Merged CPI Petroleum Manufacturing Process PDF

II. Manufacturing Process Petroleum A. Raw Materials Crude Oils Crude oils are the primary raw material utilized in production; they are complex combinations of hydrocarbons and saturated molecules, including paraffin, ethane, and methane. Petroleum products like gasoline, diesel, jet fuel, and kerosene are made from crude oil. Natural Gas Natural gas undergoes treatments like hydrotreating and hydrocracking to eliminate sulfur content and generates hydrogen through steam reforming. Its role extends to being a heating fuel, which is crucial for maintaining elevated temperatures necessary for distillation and cracking processes. Hydrogen Hydrogen purifies crude oils by extracting sulfur and other impurities, in addition to facilitating the breakdown of large molecular structures into smaller constituents. Water Water is employed both as a cooling agent to remove hydrogen sulfide chemicals and as a critical component in hydrogen production and cracking, achieved through steam reforming. 18 Oxygen The application of oxygen is mainly in the conversion of hydrogen sulfide into elemental sulfur via the Claus process, and it plays a critical role in combustion processes to generate heat or power. Catalyst Catalysts play a crucial role in speeding up the rate of reactions without being used up. Platinum-based catalysts convert naphtha into high-octane gasoline compounds through catalytic reforming. Zeolite catalysts facilitate the cracking of gas oils into gasoline, while metal catalysts are needed in sulfur removal and hydrocarbon breakdown. Acid catalysts used in alkylation convert isobutane and olefin into high-octane alkylates. Other Chemicals and Additives Other chemicals and additives like sodium hydroxide are utilized to enhance product quality. Sodium hydroxide effectively eliminates excess sulfur from kerosene and gasoline, thereby improving the properties of the final products. B. Unit Operations Distillation Atmospheric distillation separates crude oil into fractions using heat to vaporize components based on their boiling points. After the crude oil undergoes atmospheric distillation, the heavy residues go through vacuum distillation under reduced pressure. Atmospheric distillation allows distilling components to decompose at high temperatures. 19 Separation Distillation separates gases from liquid streams to extract valuable gases such as LPG and butanes. Sour water stripping is an operation in which sour water, laden with hydrogen sulfide, undergoes the stripping process to remove gas. Gas-liquid separators are employed to separate gases from liquids to ensure the efficiency of the refining process. Solvent Extraction Merox treating represents a physical and chemical process aimed at purifying distillates, including but not limited to kerosene and gasoline. The process extracts sulfur components that are present in the distillates, which results in an acidic solvent. The removal of sulfur compounds is crucial for enhancing the quality of the fuel and meeting environmental standards. Through the application of this process, the treated distillates exhibit significantly lower levels of sulfur, thereby contributing to the production of cleaner and more efficient fuels. Blending The process of blending gasoline wherein gasoline components undergo a mixing process. Blending process ensures the gas complies with fuel standards and enhances its properties. Through the strategic selection and combination of different gasoline fractions, refiners can tailor the properties of the final gasoline product to meet specific criteria, such as octane rating and volatility, making blending an essential step in the production of gasoline that meets both industry standards and consumer expectations. 20 C. Unit Processes Hydrotreating The hydrotreating oil process removes impurities such as sulfur and nitrogen utilizing hydrogen methods. The hydrotreating process evaporates the oil, combines it with hydrogen, and runs it over a catalyst. These catalysts are essential because they quicken the chemical reactions that eliminate sulfur and nitrogen. Examples of these catalysts include tungsten, nickel, or a combination of cobalt and molybdenum oxides supported on an alumina basis. Operating temperatures typically fall between 260°C to 425°C with pressures ranging from 14 to 70 bars or 200 to 1,000 psi. Without compromising the oil's other qualities, these parameters are carefully regulated to remove sulfur to the right amount. The nitrogen in the oil is changed into ammonia and the sulfur into hydrogen sulfide throughout this process. Next, the hydrogen sulfide is absorbed in a solution like diethanolamine to be extracted from the hydrogen stream that is currently in circulation. To get rid of the sulfide, heat this solution and then use it again. High-purity elemental sulfur can be made with the recovered hydrogen sulfide. Reforming Reforming is a process that uses heat, pressure, and a catalyst (often containing platinum) to convert naphthas into high-octane gasoline and petrochemical feedstock. Naphthas are hydrocarbon mixtures containing paraffins and naphthenes. In Australia, naphtha feedstock comes from crude oil distillation or catalytic cracking processes, while overseas, it comes from thermal and hydrocracking processes. Reforming converts some of these compounds into iso paraffins and aromatics, which produce higher-octane 21 gasoline. For example, paraffins are converted to isoparaffins, paraffins are converted to naphthenes, and naphthenes are converted to aromatics. Figure 17. Reaction of Catalytic Cracking Process Isomerization The process of isobutane production involves the isomerization of regular butane. The catalyst utilized in this process is aluminum chloride, supported on alumina and improved by adding hydrogen chloride gas. Developments in commercial methods have made it possible to isomerize low-octane normal pentane and hexane into their higher-octane isoparaffin counterparts, in addition to isobutane. The process includes platinum-based catalysts similar to catalytic reforming, which occurs in the presence of hydrogen. The value of hydrogen is found in its capacity to reduce adverse side effects without being created or consumed. It is subjected to distillation and molecular extraction to desired compounds from the mixture are subjected to distillation. Most processes extract low-octane components from the gasoline mix, and it does not raise the octane level enough to make a considerable contribution to the manufacturing of unleaded gasoline. Alkylation The alkylation process synthesizes longer chain molecules by merging two smaller ones, specifically an olefin with an isoparaffin, typically isobutane, that makes 22 high-octane petrol. Two primary alkylation methods are utilized in the industry, each distinguished by the type of acid catalyst employed. The sulfuric acid alkylation method uses concentrated sulfuric acid with a purity of 98% to catalyze the reaction, which takes place at temperatures ranging from 2 to 7°C (35 to 45°F). High-quality gasoline components are indicated by the octane ratings of the alkylates produced using this process, which range from 85 to 95. Furthermore, hydrofluoric acid is used as the catalyst in the hydrofluoric acid alkylation process as an alternative. The use of hydrofluoric acid enables the reaction to take place at high temperatures ranging from 24 to 46°C (75 to 115°F). The chemical reactions stimulated by HF resemble those in the sulfuric acid process. Hydrofluoric acid recovery is accomplished through distillation. Cracking The Fluid Catalytic Cracking process uses a fine particle catalyst that acts as a fluid when mixed with vapor. The fresh feed is preheated in a process heater and then introduced into the bottom of a vertical transfer line or riser along with a hot regenerated catalyst. The hot catalyst vaporizes the feed, bringing both to the desired reaction temperature of 470 to 525°C (880 to 980°F). Most of the cracking reactions occur in the riser due to the high activity of modern catalysts as the catalyst and oil mixture flows upward into the reactor. Cyclones in the reactor separate the hydrocarbon vapors from the catalyst particles. The resulting reaction products are sent to a fractionator for separation. As the catalyst is used up, it settles at the bottom of the reactor. It undergoes steam stripping as it exits the reactor's base to eliminate absorbed hydrocarbons. The catalyst that has been spent is then transported to a regenerator. Any coke accumulated on 23 the catalyst due to the cracking reactions within the regenerator is burned away in a carefully controlled combustion process utilizing preheated air. The temperature in the regenerator is typically maintained between 590 to 675°C (1100 to 1250°F). Following this regeneration process, the catalyst is recycled and mixed with a fresh supply of hydrocarbon feed, ready to be used again in the reaction process. Hydrocracking is a process where the value of crude oil is greatly increased when large hydrocarbons are broken down into smaller, more valuable products like jet fuel, diesel, and gasoline. This conversion is accomplished by a process in which hydrogen is necessary. Hydrocarbon molecules are "cracked" into smaller ones through high-pressure reactions between hydrogen and a catalyst. FCC converts unsaturated hydrocarbons to saturated hydrocarbons and prevents the development of coke. Thus, the usefulness and economic worth of crude oil are maximized as a result of this process, which successfully raises the production of lighter, more valuable petroleum products from the heavier fractions. Delayed Coking In the delayed coking process, the heated feedstock is introduced at the bottom of a fractionator to remove light ends from the feed. The stripped feed is then mixed with recycled products from the coke drum and rapidly heated in the coking heater to a temperature range of 480 to 590°C (900 to 1100°F). Steam injection is utilized to regulate the residence time in the heater. The vapor-liquid feed exits the heater and moves to a coke drum where, under controlled residence time, pressure (1.8 to 2.1 kg/cm2 [25 to 30 psig]), and temperature (400°C [750°F]), it is cracked to produce coke and vapors. 