosia: a visual disorder in which individuals are unable to recognize the identity of faces. The ventral stream processes “what” information. ​ They are responsible for recognizing objects and faces. The dorsal stream processes “where” information. ​ Responsible for determining location and the perception of movement ○​ Phi Phenomenon: A visual illusion in which the flashing of separate images in rapid succession is perceived as Sound is derived from tiny vibrations that are produced when an object moves and vibrates. ​ Compressed and expanded air molecules create waves that travel through the air and other substances to reach our ears, where they are transduced in neural energy. The properties of sound The frequency of the soundwaves is perceived as pitch. ​ Measured in hertz (Hz) ​ Pitch: The perceptual quality The amplitude of the sound waves is perceived as loudness ​ Measured in decibel (dB) units. ​ Variations in loudness depend on a change in quantity of energy. The complexity of the sound waves determines the timbre, or the quality, of the sound The human ear is separated into the outer, middle, and inner ear, which work together to collect, amplify, and transduce vibrations into neural energy. Middle ear: The portion of the ear containing the eardrum and ossicles. The eardrum, also called the tympanic membrane, response to soundwaves by coming in and out with corresponding vibrational Defining and Studying Consciousness Consciousness is your awareness of your internal and external world ​ The stream of consciousness allows us to think about the past,present, or future Consciousness is difficult to study because it is a private and personal experience. Introspection: The process of examining one’s own internal thoughts and feelings ​ Involves self-report, which has limitations ○​ People may choose not to reveal their thoughts accurately or honestly. ○​ People may be unable to translate their conscious experience into words. ​ More limitations ○​ Other people may not understand your conscious experience the same way ​ Inverted spectrum problem ○​ Often people don’t really know what they are thinking ​ People experience many unconscious thoughts and feeling their not able to access themselves Consciousness involves two key aspects. ​ Arousal- A person’s level of wakefulness or alertness. ​ Awareness- Consciousness can be guided and directed throughout the environment, like a spotlight Selective Attention: The act of focusing one’s awareness onto a particular aspect of one’s experience, to the exclusion of everything else. Inattentional blindness: A failure to perceive information that is outside the focus of one’s attention ​ This phenomenon is likely a cause of traffic accidents because people may not notice hazards. Change Blindness: A form of inattentional blindness, in which a person fails to notice changes in a visual stimulus. Wandering Awareness: Focusing your awareness is highly valuable, but your focus may drift from your current activity and your mind may wander. Mind-wandering can reduce your ability to perform important tasks. ​ People are less happy when their minds are wandering ​ People reported pleasant (42.5%), unpleasant (26.5%) and neutral topics (31%) Mind-wandering can be used as a strategy for escaping a boring situation. ​ Thinking becomes decoupled or disconnected from what your senses are taking in. Mind-wandering can also help us with: ​ Creative thinking ​ Problem solving ​ Organizing in structuring plans Automaticity: The ability to perform a task without conscious awareness or attention ​ Complex activities, such as bruising your teeth, driving, or texting, can become automatic with practice. ​ Automaticity allows us to focus attention elsewhere. ​ Our minds are capable of doing a lot of things unconsciously ​ We can monitor, understand, and respond to various aspects of our experience without awareness ○​ The conscious mind can also step in and take control of behavior when the unconscious mind makes mistakes or encounters something it can’t handle. Sigmund Freud (1856-1929) ​ Proposed that the mind is composed of several components ○​ Consciousness- The focus of your current awareness ○​ Preconscious- Includes thoughts and emotions you aren't currently aware of but could easily bring to mind ○​ Dynamic unconscious- Inaccessible memories, instinct, and desires. Freud Argues that the dynamic unconsciousness is often in conflict with the conscious mind. Cognitive unconscious: The various mental processes that support everyday functioning without conscious awareness or control. ​ Can influence conscious behavior without our being aware of it ​ Dichotic listening task Subliminal perception: A form of perception that occurs without conscious awareness. ​ People cannot consciously report having seen a stimulus, but their behavior suggests otherwise. ​ Laboratory studies suggest that subliminal advertising can work, but only under certain conditions. ○​ Behavioral effects of subliminal advertising are fairly minimal. ○​ Outside of the laboratory, advertisers cannot control the environment well enough for subliminal messages to work very well. Brain bases of Consciousness There is no one structure in the brain that makes consciousness possible. Default mode Network: An interconnected system brain regions that are active when the mind is alert and aware but not focused on a particular task, such as mind wandering ​ This network is more active when people report that they are mind-wandering Global workspace hypothesis: The hypothesis that conscious awareness arises from synchronized activity, from across various brain regions, that is integrated into coherent representations of an experience. ​ Then different brain regions associated with an experience become active at the same time. Circadian Rhythm: A regular, 24-hour pattern of bodily arousal. Also known as the biological rhythm or biological clock. ​ From the Latin Circa (about) and dies (daily) ​ Diurnal- arousal is the highest during the day  ​ Nocturnal- arousal is the highest at night ​ In general, arousal is the highest in the morning and lowest in the evening ○​ Individual factors such as age SUprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)- Brain structure in the hypothalamus that helps regulate sleep and alertness. ​ Stimulated by light ​ Communicates with the brain’s pineal gland to reduce the production of certain hormones