24 Claus Process The Claus process involves the partial combustion of the H2S-rich gas stream using one-third of the stoichiometric quantity of air. The unburned H2S and resultant sulfur dioxide are combined with a bauxite catalyst to create elemental sulfur. In the Claus furnace, acid gas from the acid gas removal (AGR) process is burned with enough air or oxygen to produce a gas mixture that has the correct 2 to 1 stoichiometric ratio of H2S to sulfur dioxide (SO2) for conversion to sulfur and water. A small quantity of recycling from the tail gas treatment unit and overhead gases from sour water stripping are among the other fuels used in the furnace. The reactions primarily form the sulfur in the furnace. The hot furnace exhaust cools and condenses in the waste heat boiler, separating the gaseous sulfur from the gasses. To promote complete conversion to sulfur, the removal of sulfur catalyzes more conversion in the downstream catalytic reactor stages, which occur at progressively lower temperatures. The gases are reheated before entering the first catalytic reactor, where they undergo a 75% conversion process. Subsequently, the gases are cooled, the sulfur is condensed, and finally removed. Additional steps are taken to recover roughly 98% of the total sulfur. The integrated WHB recovers reaction heat from the burner by producing medium-pressure steam for reheating in catalytic stages and other applications. Hydrogen Synthesis Hydrogen synthesis uses hydrogen to decrease the amount of sulfur in fuels through hydrotreating and hydrocracking. For the production of ultra-low sulfur fuels—which are required by law in several countries related to environmental 25 concerns—hydrogen synthesis is particularly crucial. Sulfur compounds and hydrogen combine to form hydrogen sulfide, which may be separated out. D. Process Flow Diagrams Figure 18. Schematic Diagram of Petroleum Refinery 26 Petrochemicals A. Raw Materials Primary Raw Materials Primary raw materials typically refer to naturally occurring substances that have not undergone chemical changes after extraction. Petrochemical manufacturing relies on natural gas and crude oils as fundamental raw materials. Crude Oil The gases produced by various methods of processing crude oil are significant suppliers of olefins and LPG. Distillates and residues of crude oil are used as starting materials for olefins and aromatics through cracking and reforming procedures. Crude oil consists of a blend of hydrocarbons and the distillation process is designed to separate the crude oil into distinct categories of hydrocarbon components, known as "fractions." The crude oil is initially heated and then introduced into a distillation column also referred to as a still. In this column, different products vaporize and are collected at varying temperatures. Lighter products, such as butane, liquid petroleum gases (LPG), gasoline blending components, and naphtha, are collected at lower temperatures. Medium-range products, including jet fuel, kerosene, and distillates (diesel fuel), are recovered at moderate temperatures. Residual fuel oil is collected at temperatures that can exceed 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit. 27 Natural Gas Ethane and LPG are recovered from natural gas and utilized as intermediates in the production of olefins and diolefins. Methanol and ammonia are extracted from methane through synthesis gas. Secondary Raw Materials Secondary raw materials, or intermediates, are derived from natural gas and crude oil using various processing methods. The raw materials used in producing other chemicals from petroleum are known as feedstocks. These can be classified into three general groups: olefins, aromatics, and a third group that includes synthesis gas and inorganics. Olefins Olefins are unsaturated hydrocarbons with straight-chain molecules, including ethylene, propylene, and butadiene. Ethylene is the primary hydrocarbon feedstock utilized in the petrochemical industry with many different uses. It is used to manufacture ethylene glycol for polyester fibers and resins, as well as antifreeze, ethyl alcohol for solvents and chemical reagents, polyethylene for film and plastics, styrene for resins, synthetic rubber, plastics, and polyesters, and ethylene dichloride for vinyl chloride, which is used in plastics and fibers. Propylene is commonly used in the production of epoxy glue, rubbing alcohol, acrylics, and carpets, while butadiene is used for making synthetic rubber, carpet fibers, paper coatings, and plastic pipes. 28 Aromatics Aromatics are unsaturated hydrocarbon molecules that form rings. The primary aromatic feedstocks include benzene, toluene, xylene, and naphthalene. Benzene is utilized in the production of styrene, a key component of polystyrene plastics, as well as in the manufacturing of paints, epoxy resins, glues, and other adhesives. Toluene is predominantly employed in manufacturing solvents, gasoline additives, and explosives. Xylene has applications in producing plastics, synthetic fibers, and refining gasoline. Lastly, naphthalene is used in manufacturing pesticides. Synthesis Gas and Inorganics Synthesis gas is necessary for the production of methanol and ammonia. The Haber-Bosch process produces ammonia that is used to produce ammonium nitrate which is commonly used as a fertilizer. Meanwhile, formaldehyde is made from methanol, obtained by catalytically hydrogenated carbon monoxide. As formaldehyde is essential in creating resins and adhesives, a significant amount of methanol is needed to achieve this objective. In addition, methanol helps create silicone rubber, polyester fibers, and plastics—substances essential to the packaging, textile, and automobile sectors. B. Unit Operations Distillation The distillation column plays a crucial role in the refining of crude oil, functioning much like a still by separating the product into its various chemical 29 components based on differences in volatility. The process stream is heated before entering the column, leading to partial vaporization. As it ascends the tower, the vapor cools. Light components continue to rise, while heavier components condense and fall to the bottom as a liquid. The crude distillation unit separates crude oil into fractions such as light naphtha, heavy naphtha, jet fuel, diesel, and atmospheric gas oil (AGO) based on their boiling points. Additionally, the vacuum distillation unit further separates heavier residues from the crude distillation. Gas Processing Gas processing purifies raw natural gas to extract valuable components. The process begins with natural gas extraction which contains impurities like sulfur or carbon dioxide. The natural gas is then extracted into fractions: ethane, methane, propane, and butane. The purified gas is then fractionated into crucial components such as methane (used as fuel), ethane (for ethylene production), and propane and butane (used in fuels or further processed into petrochemicals). Heat Exchangers Preheating feedstocks such as crude oil, natural gas, or intermediate streams is a common practice before they enter reactors or cracking units. In the petrochemical sector, heat exchangers are required to operate at high pressure and high temperature, both onshore and offshore. Since crude fossil fuels contain significant amounts of water, a considerable part of the process is dedicated to removing it from the finished products. Heating, cooling, and distillation 30 operations are all crucial stages further along in the process, as is the recovery of energy to maximize product efficiency. Compression In the production of petrochemicals, compression is the process of increasing gas pressure for easier movement and processing. By decreasing the amount of gas, compressors produce denser gas and higher pressure. High pressure prepares gases like ethylene and methane for additional processing in reactors or distillation units and enables effective gas transportation via pipelines. Gases are made suitable for separation and conversion into valuable petrochemical materials through compression. Separation The process of separating a hydrocarbon mixture into its various components and using their unique physical properties such as density and boiling points. Fractional distillation is a common technique that entails heating the mixture and separating its parts as they evaporate at various temperatures. Aromatics Extraction One crucial process used in petrochemicals to separate aromatic hydrocarbons from petroleum and other hydrocarbon blends is aromatics extraction. Aromatic hydrocarbons, such as benzene, toluene, and xylene (referred to as BTX), are valuable raw materials used in the production of various chemicals and materials, such as synthetic fibers, resins, and plastics. 31 Polymerization In petrochemicals, polymerization is the process of forming polymers from petroleum-based monomers like ethylene and propylene. There are two main types of polymerizations: condensation (step-growth) polymerization, where monomers react and release a tiny molecule like water, and addition (chain-growth) polymerization, when unsaturated bond monomers connect together. Several significant polymers are produced as a result of this process, such as nylon for textiles, polyethylene for packaging, and polypropylene for auto parts. C. Unit Processes Steam Cracking The process of steam cracking is a petrochemical method that involves breaking down saturated hydrocarbons into smaller, often unsaturated hydrocarbons. This process is the main industrial technique for generating lighter alkenes, such as ethene (ethylene) and propene (propylene). Aromatization Aromatization refers to a chemical transformation in which specific hydrocarbons, such as those present in naphtha (a light segment of crude oil), undergo conversion into aromatic compounds such as benzene, toluene, and xylenes (known collectively as BTX). These aromatic substances are crucial foundational elements in manufacturing plastics, synthetic fibers, and other petrochemical goods. 