including melatonin ​ Controls our internal biological clock ​ Artificial light can also stimulate the SCN. Circadian rhythms can occur without the presence of light ​ Subjects living underground, without any natural light or clocks for many weeks, still continued to show a roughly 24-hour rhythm. Scientists have studied the brains of sleeping individuals by using EEG and have identified five stages of activity. Sleep: A regularly occurring state of altered. Beta waves: High-frequency, low-amplitude electrical waves in the brain (As measured by EEG) that occur in a rhythmic pattern and are associated with being awake and actively thinking. Alpha Waves: Low frequency, high- amplitude electrical waves in the brain (As measured by EEG) that occur in a rhythmic pattern and are associated with being awake yet relaxed with the eyes closed. Delta waves: Very-low frequency, high-amplitude electrical waves in the brain. (As measured by EEG) that occur in a rhythmic pattern and are associated with deep, stage 3 sleep Rapid Eye Movement Sleep: A stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, brain activity similar to wakefulness, faster heart and breathing rates, inability to move the skeletal muscles, and dreams  ​ People awakened from REM sleep are far more likely to report having been dreaming than if awakened during other stages. Stages of sleep ​ Stage 1 ○​ Sometimes considered shallow sleep ○​ Relatively easy to wake from ○​ Awareness of the outside world remains ○​ Involves the production of theta waves in the brain ​ Stage 2 ○​ Characterized by K complex waves and sleep spindles ​ Stage 3 ○​ Deeper stage of sleep ○​ Characterized by delta waves ​ REM Sleep ○​ Occurs toward the end of 90-minute cycle ○​ Characterized by high-frequency, low-amplitude waves that appear similar to wakefulness,. Functions of Sleep ​ People spend about a third of their lives asleep. ​ Lack of sleep is directly related to a decline in functioning Sleep constructs, repairs, and restores. ​ Sleep allows the body to build, repair, and restore itself. ​ May explain why young children may require more sleep than adults. ​ Sleep boosts the number of immune cells required to fight off infection. ​ People who sleep longer live longer and are less likely to develop health problems ​ Allows the brain to rebuild proteins and restore its energy supply of glycogen ○​ May reset overstimulated neurons, allowing systems to function more effectively throughout the day. Sleep helps with learning and memory  ​ After memoring a set of nonsense syllables, students who slept remembered more items than students who stayed up for the same amount of time Unihemispheric sleep: A pattern of sleep in which only one halt of the brain experiences slow-wave sleep at a time, while the other half remains awake. ​ Critical for animals like dolphins that live in the water but require air to breathe. Sleepwalking: A sleep disorder that involves walking or performing other behaviors while in deep sleep. ​ More common in children than adults ​ Takes place during stage 3 sleep Night terrors: A sleep disorder occurring during deep sleep that involves dramatic expressions of fear, with accelerated heart rate and respiration. ​ Occurs near the beginning of Stage 3 sleep Narcolepsy: A sleep disorder in which a person falls asleep suddenly and uncontrollably. ​ Cataplexy Dreams: Sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts, sometimes vivid and story-like, that are experienced during sleep. ​ May involve vivid hallucinations In general, dreams are about what is familiar and relevant, and sometimes they incorporate the residue of very recent events. Scientists use a combination of self-report and brain-imaging technologies to study dreaming Dream Report: A study technique involving waking up a participant and having them describe what they were dreaming about. ​ Dreaming is most strongly associated with REM sleep. ○​ People can report dreaming in all stages of sleep although it is much more likely in REM sleep. Dream Content ​ In general, people dream about what is familiar and relevant to them ​ Dreams may also incorporate the residue of recent events ​ Dreams often contain emotional content, especially negative emotions like worry and fear. REM Rebound: The tendency to spend more time in REM sleep if deprived of it on previous nights. Theories of Dreaming ​ Sigmund Freud ○​ The Interpretation of Dreams, he proposed that dreams are our way of expressing our deepest unconscious wishes. ○​ Dreams are a form of wish fulfillment ○​ Manifest Content: According to Sigmund Freud’s theory, the visible, surface content of a dream or behavior that disguises the hidden, latent content ○​ Latent Content: According to Sigmund Freud’s theory, the hidden drives and wishes that are expressed in dreams and behavior but in a disguised form Theories of dreaming ​ Dreaming may help solve problems. ​ Activation- synthesis hypothesis: The hypothesis that dreams result from the brain's attempt to organize the chaotic patterns of brain activity during sleep into a semi coherent narrative. ○​ May explain why dreams may have bizarre plot lines or logical inconsistencies. There are both benefits and costs to using drugs to chemically alter consciousness. Genetic and environmental factors influence whether people develop addictions and the same factors can also be used to treat addictions. Psychoactive drugs: Chemical substances that alter a person’s thoughts, feelings, or behaviors by influencing the activity of neurotransmitters in the nervous system. ​ Different categories of drugs can alter consciousness in different ways. ○​ Depressants (Study 5.13) ​ Decrease activity levels to the nervous system ○​ Stimulates (Study 5.14) ​ Increase activity levels to the nervous system ○​ Psychedelics (Study 5.15) ​ Drugs that distort perception and trigger hallucinations Drug Tolerance: The diminished response to a drug that results from prolonged use, leading the drug user to require larger doses to achieve the same original effect. Withdrawal: Unpleasant physical symptoms that result when a person is physically dependent on a drug and its effects wear off. ​ Physical dependence- The person now needs a drug for their body to function more or less normally. ​ Psychological dependence- A strong desire to use a drug again, even after withdrawal symptoms have faded. Drug Addiction: An uncontrollable compilation of use of a substance even though that substance damages the user’s health and everyday functioning. ​ It is estimated that 10 percent of all americans experience a problem with drug addiction at some point in their lives ​ Genetics plays a role in addiction. ○​ Animal studies have identified specific genes that predispose rats and mice to developing alcohol dependence. Addiction varies across social and cultural categories. ​ More common in ○​ Males than females ○​ Younger adults versus older adults ○​ Minority groups ○​ People with less education and lower income Treating addiction ​ Studies of the genetic and chemical bases of addiction have led to new medication aimed at correcting changes in the brain brought on by drug usage.​ Depressants: Drugs that decrease activity levels in the nervous system ​ Effects can include lowering levels of arousal, making people feel calm and sleepy. ​ Insomnia is often treated with depressants ​ Repeated use may lead to drug tolerance. ​ Higher doses can decrease nervous system activity enough to impair thinking, induce a coma, or even stop breathing. The most commonly used depressants is alcohol ​ Research has shown that alcohol’s diverse effects stem from people diverse expectations for how alcohol will affect their behavior (goldman, Del Boca, & Darkes, 1999) ​ Depresses activity in neural circuits that ordinally control our impulses ​ Alcohol use is associated with increased risks of violence and accidents. ​ Alcohol poisoning- When alcohol states shu Alcohol myopia: A phenomenon whereby alcohol intoxication leads to a narrowing of attention and impairment of the ability to exert top-down control over impulses. ​ People are more likely to act according to a single piece of information and not take into account other information. Stimulants: Drugs that increase activity levels in the nervous system. Caffeine: The most commonly used psychoactive substance in the world. ​ Associated with improved mental alertness, concentration, and athletic performance ​ Moderate consumption is not associated with risk Nicotine: Increases heart rate and blood pressure, suppresses appetite, increases alertness, and can relate neurotransmitters that calm anxiety and reduce sensitivity to pain. ​ Highly Addictive ​ Withdrawal symptoms include anxiety, irritability and insomnia. Amphetamines ​ Can be used to treat specific psychological disorders including narcolepsy and ADHD Methamphetamine: Shares some chemical properties with amptheramiens;it leads to a rush of euphoria and energy that lasts for hours. ​ Reduces the brain’s baseline levels of dopamine, leaving the user with permanently depressed functioning and dramatic declines and well-being ​ Chronic usage alters the brain and impairs social functioning, leading to isolation, depression and aggressiveness Cocaine ​ Derived from the coca plant grown in South America ​ Produces a short-lasting high that wears off in 15 to 30 minutes ○​ Leaves the user’s brain exhausted of dopamine and serotonin and norepinephrine Psychedelics: Drugs that distort perception and can trigger hallucinations (sensations without any sensory input), changes in moods, thoughts, sense of self, and even feelings of insight LSD- Lysergic Acid Diethylamide ​ Synthetic drug invented by a chemist in 1938 ​ Ecstasy- MDMA ​ Chemically resembles both mescaline and methamphetamine ​ Has both psychedelic and stimulant properties ​ Produces relatively mild hallucinations and feelings of elation, empathy THC- Tetrahydrocannabinol  ​ Main active ingredient in marijuana ​ Acts as a mild phy Basic forms of learning Both habituation and sensitization are always at work. ​ Of the two, the one that wins out depends on your state of physiological arousal. ○​ When aroused, sensitization is more likely Dishabituation: The recovery of a response that has undergone habituation, typically as a result of the presentation of a novel stimulus. Classical conditioning: A passive form of learning by which an association is made between a reflex-eliciting stimulus (e.g., a shock) and other stimuli (e.g. ​ A reflexive action becomes associated with the new stimulus. Ivan Pavlov ​ Pavlov used an apparatus to measure dog’s salvation when they consumed food. ​ He noticed that dogs salivated not just when they consumed food, but in response to many other stimuli that occurred around the same time the food was presented. ​ The dogs were learning that, if a specific condition was met, the food would arrive soon. Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that produces a reflexive response without prior learning. Unconditioned response(UR): The response that is automatically generated by the unconditioned stimulus. Conditions Stimulus (CS): A stimulus that has no prior positive or negative association but comes to elicit a response after being associated with the unconditioned stimulus Conditioned Response (CR): A response that occurs in the presence of the conditioned stimulus after an association between the conditioned and unconditioned stimulus is learned Learning can be very specific, or it can generalize to other stimuli Learning through classical conditioning is not quite permanent; responses can be extinguished but later on be recovered spontaneously. Acquisition: The learning of an association between the unconditioned and conditioned stimuli during classical conditioning Generalization: The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus, so that learning is not tied to narrowly to a specific stimulus. Discrimination: Learning to respond to a particular stimulus but not similar stimuli, thus preventing overgeneralizations. Extinction: An active learning process in which there is a weakening of the conditioned response to the conditioned stimulus in the absence of unconditioned stimulus. ​ Even if the response has been weakened to extinction, the organism may not have forgotten about the learned event. ​ Useful for getting rid of an undesired response. Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of an extinct behavior after a delay ​ Some learning may never be completely forgotten, but is simply suppressed. ​ Learning an association after extinction happens more rapidly than the original conditioning process ○​ Residual plasticity hypothesis ​ Even after extraction, neural networks of learning persis, and can lead to savings if conditioning is reintroduced Timing between events are critical for learning their association ​ Learning is essentially the ability to predict the future based on the past ​ The brain learns to anticipate a stimulus  ○​ Conditioning from a familiar stimulus is more difficult than conditioning from an unfamiliar stimulus ​ It is easier to make an association between a CS and a US if they have not previously been related in any way. Prediction error: A signal in the brain to revise its predictions about how the world works. Conditioning does not occur randomly. The brain selectively learns event associations that are more valuable and informative for predicting the future. Blocking: A classical conditioning phenomenon whereby a prior association with a conditioned stimulus prevents learning of an association with another stimulus because the second one adds no further predictive value. ​ Our brains are wired to learn what is more informative for us ​ By blocking false associations, we are more likely to learn the true causal associations of events. ​ Often compromised or absent in individuals who experience hallucinations, such as schizophrenia, possibly because the disorder disrupts a person’s ability to attend to environmental stimuli in a predictive manner. Case Study Part 1 (Little Albert) Classical Conditioning & Anxiety ​ Anxiety, like many emotions, can be learned ​ While phobias and anxieties do not typically come from as tangible original, anxiety-inducing experience, occasionally (and pretty commonly) they do ​ Regardless of origin, they are likely also reinforced through paired association (classical conditioning). Paired association refers to the pairing between the conditioned responses of anxiety and a typically neutral stimulus (NS), which then becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS), or a cure for anxiety ​ This correlation can happen with any anxiety inducing event (such as car accidents, the dentists, etc.) but they can also extend themselves to social events, exams, and grocery stores. “Little Albert”  ​ John Watson and Rosalie Rayner (1920) ○​ Demonstrated how an 11-month-old infant could be conditioned to fear a white rat. ○​ They first presented “Albert”. ​ Acquisition phase ○​ Every time “Albert” went to touch the rat, researchers made a loud noise (US) that startled “Albert” and caused him to cry (UR). ○​ Whenever “Albert” saw the rat (CS), he would cry (CR) and try to crawl away ○​ This conditioning also generalized to other white furry objects. Watson and Rayner did not eliminate the learning after they conditioned fear in “Little Albert”. Counterconditioning: Counteract undesired associations by conditioning new responses to stimuli. Negative associations can be so powerful that they are learned extremely rapidly and are easily generalized, even after a single experience. ​ People who experience PTSD may be stricken with anxiety for years after the event. Fear conditioning depends on the amygdala, the region next to hippocampus in the medial temporal lobe. Association can also be made with positive emotional experiences. Our brains are wired to learn certain associations easier than others. ​ Human and other animals evolve Preparedness: The species-specific biological predisposition to learn some associations more quickly than other associations. ​ Some specific phobias may have prepared us to be wary of spiders, snakes, and heights ​ Strong predispositions Conditioned taste aversion: A classically conditioned response where individuals are more likely to associate nausea with food than with other environmental stimuli. ​ Researchers observed that if they exposed rats to radiation, known to make rats nauseous and sick, the rats would avoid whatever food they had been consuming just prior to their illness. ​ Conditioned taste aversion can help organisms avoid food that has gone bad, or food that is poisonous Operant conditioning: An active form of learning by which an association is made between a stimulus (e.g., a shock) and a voluntary response (e.g., a press of a button). ​ Behaviors must be performed to get or avoid something. The ABC’s of operant conditioning ​ Antecedent: The stimulus that precedes the behavior and signals a context in which certain behaviors can lead to certain sequences. ○​ For example: when a traffic light is green, stepping Law of effect: The idea that behavior is a function of its consequences-actions that are followed by positive outcomes are strengthened, and behaviors that are followed by negative outcomes are weakened. ​ Edward Thorndike ○​ Placed cats in an escape room like puzzle boxes in order to study how animals make previously unknown associations about the world through voluntary behavior. Reinforcement: A consequence that increases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated. Punishment: A consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated. Primary reinforcers: A consequence that is innately pleasurable and/or satisfies some biological need. ​ Primary reinforcers can include food, drink, warmth, and sex. Secondary reinforcers: A learned pleasure that acquires value through experiences because of its association with primary reinforcers. ​ Sometimes can be used to exchange for primary reinforcers ○​ Money can be used to purchase food, drinks, etc. Positive reinforcement: The presentation of a positive stimulus, leading to an increase in the frequency of a behavior. ​ For example: Children are given stickers for working hard ​ The addition of a pleasant stimulus reinforces the behavior and strengthens it. Negative reinforcement: The removal of a negative stimulus, leading to an increase in the frequency of a behavior. ​ For example: taking pain medication to relieve a headache ​ The removal of the unpleasant stimulus reinforces Positive Punishment: The presentation of a negative stimulus, leading to a decrease in the frequency of a behavior. ​ For example: getting scolded by a teacher ​ The addition of an unpleasant stimulus reduces the likelihood of performing that behavior in the future Consider this: Is reinforcement for punishment better at influencing behavior? ​ Punishment may not always be appropriate or productive. ​ Children seem to learn better with reinforcement Premack principle: the idea that activities individuals frequently engage in can be used to reinforce activities that they are less inclined to do. ​ “You can't have your dessert until you eat your