32 Hydrogenation Hydrogenation involves the addition of hydrogen gas (H₂) to unsaturated hydrocarbons, such as ethylene and propylene, which contain double bonds. This chemical process disrupts the double bonds, enabling the carbon atoms to form bonds with hydrogen atoms, thereby transforming the unsaturated hydrocarbons into more stable saturated hydrocarbons with single bonds. The process enhances the material to be suitable into conversion of products like plastics. D. Process Flow Diagrams Figure 19. Schematic Diagram of Primary Raw Materials of Petrochemical Manufacturing Process Figure 20. Schematic Diagram of Natural Gas Processing 33 III. Common Manufacturing Problems and Proposed Solutions The petroleum and petrochemical industries form the backbone of the global economy, initiating energy production, manufacturing, and virtually any other industry. Nevertheless, the technical problems associated with the refining and processing petroleum create problems regarding lost operations, reduced efficiency, and environmental degradation. Common manufacturing issues such as corrosion, fouling, scaling, emissions, environmental contamination, and production bottlenecks are not only technical problems but cause economic and social concerns, which also incur expensive losses in terms of time, increased running costs, and damage to the environment, all of which have feedback effects across supply chains and communities. 1. Corrosion and Leaks Petroleum refineries face a significant challenge in the form of corrosion. Over the last few decades, there has been a growing focus on this issue because of the ongoing reliance of the global economy on oil and natural gas-based industries. It may lead to interference with refinery processes, which include without notice shut down, leaks, and loss of products. Corrosion is considered a great danger to refineries because it ensures metallic appliances are exposed to corroding agents. There have been other forms of corrosion caused by the interaction of the material with the environment in other parts of petroleum refineries, and as National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) has estimated, the annual cost of corrosion in US refineries exceeds 3.7 billion dollars. 34 Figure 21. Oil and Gas Refinery Explosion Caused by Corrosion With increased demand for highly acidic crude to maximize profits, refineries would experience more corrosion. The overhead distillation unit tends to be very acid in nature and hence corrosive since it favors the occurrence of acid corrosion. Hydrotreaters are used in refinery areas for removing impurities such as sulfur and nitrogen and, hence are more susceptible to corrosive conditions. However, naphthenic acid (NA) corrosion can damage hydrotreaters and undermine the reliability of the unit. Therefore, the first measure of corrosion prevention will be to choose proper materials for the design plants by regulating the deteriorating agents applied in refineries. After that, it is also equally important to apply suitable coatings, inject corrosion inhibitors, remove corrosive elements from crude oil, and apply other techniques uniformly during the course of plant operation. 2. Fouling and Scaling Fouling and scaling occur when unwanted materials, such as minerals, biological organisms, or hydrocarbons, accumulate on the surfaces of heat exchangers, pipes, and reactors (Kazi, 2022). These phenomena commonly occur because of suspended particles in the fluid flow, high temperatures that cause chemical reactions, and biological growth 35 in cooling systems, which are all common in petrochemical industries, specifically crude oil processing plants, and are particularly prevalent in heat exchangers, pipes, and reactors. Particle buildup within crucial equipment such as heat exchangers, boilers, and reactors reduces heat transfer efficiency, increases energy consumption, and can lead to equipment failures and unscheduled shutdowns. Fouling can reduce plant efficiency by up to 30%, increasing energy consumption and operational costs. When left ignored, fouling can lead to intensive maintenance and cleaning operations, where maintenance costs for cleaning and replacing fouled equipment can run into millions (Kazi, 2022). Figure 22. Fouling in Heat Exchangers Common mitigations used to control fouling in petrochemical industries include scale inhibitors, chemical additives, and manual mechanical and chemical cleaning (Fryer, 2021). These solutions were proven to prevent mineral deposits and help remove fouling, but they have limitations. Mechanical and chemical cleaning is commonly reactive rather than preventive. Effective corrosion mitigation methods are required to reduce the asset failure of billions of dollars annually. The United States hosts the largest refining capacity worldwide, with well over 18 million barrels of refined petroleum products daily. This action also increases the risk of wear and tear on the equipment, 36 decreasing its life span. Moreover, although preventive, chemical additives are selectively effective, especially in extreme conditions. One of the critical proposed solutions for fouling and scaling is using hydrophobic or oleophobic coatings, which reduces the adhesion of suspended particles that may build to equipment surfaces. Zhang et al. (2021) discussed that surfaces coated with these coatings had a decreased surface energy of approximately 18.5% to 45.3%, which further shows that these coatings reduce fouling sites and increase the surface's hydrophobicity, which also gives the surface a repellent and self-cleaning effect, which may diminish the regular need for maintenance and mechanical cleaning. 3. Environmental Contamination and Emissions Control The petroleum and petrochemical industries contribute significantly to environmental pollution in the form of emissions of greenhouse gases, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and accidental emissions of toxic substances. In refining, gases that are not easily captured or processed are flared or vented in the routine operations of the industry, which translates into high levels of CO₂ and other toxicant emissions from the atmosphere (David & Niculescu, 2021). Besides gas emissions, refineries are also known to have spillages of oil and gas that may occur due to old infrastructure and lack of proper maintenance, thus damaging the environment gravely. Indeed, the petrochemical industry has been one of the primary causes of pollution in the Philippines, which serves as one of the key reason that the recent Mindoro oil spill caused by an oil tanker from Petron brought about severe damage to marine ecosystems and was detrimental to biodiversity and the lifestyle of coastal dwellers. Based on reports, this incident caused at least 41.2 billion pesos worth of damage to the coastal communities and even in the marine 37 environment of Oriental Mindoro, which is 800% higher compared to the initial estimate of the Center for Energy, Ecology, and Development (CEED) (Abrina, 2024). Figure 23. Oil Spill in Mindoro (February 2024) Technologies like flue gas desulfurization (FGD) and selective catalytic reduction (SCR) are used to reduce emissions of sulfur and nitrogen compounds. In response to oil spills like the one in Mindoro, a combination of traditional methods, such as booms, skimmers, and dispersants, are typically deployed, which are the industry standards for containing and cleaning up oil spills. However, these traditional methods are highly dependent on the sea's condition and are effective if the conditions are calm, but they are less effective in rough waters. Also, the effectiveness of these methods decreases as oil spreads over a large area, specifically manual cleanup, which only recovers 10-15% of spilled oil even with extensive actions. To address these countless problems, petrochemical industries can adopt technologies and artificial intelligence using drones with infrared cameras, AI-driven algorithms, and remote sensing technologies, which may improve leak and oil spill early detection and monitoring. In gas emissions, Carbon capture and storage can be adopted, 38 which has been proven to capture up to 90% of CO₂ emissions from petrochemical plants, thus averting them from reaching the atmosphere. 4. Production Bottlenecks To define, bottlenecks are points in the production process where throughput can be improved, so they naturally slow these points down and reduce the plant's overall efficiency. It can happen in distillation columns, catalytic cracking units, or material handling systems in a refinery. In general, the two standard reasons are underperformance and supply chain disruptions. Cases of bottlenecks in catalytic cracking units-the beating hearts of refineries have reduced the capacity of the entire refinery by 15%, delayed shipments, and increased costs in a time when demand is high, which has caused considerable financial losses and a cascading effect on regional fuel prices, pointing out how inefficiencies in such production are critical. Bottlenecks are economically significant because, at times, they can halt or slow production and translate into huge losses in revenue. According to Barone (2023), bottlenecks would also mean erosion of 20% of the plant's overall efficiency, which meant millions of dollars that would have been accounted for in terms of profit. The need for mitigation, therefore, is enormous. The primary ways to mitigate bottlenecks are equipping process improvement, and scheduled maintenance. For instance, most refineries try to counter blockages by increasing the reactors or replacing the old distillation columns. In most cases, however, these countermeasures have to play catch-up because of the nature of interacting systems. According to TOC, removing a single bottleneck might increase production in the short term but only promise long-term success if the system is 39 optimized. In addition, upgrades can be overly expensive and take months or years to implement, thus causing a protracted disruption of operations. Advanced solutions grounded in technology and data analytics are becoming essential to tackle production bottlenecks more effectively. One such approach is Advanced Process Control (APC), which uses real-time data and algorithms to optimize process variables such as temperature, pressure, and flow rates (Heinrich & Abernethy, 2018). According to studies in Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, the refineries using APC have experienced up to 25% increase in throughput while at the same time dramatically minimizing process variability, ensuring smooth operations and conditions (Symestic, 2022). It works on the real-time adjustment of system performance, keeping a close watch on its performance and instantly correcting small inefficiencies before they develop into significant bottlenecks. Supply chain optimization is another critical area in mitigating production bottlenecks, which is less technical than the other solutions (Katsaliaki & Kumar, 2021). Further improvement in the availability of material and avoidance of associated bottlenecks can be contributed by the application of predictive analytics in predicting demand and by understanding logistics in the supply chain. According to Accenture, a 20% rise in operational efficiency and reduction of lead time can be achieved through predictive analytics supply chains where raw materials arrive in time for production without any delay or excess inventory. 