vegetables.” ​ For example: “You have to finish reading before you can scroll through your social media feed.” The amount of time that elapses between the performance of a behavior and the receipt of the consequence can have effects on our behavior. ​ Immediate reinforcements can conflict with delayed punishments, and when they do, the immediate reinforcing consequences can be overpowering. ○​ We like to eat candy even though it may cause cavities. Delayed reinforcement: receiving reinforcement after having already performed a behavior some time ago ​ Paychecks Delay discounting: future consequences have less potency than consequences that are immediate. ​ May guide people toward impulsive choices and make them more susceptible to substance abuse Operant conditioning can be used to help organisms learn complex skills. Operant conditioning can also be used to help people overcome their fears. B.F. Skinner ​ Placed rats and pigeons in operant conditioning chambers (also known as skinner boxes) in order to study their behaviors ○​ Free operant responses: Allow the animal to Shaping: The process by which random behaviors are gradually changed into a desired target behavior. ​ Reinforcement of successive approximations: Starting with the behavior that is vaguely similar to the target behavior and reinforcing behavior signs that are closer and closer to the desired end behavior. ○​ Can be used to teach animals complex tricks that they would not be able to do spontaneously ○​ Can also be used to get people who have a specific phobia to ameliorate their anxieties. Instinctive drift: An animal’s reversion to evolutionary derived instinctive behaviors instead of demonstrating newly learned responses ​ Raccoons can be taught to pick up trinkets, but over time the raccoon’s behavior of rubbing the trinkets together (washing behavior) overrides the behavior in which they placed them on a tray Case study Part 2 Classical conditioning & Anxiety - Behavioral therapy ​ Anxiety, like many emotions, can be learned ​ Through a process called paired association ​ Emotional reactions can also be unlearned deliberately through Operant Conditioning ​ Used primarily in a type of therapy called Behavioral Therapy (also in Cognitive Behavioral Therapy) ​ Behavioral Therapy is largely driven by principles in operant conditioning ​ Through running a behavioral analysis, the antecedent, the behavior, and the consequence are mapped out, reflected upon, and then revisions are made ​ Behavioral Therapy began in the 1950s and the 1960s it was largely founded and led by B.F. Skinner’s findings and theories from his laboratory research ​ The therapist and client together to assess problematic behaviors and the conditions that are maintaining them. ​ The client and therapist work together to apply an empirical evaluation much like the scientific method, on their own behavior patterns to gauge effectiveness and consequences. ​ The goal of behavioral therapy is ultimately to increase personal choice and create new conditions for learning Continuous reinforcements schedule: A reinforcement schedule in which a behavior is rewarded every time it is performed. Partial reinforcement schedules: A reinforcement schedule in which a behavior is rewarded only some of the time.  ​ Very effective motivators for behavior ​ Fixed-ratio schedule : A reinforcement schedule in which a specific number of behaviors. ​ Variable-ratio schedule: A reinforcement schedule in which an average number of behaviors are required before a reward is given. Contingent reinforcement: A specific response is reinforced because it yields undesired change in the environment. Noncontingent reinforcement: Superstitious Conditioning: A form of operant conditioning in which a behavior is learned because it was coincidentally reinforced, but has no actual relationship with reinforcement ​ Whatever behavior the bird happens to be doing when the first reinforcement arrives, that particular behavior ends up being reinforced. ​ Learning depends on the associations Latent Learning: Learning that occurs without either incentive or any clear Edward Tolman ​ Cognitive Map: An internal mental representation of the world. ​ In an experiment, rats seem to have learned the complexity of a maze without being rewarded for completing the maze. Learning can happen dramatically. ​ Learning curves: Memory: The capacity to store and receive information in order to facilitate learning. ​ May have originated as an evolutionarily older function, remembering the spatial layout of the environment, knowing where we have been, where we are, and where we are going. Memory can be separated into three stages ​ Encoding: The process of faking info from the world, including our internal thoughts and feelings, and converting it to memories. ​ Storage: The maintenance of information in the brain for later access ​ Retrieval: The process of bringing to mind previously encoded and stored information. Storage: The capacity to maintain information over a certain period of time ​ Memory storage differs according to duration (how long it is stored) and capacity (how much is stored) Multistore model of memory: A model proposing that info flows from our senses through three storage levels in memory: sensory and short term. Sensory memory: A storage level of memory that holds sensory information on the order of milliseconds to seconds. ​ High capacity but extremely fragile and short lived. ​ The sensory memory produced from hearing (echoic) is longer than vision, but still less than a second. Short-term memory: A storage level of memory where information can be held briefly, from seconds to less than a minute. ​ Information from all senses can be held for under a minute ​ Can be forgotten or transferred to long term memory Long-term memory: A storage level of memory where information can be held for hours to many years and potentially a lifetime. ​ The stronger the memory patterns are, the longer the duration of storage. Iconic memory: A rapidly decaying store of visual sensory information  ​ Sperling, 1960 ​ Limited to about ⅓ of a second Echoic memory: A rapidly decaying store of auditory sensory information. ​ Lasts for 2-10 seconds Neutral persistence: Continued activity in neurons after a stimulus ceases which rapidly fades Short-term memory holds a limited amount of information for a short time. ​ We can hold about seven (7 +/- 2) items in vermal short-term memory at one time ​ Studies have shown it to be more variable and the current consensus is that capacity is limited to approximately four item.s ​ Post-categorical: Information is processed to the degree we understand what category of object we are sensing. Chunking: The process of grouping stimuli together in chunks in working memory to increase the amount of information stored in short term memory. Rehearsal: The holding of information in the brian through mental repetition ​ Phonological loop: Repeating information to keep it in short-term memory. ○​ Brain processing overlaps with areas involved in language ​ Visuo-spatial sketchpad: Seeing mental images ​ Central executive function: allows for the manipulation of information in short term memory ○​ Engages regions of the frontal cortex that are commonly used for a wide variety of cognitive tasks and abilities. Herman Ebbinghaus (Early 1900s) ​ Recall varies as a function of position within a study list ​ Serial Position curve ​ Recency effect: The words towards the end of the list are still active in short-term and working memory and can be recalled easily ​ Primacy Effect: increased recall for the items at the beginning of the list may be due to increased processing , such as extra rehearsal and  elaboration and ability for these fleeting events to make it into our long-term memory. Amnesia: The loss of memory due to brain damage or trauma ​ Henry Molaison (H.M.) ○​ Hippocampus was removed bilaterally due to severe epileptic seizures ○​ H.M. retained his intelligence, ability to speak and understand language, personality, and even short-term memory. ○​ Could not store new memories in long-term storage. Anterograde amnesia: The inability to transfer information from short-term to long-term memory, preventing new long-term memories from forming Retrograde amnesia: A form of amnesia in which access to memoring prior to brain damage is impaired, but the individual can store new experience in storage. Case Study Pt.1: The Case of the Missing in Action– Giulio Canella ​ He went missing in action on November 25th, 1916. His group was out-gunned in an ambush. A comrade reported that giulio had sustained a severe head wound and was taken captive by the enemy. Giulio was declare missing despite searches ​ 11 years later, Feb, 6th, 1927, a national newspaper ​ Upon seeing the newspaper article, Giulia Canella recognized her husband from the photos! She asked to visit, and was approved to visit a few weeks later on Feb. 27th ​ The hospital was mindful that Giulio seemed to stress easily around new staff and strangers, so they coordinated “chance” encounters with Giulio while walking in the halls to both ease Giulio into seeing her walk by, and allow Giulia to confirm that it was her husband. ​ Just 3 days after Giuolio’s release, an anonymous letter was submitted to a newspaper stating that the man was not Giulio Canella, but was in fact Mario Bruneri.  ​ Bruneri was a typist, con artist, anarchist, criminal with multiple charge and warrants for his arrest who had been wanted since 1922 for convictions and acts of violence Levels of processing: The multiple levels at which encoding can occur, ranging from shallow to deep Shallow encoding: Encoding based on sensory characteristics, such as how something looks or sounds. ​ Judging how words look ​ Increases activity in the occipital lobe Deep encoding: Encoding based on an event’s meaning as well as connections between the new event and past experience. ​ Judging words by their meaning ​ Elaboration: A memory process that requires associations between new information and old. Deep encoding ​ Semantic encoding: operates on the meaning of events. ○​ Yields better memory than merely processing what a stimulus souls like or looks like The brain is efficient at making personal connections. ​ Deep encoding is effective because it engages parts of the brain related to self-reflection ​ Self-referential encoding: Encoding based on an event’s relation to our self concept which leads to enhancing memory for the event. There are two main types of memories: Explicit and Implicit. Explicit memory: A form of memory that involves intentional and conscious remembering ​ Declarative Memory ​ Example: remembering your first bicycle ride including recollecting the time and place you learned to ride ​ The hippocampus specializes in the formation of explicit memories Implicit memory: A form of memory that occurs without intentional recollection or awareness ands can be measured indirectly through the influence of prior learning of behavior ​ Nondeclarative memory ​ Example: remembering how to ride a bicycle ​ Implicit memory depends on a variety of memory systems throughout the brain. Procedural memory: A type of implicit memory related to the acquisition of skills. ​ H.M. could learn new skills but could not remember learning them in the first place Priming: The increased ability to process a stimulus because of previous exposure ​ Occurs largely independently of depth of processing Where are memories stored? ​ Visual priming is supposed by decreased neural activity for previously seen images in visual cortical regions. ○​ The brain finds repeated images easier to process ​ Perceptual priming for faces is supported by face-sensitive regions in the fusiform cortex. Affective conditioning: A form of conditioning in which a previously neutral stimulus acquired positive or negative value. ​ Neurologist Dr.Claparede greeted a patient with amnesia daily (The patient never remembered him) ​ One day Claparede hid a pin in his hand so that he pricked the patient when he shook her hand. ​ The next day, she did not remember him, however, when she went to shake his hand she remembered the pin. Consolidation: The process whereby memory storage is integrated and becomes stable in the brain ​ Occurs after experiences have passed  ​ Originated from observations about how memories can be disrupted by information presented shortly after learning ​ Newly made memories may be fresh, but they are easily spoiled Long-term memories are made and consolidated at the cellular level One day ​ Hebbian learning: Cells that fire together, wire together ○​ When an axon of cell A is near enough to excite a cell B and repeatedly or persistently takes part in firing it, some growth process or metabolic change takes place in one or both cells such thatA’s efficient , as Long-term potentiation (LTP): A mechanism that create enduring synaptic connections, who Free recall: Accessing information from memory without any cues to aid your retrieval ​ Example: open ended essays or short answer questions Cued Recall: A form of retrieval that is facilitated by providing information related to the store Case Study: Mario’s Malingering Amnesia Case ​ An amnesic man was originally identified as Professor Giulio Canella. Actual possibility it was instead Mario Bruneri ​ Mario was born in 1886 and was from Turin, Italy. He was a typsist/writer, an anarchist, con artist, thief, violent criminal with convictions for several crimes ​ An arrest was made just days after his release. Records about Bruneri included physical and psychological profiles that matched identically to this man in question ​ The man in question (MIQ) was quickly fingerprinted and successfully matched with fingerprints known to belong to Mario Bruneri ​ Alfredo Coppola, a psychologist , used neuropsychological analysis to assess the psychological profile and nature of MIQ’s amnesia. Coppola confirmed this is Mario Bruneri and the amnesia malingered, experts would go on to battle it out on both sides throughout the trials and debates. ​ After this, Mario was jailed at Collegno Mental Hospital to serve the rest of his two year sentences for past crimes. Giulia Canella got him out later that year ​ Giulia fought allegations vehemently and led a very exhaustive campaign through repeated court appeals. ​ Investigations & trials are held in 1927, 1928, and 1931, and several appeals and developments are made until the 1960’s ​ Bruneri’s family were called for identification. His wife, teenage son, and siblings all confirmed his identity as Mario. ​ The Brunerians - Evidence that this is Mario Bruneri: ○​ Fingerprints ○​ Neuropsychiatric experiments demonstrating fake amnesia (ex. Bourdon’s Test, Heilbronner’s Test, and Ziehen’s Test) ​ The Canellians- Evidence that this is Guilio ○​ 25 Canella family members and 145 other people insisted or recognized that this is Guilio Canella ○​ This man appeared cultured and educated, like a professor would be ​ What happened next? ○​ The final court decision was tied between 14 judges. The minister of justice had to weigh in and determined this was Mario. ○​ The canellas refused this and moved to Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, where Giulia’s father had many assets ○​ The Canella’s lived happily ever after as a weird, legally recognized family unit. “Giulio ​ Case study: Coppola’s Tests ​ ○​ Coppola was already suspicious because this amnesia was very odd ○​ Coppola used some tests, including Ziehen’s Test, to assess the nature of this amnesia ○​ The fact that this is how “Guilio” performed raised doubts  ​ Even an amnesic should be able to immediately recall back six to eight numbers ​ This is addition to the fact that “Guilio” would forget beginning numbers and last numbers (think primacy and recency effect; serial position curve) shows deliberate attempts to fail this test– thus, fraud What is health psychology? ​ Humans have always sought to understand what makes us sick and what it means to be healthy Early explanations viewed health as stemming from external outcomes Health Psychology: An interdisciplinary field that investigates the links among behavior, cognition, and physical health ​ Has emerged in the last 50 years e last 50 years Biopsychological model: A model on health that integrates the effects of biological, behavioral, and social factors on health and illness ​ Any of the factors can be targeted to create a healthier outcome ​ Enables researchers to tackle questions of disease prevention and health promotion form different angles ​ However, practitioners are still mostly trained in only one area Stress: A physiological response to an environmental event that is perceived as taxing or even exceeding one’s ability to adapt. ​ Has psychological, environmental, and subjective components ​ The challenge for researchers is isolating the elements that make a situation stressful We are most likely to experience stress when ​ We feel uncertainty ​ We feel a lack of control ​ When there is a concern others will evaluate or treat us negatively Researchers often induce stress by having participants give a speech in front of an audience. Types of stressors ​ Catastrophic events: The most extreme type of stressor. These events threaten lives. Stress from these events can be long-lasting ​ Major life events: disruption to the social safety nets that support our everyday experiences ○​ Positive life events can be stressful, too ​ Daily Hassles: Everyday irritations that cause small disruptions, the effects of which can add up to a large impact on health ○​ Largest sources of stress Stressors: The events that are most likely to be stressful Perceived stress: A subjective evaluation of stress in response to events, depending Stress appraisal theory: Appraisals of an event and out role in it shape our emotional experience of it Two broad categories of appraisals determine the degrees to which we perceive an event to be stressful ​ Primary appraisal: A person’s perception of the demands or challenges of a given situation ​ Secondary appraisal: A person’s perception of his or her ability to deal with the demands of a given situation. Cognition plays a role in amplifying, reducting, and triggering stress responses. General adaptation syndrome: A broad-based physiological response to a physical threat that unfolds in three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion ​ Hans Selye (1907-1982) ​ Consists of three stages: ○​ Alarm ○​ Resistance ○​ Exhaustion In response to stressful events two processes are called into action by the hypothalamus ​ Sends out a hormonal alarm call in the form of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) ​ Spurs the pituitary to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) ​ Physiological changes from these systems happen involuntarily. Sympathetic-adreno-medullary (SAM) axis: A physiological system that governs the body’s immediate response to a stressful event, enabling the ability to fight or flee. Challenge reactivity: A cardiovascular pattern of response whereby the heart pumps out more blood and vascular dilates, allowing efficient circulation through the body Threat Reactivity: A cardiovascular pattern of response