40 IV. Product and/or Process Innovations Indeed, innovation is one of the predominant advancements that a company can achieve as a gateway to the growth of the business. In the process of innovating a business, there can be challenges involved, however the payoffs are high for those companies that make this as their core priority. As a matter of fact, petroleum and petrochemical companies have always been at the forefront of technological innovations, pursuing for more ways to improve efficiency, safety, and sustainability. Hence, listed here are the top process innovations that the petroleum and petrochemical industries implemented: Petroleum Advance Seismic Imaging For the past decades, seismic imaging has been utilized in the petroleum industry. Its purpose is to characterize subsurface properties and structures of geological formations, which helps in identifying Dense Nonaqueous Phase Liquids (DNALPs). Although, the recent advancement of it has revolutionized the industry in properly locating and extracting hydrocarbon supplies. As a result, high-resolution 3D seismic imaging techniques integrated into artificial intelligence algorithms were discovered to contribute to more precise imaging of subsurface structures and properties. Furthermore, this also diminishes the risk exploration dangers that may be faced by the employees, which leads to the increasing success rate of drilling operations. According to Prismecs (2024), the demand for seismic services is expected to increase by 14% or 1.1 billion dollars for almost 9.3 billion dollars as exploration activities also increase. 41 Digital Oilfield Solutions Similar to advanced seismic imaging, digital oilfield solutions also incorporate technologies, including the Artificial Intelligence (AI) and the Internet of Things (IoT) to evaluate and optimize real-time production-related information in the field (Prismecs, 2024). This idea may aid in the monitoring of inaccessible regions, promote production efficiency, and fine-tune equipment performance. This offers a wide array of advantageous commercial significance, like cost reduction and operational efficiency gains. Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) Techniques Since the world is now experiencing climate change, oil reserves are also at risk, making the petroleum industry to shift in the enhanced oil recovery (EOR) techniques. With this, different innovations were discovered, such as steam injection, which was proven to be the foremost enhanced oil recovery method, polymer flooding, and microbial enhanced oil recovery, which provided outstanding results in extending the economic life of mature reservoirs and improving production rates. In line with this, EOR can not only aid in improving production rates but can also aid businesses wanting to optimize the return on their current investments by creating attractive commercial prospects. Renewable Energy Integration Since petroleum industries promote innovations, it is also essential to encourage them while increasingly integrating renewable energy resources to respond to growing environmental issues, such as reducing carbon footprint and enhancing sustainability. One innovation that has impacted the environment was the alteration of solar-powered 42 wellheads to wind-driven offshore platforms. According to Prismecs (2024), inaugurating the hybrid energy systems (HES) can play a vital role in the innovation of the petroleum industry. This idea can not only reduce in the release of greenhouse gas emissions but also can generate new revenue streams (Prismecs, 2024). Petrochemical Circular Economy and Resource Recovery As the world progresses, embracing innovations in various companies would be beneficial in remaining sustainable and competitive in the industry. Therefore, transitioning into a circular economy would be one of the ways a company must implement this since it will aid in maximizing resource efficiency while minimizing waste and promoting the reuse, recycling, and recovery of materials. In this instance, the petrochemical industry may help create closed-loop systems that recycle plastics, extract valuable chemicals from waste streams, and use byproducts for further uses. Hence, this will greatly reduce cost production as it will promote in recycling materials that will also be beneficial in protecting the environment. Figure 24. Circular Economy Model 43 Green Chemistry and Sustainable Manufacturing To continue about protecting the environment, green chemistry is one of the innovations that can be implemented by the companies as this will center on developing chemical processes and products that conserve resources and minimize environmental impact. If this innovation will be implemented in the industry, it will lead to an eco-friendly products, renewable feedstocks, and energy-efficient manufacturing processes. Biobased Chemicals and Renewable Feedstocks As it has been evidently known, petrochemical companies rely on fossil fuels as their main source of feedstock. Since fossil fuels have been continually depleted throughout the years, which must be faster than the new ones being made available, it is acceptable to shift to biobased chemicals and renewable feedstocks because these serve as alternatives to fossil fuels-derived raw materials in the industries. Furthermore, the industry should also focus on recognizing biorefinery platforms and biotechnologies enabling the production processes to greener, more sustainable products. Digital Transformation and Industry Entering into a generation of technology, it is advantageous if the innovation of a company is also integrated into the world of technology, involving Artificial Intelligence (AI), Internet of Things (IoT), big data analytics, and advanced automation (Prismecs, 2024). By using these technologies, companies can enhance efficiency, productivity, and safety inside the manufactory. Considering this, digital simulations will play an important role in enabling companies in optimizing their chemical processes, that will lead to a faster and easier innovation process. 44 V. Virtual Field Trips In this section, it can be perceived various photos and links of the videos on the process of converting raw materials into useful petroleum and petrochemical products. Petroleum A. Photos Figure 25. Jack / St. Malo Oil Refinery Company This figure explains the manufacturing processes going outside and inside the company. In this case, Jack/St. Malo Company is located approximately 280 miles in South Orleans, where the employees will need to take via helicopter and spend "14 days on" at sea and "14 days off" onshore. Therefore, the company's sleeping headquarters can accommodate 159 personnel and has beds, satellite TVs, and Wi-Fi. Meanwhile, in the production process, it was stated that the pressure inside the oil pipeline is around 4,500 psi, which is equivalent to 2.2 tons or a standing elephant on one cubic inch. Installing this pipeline was meant to operate in extreme conditions, as deep as 7,000 feet, equivalent to the 5x height of the Empire State Building. 45 Figure 26. Illustration of Extracting Oil to Gas Stations On the other hand, this figure explains the process where oil and gas are extracted offshore from porous rocks found miles beneath the Earth’s surface that will need thousands of workers up to the refinery production, where the extracted materials are converted by heating, pressure, or catalysts, going to the tanker trucks that will fill up the various gas stations, where people can purchase from. These oil and natural gases will be significant help in the transportation of different vehicles and in running different sectors including, homes, offices, and hospitals. B. Link to Videos Attached here is the link of the video where it can be perceived the different stations of the petroleum industry located offshore: https://youtu.be/yIYRmjn_4FY https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yDev2v3X0J8&pp=ygUsdmlydHVhbCB maWVsZCB0b3VyIGluIHRoZSBwZXRyb2xldW0gaW5kdXN0cnk%3D 46 Petrochemical A. Photos Figure 27. Illustration of a Petrochemical Manufacturing Company This figure shows the outside view of the manufacturing industry of a petrochemical company, specifically the JG Summit Olefins Corporation, which is one of the leading companies in the industry. It can be seen the different sizes and shapes of the pipes and lines are responsible for the production of the products. B. Link to Video Attached here is the link of the video where it can tour to the various stations located inside the petrochemical company: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rhrsgj_drXw https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oR3ZRjgMNMk&pp=ygUwdmlydHVhb CBmaWVsZCB0b3VyIGluIHRoZSBwZXRyb2NoZW1pY2FsIGluZHVzdHJ5 47 II. MANUFACTURING PROCESS a. Raw Materials Raw Milk A raw material is sourced directly from dairy animals, primarily cows. However, raw milk can also come from other livestock like goats, sheep, or other mammals. Cows are the most common source due to their ability to produce large volumes of milk with consistent composition. It is comprised of a complex liquid consisting of water, which makes up about 87-88% of raw milk; proteins such as casein, which makes up about 80% of milk proteins and is essential for the structure and texture of milk products, and whey protein as the remaining 20% that contributes to the nutritional value and are heat-sensitive which influences how milk behaves during pasteurization. Raw milk also contains fats that are present in the form of tiny globules, which provide the milk’s richness and creaminess; carbohydrates in the form of lactose, which is a source of energy and gives milk its slight sweetness; vitamins, including vitamin A, B-complex, and D; essential minerals such as calcium and phosphorus which are crucial for bone health. Milk is collected from dairy farms, undergoing initial filtration and cooling to maintain freshness. It is then transported in refrigerated tankers to the processing plant, keeping the temperature below 4℃ to prevent bacterial growth. Water An extensively used commodity throughout the dairy processing plant and it is mainly used for cleaning and sanitizing equipment, tanks, pipelines, and packaging machinery, as it is a crucial part of preventing contamination during pasteurization. The water used in dairy processing must be of high purity and free from contaminants, bacteria, and residues that could compromise the quality of the milk. It is also used to control temperatures in the pasteurization process, particularly in exchangers where milk is rapidly heated and cooled. In some cases, purified water of minuscule amounts may be used to adjust the consistency of the milk to achieve a standardized fat content. Additional Vitamins and Minerals Adding vitamins and minerals to milk to improve its nutritional profile is an additive process called fortification; it is implemented to address vitamin deficiencies in countries with prevalent cases, particularly with vitamin D. The most commonly added vitamin during pasteurization is vitamin D, whose primary target is to promote calcium absorption and support bone health through vitamin D2 or D3, where vitamin D3 is the most common supplement derived from animal sources. Stabilizers Aids to maintain the consistency and texture of certain types of milk, such as flavored milk or ultra-pasteurized (UHT) milk. This food-grade substance is approved for small quantities, and generic stabilizers include carrageenan from seaweed, guar gum, and cellulose derivatives. These stabilizers are generally mixed into the milk before the pasteurization process to ensure even distribution and assimilate them smoothly into the final product. b. Unit Operations and Processes Several unit operations are involved in the manufacturing of pasteurized milk to ensure that the milk to be processed possesses standard quality suitable for human consumption, as this standard entails product safety and quality consistency from each step, starting from the collection process down to its final packaging. Collection To reduce or possibly eliminate the risk of contamination from the manual process of milking cows, fresh milk is collected through a modernized method of utilizing automated milking machines that operate under a vacuum to extract the milk gently from the source, thus resulting in a more hygienic environment. Once collected, impurities such as straw, hair, or dust are removed from the milk through filtration. After collection, milk is rapidly cooled to around 4℃ using on-farm cooling systems to inhibit bacteria from spawning before transportation. Transportation The cooled milk is then transferred to insulated bulk tankers made from stainless steel for transportation to the dairy processing plant. These transportation tankers are equipped to maintain low temperatures between 1℃ and 4℃ using refrigerated systems during transit, and these vehicles are also equipped with sampling ports, allowing for quality checks to be conducted at various stages, ensuring that the milk retains its freshness until it reaches the facility for processing dairy. Milk Reception Once the unprocessed milk arrives at the dairy processing plant, milk is subjected to numerous tests that encompass quality and purity parameters. The tests involve checking for temperature, the milk’s acidity level, fat content, and the presence of antibiotics and microbial load. These tests ensure the milk is free from contamination and of suitable quality before processing. Therefore, if the milk is assessed to meet quality standards, it is offloaded with the use of sanitary pumps into large reception tanks, where it undergoes further filtration to remove unwanted substances and residuals. Storage The milk is stored in insulated, large-sized stainless steel storage tanks at a temperature of 4℃. Agitators are equipped in these tanks to keep the milk in constant motion, preventing the cream from rising to the surface and guaranteeing a uniform consistency throughout the process. The storage tanks are attached to a network of stainless steel pipelines that ensure milk moves hygienically and efficiently through the plant to different processing stages, therefore minimizing the risk of contamination. Standardization This operation adjusts the fat content of the milk to create products like whole cream and skim milk. Through a process called centrifugal separation, which the name implies that the separation procedure operates based on the principles of centrifugal force, the milk is spun rapidly in a centrifugal bowl, separating denser components outward, which is considered skim milk. In contrast, the lighter components that are collected at the center are called cream. This procedure made it possible to precisely separate the fat content of milk into cream and skim milk. The separated cream and skim milk are then mixed back together in controlled proportions to achieve the desired amount of fat content. Pasteurization This operation is the most vital part of the milk manufacturing process since it ensures the safety of the milk by eliminating any pathogenic bacteria that is present in the substance and, therefore, extending its shelf life without significantly affecting its nutritional value. The most conventional method of pasteurizing milk is called High-Temperature Short-Time (HTST) Pasteurization, which involves applying heat to the milk to a temperature of 72℃ for a duration of 15 seconds using plate heat exchangers. The plate heat exchanger consists of multiple stainless steel plates, which create a thin film of milk that flows between the hot plates; with this design, the surface area is maximized for a rapid and uniform heat transfer. After heating, the milk is cooled to 4℃ using the same plate heat exchanger, which uses cooled water or glycol on the cooling side. The rapid cooling is vital to inhibit the growth of heat-resistant bacteria. Homogenization This operation ensures that the fat globules in milk are broken down into tiny, uniform pieces, preventing them from clumping together and rising to the surface as cream, effectively enhancing the milk’s consistency, taste, as well as its appearance. This operation uses a high-pressure homogenizer and pumps milk through a narrow gap between 2000 to 2500 psi. This sudden pressure drop causes the larger fat globules to break into smaller ones. The smaller fat particles remain evenly distributed throughout the milk, giving the dairy a smooth texture and whiter appearance. Fortification This operation is optional; however, this step enhances milk's nutritional profile by adding vitamins and minerals, such as vitamin D, which is essential for bone health and calcium absorption. This step is done by adding liquid vitamin solutions using dosing pumps that ensure precise quantities of nutrients are mixed into the milk. During this operation, thorough mixing is essential to ensure that vitamins are evenly distributed throughout the entire batch of milk. Regulatory agencies like the FDA or local health authorities have strict guidelines on the types and amounts of vitamins and minerals that can be added to milk. Packaging This operation preserves the quality of the pasteurized milk, ensuring it remains uncontaminated during storage and transportation to consumers. Standard packaging formats include high-density polyethylene (HDPE) plastic jugs, gable-top cartons, and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles. Glass bottles are also used for specialty milk brands. The milk packaging process includes automated filling machines in aseptic conditions to prevent contamination, and these machines are designed to handle various packaging sizes and formats. Packaging lines are also equipped with metal detectors and X-ray systems to ensure that no foreign materials are present inside the filled packages. Moreover, each package is sealed tightly to prevent air and light from entering, which could degrade milk quality. Product Storage After packaging, the milk-containing packets are stored in refrigerated storage rooms or cold warehouses at 4℃ to maintain their freshness. These rooms are equipped with thermal monitoring systems to ensure a consistent environment for the milk. This facility must have systems to exhibit proper airflow and humidity control to prevent condensation on the packaging, which could cause mold to grow and lead to other quality issues. Distribution Milk is transported using refrigerated trucks to distribution centers and retail outlets that maintain a temperature of 4℃ throughout the supply chain. Cold chain management is critical to ensure the quality of the product until it reaches the consumers. Any break in the cold chain could compromise the shelf life of the milk product. Retailers store the milk in refrigerated display cases, where it is kept at the same temperature until the consumers buy it. c. Process Flow Diagram Fig 3. Steam Injection Pasteurizer by Francis P. Hanrahan in 1962 The milk passes through a regenerator(2), a heat exchanger which warms the milk to around 38℃, followed by proceeding to a pre-heater(3), where it is slightly heated by a steam pipe to around 54℃. The pasteurization process occurs for 15 secs at sections 7 to 13, where the milk is heated to 72℃ and at the end, there is a valve