whereby the heart pumps out more blood but the vasculature constricts, preventing efficient circulation through the body Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis: A physiological system that governs the body’s prolonged responses to a stressful event, enabling the conservation of energy. ​ Cortisol: A hormone produced by the adrenal cortex that is often elevated in response to stressful events. ​ Increases blood sugar to provide more energy to the system ​ Suppresses the immune system by inhibiting inflammation. Acute stressor: A short-term stressor ​ Adaptive physiological reactions ​ May build up physical toughness and the immune system Socioemotional Stressor: Intrusive thoughts about a past or potential stressful experiences can both trigger and prolong the body’s physiological stress response. Chronic experiences of stress lead to a prolonged activation of several physiological systems ​ Allostatic load: The sustained activation of many physiological systems in responses to frequent or chronic stressors ○​ Daily hassles and chronic or frequent stressors can be damaging to our health by damaging our bodies or intensifying activators Chronic stress can impair PNS activation, leaving the SNS unchecked (Porges, 1995). ​ When the PNS cannot be activated to restore homeostasis, your body becomes less able to adapt to new changes. Our immunological response system ​ Cytokines: Molecules, released as part of the body’s natural immune response, that respond to injury or infection by causing fever and inflammation. ​ Specialized immune cells that find and kill certain kinds of bacteria, viruses, and toxins. Prolonged experiences of stress compromise the immune system (Segerstrom & Miller, 2004) ​ Exposure to very stressful events makes people more prone to disease by making it difficult for the body to naturally reduce inflammation. ​ Wounds also take longer to heal Personality traits influence how we appraise and respond to stressors. ​ In the 1950’s, two cardiologists, Friedman and Rosenman, found that people who had a heart attack were more likely to have a Type A personality ○​ Type A personality: A label used to describe a collection of traits that include being highly competitive and driven, hot-tempered and hostile, and urgently focused on time and time management ○​ Type B personality: A label used to describe a collection of traits that include being reflective, creative, and less competitive. After later studies failed to replicate the link between Type A personality and heart disease ​ Researchers tried to isolate whether a particular element of being Type A put people at Risk ​ Hostile, hot-tempered people are at an increased risk of having cardiovascular problems. Resilience: A tendency toward positive thinking. ​ There are clear health benefits to having a positive affect or personality (Cohen & Pressman, 2006; Pressman & Cohen, 2005). ○​ People with positive personalities show less activation of their HPA axis when under stress (Chida & Hamer, 2008). In a longitudinal study of nuns, those who used more positive language in their diaries when they were in their twenties lived an average of 7 years longer. ​ Researchers coded autobiographies written by 180 nuns when they first entered the convent Motive: A force that lead to an individual to behave in a particulaqr way Homeostasis: The body’s tendency to maintain internal equilibrium through various forms of self-regulation ​ External environment: The creatures with which the organism interacts, as well as the physical surrounding (temp, topography, availability of shelter and water, etc) ​ Internal environment: Includes the concentrations of various salts in the body’s fluids, the dissolved oxygen levels, and the quantities of nutrients like glucose Drive: A state of internal bodily tension, such as hunger or thirst or the need for sleep ​ Caused by deviation from homeostasis ​ Drive-reduction: A particular drive calls forth a behavior that reduces the drive and thus helps returning the body to equilibrium  ○​ When you are cold, you shiver Pain is our body’s way of telling us to pay attention to something physical or something social Pain matrix: A distributed network of brain regions, including the amygdala, that respond to many types of pain ​ Underlies both the sensory All forms of pain have both a specific and a general motivational role Pain signals provide: ​ Specific information about what is happening (There’s a burning sensation in my right hand) ​ Motivation for a specific response Sometimes people act in ways that increase rather than decrease pain. ​ Sometimes the pain is necessary for people to achieve their goals ○​ Training for a marathon/exercising ○​ Saving someone from a burning building Nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI): cutting, burning , stabbing, hitting, and excessive rubbing ​ Such behaviors are intentional, self-inflicted Escape-from-self hypothesis: The experience of physical pain focuses a person’s attention on the injury they are doing to themselves and to the pain they feel ​ Injury-induces narrowing or focusing of attention d Intrinsically rewarding: Being pursued for its own sake ​ Playing basketball because the experience itself is fun Extrinsically rewarding: Being pursued because of rewards that are not an inherent part of the activity or object ​ Getting paid for mowing the lawn The difference between pleasure and pain ​ With pleasure, it is important to distinguish between anticipating and receiving the pleasurable stimulus ​ The pain matrix is activated ​ Anticipating and actively seeking something good is different from actually receiving something good Case Study: Marshmallow Test ​ In the 1960’s, Stanford Psychologist Walter Mischel began one of the most popular psychological experience ​ Using pre-school participants from Stanford’s daycare, Mischel ran a series of experiments on children ​ The experiment went as follows: Upon entering the research room, 4-year-olds were ushered to sit on a seat at a table with a single ‘mallow. ​ This experiment involved 600 children throughout the 1960s ​ IN 1970, Mischel published his initial finding, however this wasn't the end. ​ This study has a longitudinal component to it. Those same children were followed up with in the 80s and 90s as well ​ There were statistically significant correlation between children able to wait on their mallow munching