which detects the temperature of the milk. If the milk’s temperature is not sufficiently hot enough, then it is redirected to section 7 of the diagram until it reaches the right temperature. After that, the milk passes through the separator(18) where it is rapidly cooled to 53℃ and a pump pushes the milk to the regenerator(2) where it is further cooled down to 7℃ by exchanging heat with the incoming milk. Finally, the milk is finally cooled in the refrigerator(21) before it is packed. III. COMMON MANUFACTURING PROBLEMS AND PROPOSED SOLUTION The milk industry is crucial to our everyday lives, offering dairy products that are consumed widely. However, like any large-scale production, it faces several manufacturing challenges due to milk's perishable nature and the complexity of its production. These challenges can significantly affect the product's quality, safety, and efficiency, making it necessary to understand these issues for consistent and dependable production. In this part of the report, the most common manufacturing problems in the food and beverage industry, specifically the milk industry, will be discussed and their solutions. Contamination & Spoilage Contamination is one of the most serious problems a manufacturer may face in the food and beverage industry. It can significantly impact and pose a risk to consumer health and product quality, affecting business operations. Four major types of contamination can compromise food manufacturing processes: microbial, chemical, physical, and allergenic. In the milk industry, the most common contaminants are the microbial and chemical pollutants. Milk has a unique composition and properties that makes it an excellent medium for bacterial growth. It can encounter contamination at any point during the production process. In early stages, contamination can originate from dairy cows that consume or interact with harmful organisms. This exposure can lead to diseases such as mastitis, a breast infection, which results in the production of contaminated milk. Aside from this, milk can also be contaminated within food manufacturing facilities, where bacteria and microorganisms easily proliferate. They can be found inside pipelines and tanks, free-floating, or settled on surfaces like biofilms. Biofilms are formed by mixed pathogenic species such as Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella enterica, and Escherichia coli (E. coli). These groups of pathogens remain to be a persistent challenge to the dairy industry, known to be a major source of both spoilage and pathogenic microflora. They can attach to surfaces of processing equipment including milk storage tanks, pasteurizers, and milk handling devices. Sources of contamination may also include improper pasteurization. Inadequate temperature or sufficient time during pasteurization allows microorganisms to survive, contaminating not only the milk but also the surfaces of the equipment. Meanwhile, chemical contamination is when a food or beverage unintentionally comes in contact with chemicals. This may happen during food processing, packaging and transport where the food is accidentally exposed to chemicals. Chemical contaminants such as veterinary drugs, antimicrobial drugs, heavy metals, radionuclides, mycotoxins and pesticides can enter animal feed and have some residues in milk. Among these, antimicrobial drugs are the most contentious residues that occur in milk. Consumption of contaminated milk, or any contaminated food and beverage, can cause muscle and stomach pain, gastrointestinal diseases accompanied by diarrhea, fever, and nausea, and, in extreme cases, may lead to death. Negligence in the production and distribution of the products can damage the manufacturing company’s reputation, resulting in consumer trust losses, as well as financial losses. Moreover, it may also lead to legal liabilities, disruption of operations and worst closure of the processing plant. That is why it is crucial to follow all the safety and quality control measures within the dairy industry. In the Philippines, there is a strong policy framework that ensures food safety through the Food Safety Act of 2013 and the Code on Sanitation of the Philippines (Chapter 3). The Food Safety Act outlines guidelines for food production, processing, distribution, and trade, stressing the importance of protecting consumers from foodborne illnesses. Meanwhile, chapter 3 of the Code on Sanitation sets regulations for the sanitation and hygiene of food establishments, focusing on preventing contamination and ensuring safe food handling practices. Aside from following food safety policies, proper refrigeration from collection to distribution should be maintained. Monitoring the temperature and usage of technology to ensure consistent cold chain management should be ensured to avoid milk spoilage and prolong the milk’s shelf life. Moreover, it is also essential for processing plants to perform tests to check the milk’s physical, microbiological, and chemical properties. Physical testing includes smell, taste, and visual observation or the organoleptic test, lactometers for the milk’s density, and Gerber Method which determines fat in raw and processed milks. For microbiological testing, processing plants usually use traditional culture based testing to detect pathogens. But there are also automated and rapid testing methods that are available. Aside from this, there are also analyzers that can test milk for pasteurization levels and the presence of microorganisms by reading a range of different adenosine triphosphate (ATP) swab tests. Furthermore, microbiological hazards can also be prevented by using lateral flow tests, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) detection, and air monitoring systems. Lastly, mass spectrometry that is used for chemical testing. In this method, the sample is ionized to identify chemical compounds present in the milk. Consistency and Quality Control Consistency and Quality control have become a challenge in the milk manufacturing process due to various factors. Contamination contributes to the milk’s inconsistency as well as the multiple processing stages such as pasteurization, homogenization, and packaging. Another critical factor is the quality of the raw milk that is heavily influenced by various elements such as the cow’s diet, seasonal changes and different farming practices makes it difficult to maintain uniformity. Another factor that can affect the milk’s quality, specifically its nutritional value, is milk adulteration. Adulteration with water and other substances to increase quantity, can change the natural composition of milk and can introduce pathogenic bacteria and other harmful substances. To ensure that dairy producers will deliver milk that is consistently safe, nutritious, and high in quality, elimination of contaminants must be prioritized. It is also important to maintain the right temperature throughout the pasteurization process and conduct quality checks and microbial tests. Guaranteeing uniformity also includes standardizing feeding practices for dairy cows and utilizing automated systems that can reduce human error and enhance control over the production process. Furthermore, it is crucial to use high-quality packaging materials to provide a physical barrier that can prevent any physical damage or microbial contamination while maintaining the highest quality possible of the product. The processing plant should also invest in innovative packaging solutions like aseptic packaging to extend the milk’s shelf life. Inefficient Production Inefficient milk production is usually caused by outdated machinery, poorly planned facilities, or inefficient processes. These issues can seriously impact productivity, drive up costs, and lower the quality of the final product. Outdated or poorly maintained machinery can affect the milk production, causing frequent breakdowns, leading to delays and financial losses due to escalating maintenance costs. It also consumes more energy than necessary and can affect the milk’s quality. Taking this into account, investing in modern automated equipment is highly recommended to boost production speed and ensure smoother operations. Moreover, regularly conducting preventive maintenance should be conducted to avoid costly breakdowns. Environmental Impact Milk production significantly impacts the environment, primarily through its high resource demands and waste generation. Major concerns include water use, waste management, and greenhouse gas emission. Implementing sanitation protocols requires large amounts of water especially for cleaning and sanitizing the facility. This can strain local water resources, especially in areas facing water scarcity. In this case, dairy manufacturers adopt water-saving technologies, such as recycling wastewater and using more efficient irrigation systems for growing feed crops. Adding to environmental effects, milk products add to the global plastic waste problem as it is often packaged in plastic bottles or cartons. That is why it is encouraged to use reusable material such as glass bottles to minimize waste. Lastly, greenhouse gas emission during milk processing, packaging and transportation contributes to climate change. Additionally, cows produce methane during digestion which is a potent greenhouse gas. For this reason, farming practices should be improved by using dietary supplements that reduce methane emissions from cows. Moreover, renewable energy must be incorporated into dairy operations such as installing solar panels. IV. PRODUCT AND/OR PROCESS INNOVATIONS In recent years, the dairy industry has been undergoing a significant transformation, driven by technological advancements, growing consumer demand for healthier and more sustainable options, and the development of new creative products. This discussion will explore the latest modifications in dairy product innovation, focusing on new processing methods, the rise of functional dairy products, the creation of plant-based alternatives, and the emergence of trends driving the industry’s evolution. Product Innovations: Rise of Functional Dairy Products The increased demand for functional dairy products is indicative of a growing consumer consciousness of health and wellness. These products are fortified with other constituents, such as probiotics, vitamins, or minerals, to offer supplementary health advantages beyond essential nutrition. The use of probiotics, which are defined as live beneficial bacteria and even yeasts, is widely known to promote digestive health , whereas prebiotics are their food and make a healthy gut environment. Both, known as synbiotics, typically found in yogurts, are used to improve gut and immunity and enhance overall health. In parallel, fortifying dairy products with essential vitamins and minerals like vitamin D, calcium, and omega-3 fatty acids is becoming increasingly common. These enriched products, including milk, yogurt, and cheese, especially benefit groups with elevated nutritional demands – children, pregnant women, and the elderly. These fortification strategies rectify nutritional gaps and enhance well-being. The growing trend of high-protein diets has branched out even to the dairy sector, which has contributed to various innovations. It is now easy to find traces of greek yogurt, high-protein milk, and protein-filled liquid diets for athletes, fitness enthusiasts, and age-conscious individuals. However, given the lactose intolerance rates of 65% to 75% of the entire population worldwide , there is a need for the provision of lactose-free alternatives to dairy products. In recognition of the discomforts brought about by lactose intolerance, such as bloating, gas pain, stomach cramps, and diarrhea , the dairy sector has widened its scope of lactose-free products –commensurate with the needs of lactose intolerant individuals together with those who simply prefer dairy alternatives. In this context, A2 milk has also caught people’s attention. A2 milk, which contains a specific type of protein referred to as A2 beta-casein, unlike cow’s milk, which contains the A1 beta-casein protein, is appreciated for its efficacy in preventing dairy-related digestive disorders. Such an emerging trend further indicates the changes occurring within the dairy sector as it restructures in response to the various demands of consumers. Development of Plant-Based Alternatives As plant-based diets are on an upward trend, the dairy alternatives market has progressed in a bid to reproduce the taste, consistency, and nutritional values of cow’s milk products. This does not only concern vegetarians as it also caters to people allergic to milk or are lactose intolerant. The use of milk substitutes from sources such as almonds, soybeans, oats, rice, and peas is becoming more prevalent , and this is attributed to recent improvements in processing and formulation to better their flavor and texture, which makes them suitable to a broader audience. Therefore, they have transformed into products usually fortified with crucial vitamins and minerals, making them viable options to replace cow's milk. At the same time, the market for non-dairy yogurt, which comprises coconut, almond, soy, and cashew-based products, has been progressing quite well. These yogurts have improved their texture and taste due to advanced fermentation techniques, making it easy for people to shift toward dairy-free options. Notably, the development of dairy-free cheese alternatives has proven to be more difficult than other dairy-free product categories. Recent advances have resulted in products that taste and melt like conventional cheeses when heated. These advancements employ a combination of nuts, soybeans, and tapioca starch, with the addition of flavors and microbial strains. Furthermore, there is an extension of innovation in that hybrid products made from dairy and non-dairy elements have been introduced. Certain yogurts and cheeses, for instance, contain a combination of dairy and plant proteins to add flavor and texture while promoting health and sustainability. Looking forward, genetic testing and nutrigenomics growth will lead to the development of customized dairy products. Such developments could make it possible to improve dairy products by addressing the necessities of a particular individual in accordance with his or her nutrition needs and genetic profile. This trajectory underscores a future where dairy alternatives not only replicate but also transcend the qualities of traditional dairy products, offering them solutions for nutrition in a health-conscious world. New Processing Techniques: 1. High-Pressure Processing (HPP) HPP is a form of Non-thermal pasteurization that incorporates high pressure to destroy pathogens in dairy products for extended shelf life without impacting nutritional value and taste. This is advantageous in preserving the flavor and consistency of products like yogurt and cheese. 2. Membrane Filtration Ultrafiltration and microfiltration are examples of membrane filtration operations that concentrate and purify dairy components. As a result, high-protein dairy items, lactose-free milk, and whey protein concentrates can be produced with less waste in an environmentally friendly manner. 3. Advanced Fermentation Technologies Fermentation technology has advanced, producing products with improved textures, flavors, and nutritional values. The use of genetically modified organisms in producing dairy proteins is what qualifies precision fermentation as an emerging field of study. This approach eliminates the complications brought about by farming animals to produce dairy products. V. VIRTUAL FIELD TRIPS Milk Process from Farm to Table Fig 4. Farm to Table Process of Milk by Undeniably Dairy Before milk undergoes pasteurization, it undergoes several steps first. Milk comes from farms where they are extracted from cows, which are being taken care of by farmers by providing healthy food and a clean and safe environment. Milk trucks collect the milk from the farm and deliver it to the processing plant. Then after the milk is tested, in the processing plant, the milk undergoes Standardization, then followed by Pasteurization and Homogenization. An additional step that can be added is undergoing the milk through fortification, where vitamins A and D are added to the milk. Finally, the milk can now be packaged and delivered to the stores. Significant Event in History of Pasteurization Fig 5. First Opened Milk Depot by Nathan Strauss (photo by Augustus C. Long Health Sciences Library, Columbia University.) In the 19th century, many child diseases and death were linked to raw milk. In New York City, almost half of children are dying from illnesses like tuberculosis which can be taken from milk. Nathan Strauss, a philanthropist, opened a Milk Depot in 1893 in New York City, providing affordable, safe and pasteurized milk to the poor, immigrants and mothers who can’t afford it. Many more Milk depots opened, until Strauss decided to build a milk factory, to ensure that milks being distributed are pasteurized correctly and safely. A decade after the laboratory opened, New York City’s child mortality rate became half of its previous number. Additionally, Strauss sold home pasteurization machines for a cheaper price, so it is easily available to the masses. Table 6. Comparative Prices of Diesel, Biodiesel, and Crude CNO d. Leading Companies Shell is one of the leading patents in terms of volumes related to biofuel production in the oil and gas industry. Shell is also considered to be the world’s largest distributor of biofuels, topping the charts of Patent Volumes Related to Biofuel Production (2021-2023) sourced by GlobalData Patent Analytics (Offshore Technology, 2023). Meanwhile, companies such as ZEG Power, Corbion, and Enerkem lead in terms of having the most diverse application range of patents in the production of biofuels. Locally, the top biofuel producers in the Philippines are divided into two categories namely: bioethanol and biodiesel. Green Future Innovations, Inc., San Carlos Bioenergy Corp., Balayan Distillery, Incorporated, Universal Robina Corporation, Absolut Distillers Inc., and Progreen Agricorp Inc., are the leading accredited bioethanol producers in terms of million liters per year registered capacity. As for the list of accredited companies for biodiesel production, Chemrez Technologies, Inc., Tantuco Enterprises, Inc., and Phil. Biochem Products, Inc. are the top three, having about 90, 90, and 80 respectively in terms of million liters per year registered capacity. 2. Manufacturing Process of Biodiesel (made from Vegetable Oils) a. Raw Materials The raw materials used for the production of biodiesel can range from animal fats, waste cooking oils, algae oils, and vegetable oils. Specifically, vegetable oils can be classified into two, saturated and unsaturated fats. For saturated fats, it is said to have higher levels of fatty acids, and has a better oxidative stability, meaning it is less prone to degradation. Additionally, saturated fats tend to produce higher cetane numbers which would mean better ignition quality for the fuel. However, saturated fats have poor cold flow properties, which makes them less suitable for colder climates, and can become waxy at lower temperatures. Examples of these include palm and coconut oil. Unsaturated fats on the other hand have better cold flow properties. However, unsaturated fats are more prone to degradation, and antioxidants may be needed to prevent rancidity. Examples of these include soybean oil, canola oil, sunflower oil, and corn oil. Additionally, alcohol is required in this production. An example of this would be methanol, which is widely used, or ethanol, an alternative which is less common due to lower yield potential. Catalysts are also added in the process, and it can either be a base or an acid. Base catalysts like sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide help facilitate the transesterification reaction between oil and alcohol. Acid catalysts like sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid can be used only in the presence of free fatty acids (FFA) to convert them into esters before the transesterification process. Lastly, water is also added in the process to wash the biodiesel and remove residual catalysts, and methanol. b. Unit Operations & Unit Processes Pre-treatment. Raw materials tend to undergo a pre-treatment process before proceeding to the reactor to ensure the quality and the efficiency of the final product. Based on the process presented by Alfa Laval (2023), the raw feedstock tends to undergo cleaning first by filtration or drying to remove dirt, debris, and water (unit operation). Second, the raw feedstock undergoes the degumming process, wherein phospholipids from the oil are removed to avoid interfering with the transesterification process (unit operation). Neutralization is the next step of pre-treatment as it aims to remove free fatty acids (FFA) which can form soaps and hinder the efficiency of the catalyst (unit process). This process is done especially to oils that contain at least 5% FFA, and reduce it to 0.1%. Afterwards, it undergoes drying to remove any remaining water from the oil which can interfere with the transesterification reaction (unit operation). These processes are done in order to avoid soap formation and saponification during transesterification. Dunford (2016) published a sample flow diagram for the conversion of oil to biodiesel. Figure 1 shows the typical process taken in the production of biodiesel. After the pre-treatment of feedstock, the production of biodiesel follows a 5-step process. Figure 1. Flow diagram of the production of biodiesel from oil. Transesterification process. Triglycerides from oil/fats and alcohol (usually methanol) create a chemical reaction in the presence of a catalyst and produce methyl ester and glycerol. Figure 2 shows the chemical reaction from the transesterification process. The equipment used in this process can either be a reactor (batch or continuous) or a heat exchanger. It normally operates at 50 to 60℃, with 6:1 ratio of alcohol to oil, and takes a reaction time of 1 to 2 hours (PennState, 2018). This step is considered as a unit process. Figure 2. Transesterification process (Gerpen, 2005). Separation of Biodiesel and Glycerol. After the transesterification process, the crude mixture of biodiesel and glycerol gets separated using either a settling tank or a centrifuge. The process relies on gravity to separate the two chemicals formed, with crude glycerol settling at the bottom layer since it is denser than biodiesel. Meanwhile, crude biodiesel settles at the top layer and proceeds to the wash column. The glycerine and alcohol mixture will then be purified to recover the alcohol and obtain the pure glycerin. This step is considered as a unit operation. Alcohol Recovery & Glycerol Byproduct. The glycerine and alcohol separated from the biodiesel is now joined by water which came from the wash column. Evaporators are used to separate the alcohol from the glycerol, then the recovered alcohol is distilled once more to be recovered and be used again at the transesterification process. Meanwhile, the glycerol (in addition with some water and biodiesel impurities) are also purified through distillation, with the water proceeding back to the wash column and glycerol free from impurities is produced and can be sold for other purposes, like pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries (Almeida et. al., 2023). The process of alcohol recovery & the production of glycerol is considered as a unit operation. Purification of Biodiesel. The crude biodiesel goes through a wash column, specifically with warm water to remove residual catalysts, soaps, and impurities from the biodiesel. Equipment used for this step can be washing tanks. This process is considered as a unit operation. Drying of Biodiesel. Through vacuum drying or with the help of heat exchangers, ‘pitch’ or thick residues from the biodiesel gets to be removed from the final product, ensuring that it won’t affect the quality of the fuel. This process is done to make sure that the fuel is free of any moisture which can affect the shelf life of the product and can cause corrosion once used in engines (Muez-Hest, 2024). The final step of the biodiesel production is considered as a unit operation. c. Process Flow Diagram Figure 3. Process Flow Diagram for the production of biodiesel (Mohammed et. al., 2022). Figure 3 presents the process flow diagram made by Mohammadi et. al. (2022) about the production of biodiesel from the transesterification process. The different steps mentioned in Section 2b are used to divide the processes involved in this version of a process flow diagram. Steps mentioned in Section 2b tend to share some similarities with Figure 3. However, in step 3, the washed glycerol undergoes a neutralizer with the addition of an acid before obtaining the glycerol product. This was done to neutralize any remaining catalyst that came from the transesterification reaction, and converts it to salts to be separated more easily from the glycerol (Barros et. al., 2019). Additionally, in step 4, a second separator was added for the crude biodiesel. This was done to ensure that a better quality of biodiesel can be obtained. Lastly, step 5 added another separator, which can also be considered as drier to separate the biodiesel product from the impurities remaining impurities. Overall, the process flow diagram provided was able to effectively show the process involving the production of biodiesel. 3. Manufacturing Process of Bioethanol a. Raw Materials Ethanol can be produced in various ways: syngas from coal and biomass, synthesized from petroleum-based ethylene, or by fermentation of sugary contents. Bioethanol is commonly derived from biological feedstocks utilizing fermentation, processes. During these processes, monosaccharides are fermented to bioethanol by yeast or bacteria. There are a variety of carbohydrate-containing feedstocks that yield monosaccharides for fermentation, such as starch-based, sugar-based, lignocellulosic-based, and algae-based materials. Figure 1 illustrates the generations of raw feedstock for the bioethanol production, and its most apparent material utilized in different countries. Figure 4. Key raw materials for bioethanol production in different countries. First-generation biofuels, primarily produced from food crops like corn and sugarcane, have been widely used. However, their impact on food security and environmental sustainability has raised concerns. To address these issues, researchers are focusing on second-generation biofuels, which utilize non-food lignocellulosic biomass such as agricultural residues and energy crops. These materials are more abundant and have a lower environmental footprint. But the complex structure of lignocellulosic biomass presents technical challenges in extracting fermentable sugars. Third-generation biofuels, derived from algae, offer a potentially sustainable and high-yielding source of biofuels. Algae can grow rapidly in various environments and can efficiently convert sunlight into biomass. Yet, the large-scale cultivation and harvesting of algae remain significant technical and economic hurdles. As the world transitions towards a more sustainable energy future, ongoing research and development are essential to overcome the challenges associated with producing bioethanol from non-food sources. b. Unit Operations & Unit Processes Figure 5. The common unit operations of a biorefinery. Pretreatment. The production of bio-alcohol from non-edible cellulosic biomass requires solving the problem of breaking the hard biomass structure before converting into alcohol fuel, hence the pretreatment step is important. It is done to break down the feedstock (especially for lignocellulosic biomass) into a form suitable for fermentation. The pretreatment process is costly since it involves several process steps and costs for enzymes. It is very important to develop the low-energy/energy-saving process scheme and the suitable enzyme to overcome such technical/cost barriers. The principal purpose of most pretreatment is to increase the susceptibility of cellulose and lignocellulose parts of biomass at the next process in which acid and enzymatic hydrolysis occur. Cellulose enzyme systems react very slowly with un-pretreated biomass, whereas the rates of enzymatic hydrolysis enhance dramatically when the lignin barrier around the plant cell is partially disrupted. According to the National Research Council and the America's Energy Future Panel on Alternative Liquid Transportation Fuels (2010), the first challenge in the conversion of biomass to alcohol fuels starts with the difficulty in breaking down the recalcitrant structure of biomass cell walls and further breaking down the cellulose to 5–6 carbon sugars that can be fermented by microorganisms. The following size reduction and uniformization in density/size are the first feedstock preparation step: Grinding/Milling. Reduction of the feedstock into smaller particles (for starch-based feedstocks, milling is used to crush grains). Liquefaction. Starch-based feedstocks are heated and treated with enzymes (alpha-amylase) to convert starch into a sugar solution. Then, pretreatment procedure by steam, hot water, or slight carbonization is done. Methods like steam explosion, acid hydrolysis, or alkaline treatment are used to break down lignin and cellulose to make the sugars more accessible. Saccharification (Hydrolysis). Saccharification is basically a step of breaking down the cellulose/hemicellulose through hydrolysis to make sugars such as glucose and xylose. The overall hydrolysis is based on the synergistic action of three distinct cellulase enzymes depending on the concentration ratio and the adsorption ratio of the component enzymes (endo-beta-gluconases, exo-beta-gluconases, and beta-glucosidases) (Lee et al., 2007). Two main procedures exist in hydrolysis: acid hydrolysis and enzymatic hydrolysis. Most commonly employed procedure is the enzymatic one because it has a better environmental and economic performance. Acid hydrolysis operates under severe conditions of high temperature and low pH, which results in corrosive conditions and requires a special construction material (Swaaij et al., 2015). Fermentation. Fermentation is the biological process using microorganisms to convert sugar (like glucose) and starch into bioethanol and carbon dioxide by yeast or bacteria (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) under anaerobic conditions. Figure 6. Ethanol Fermentation. Distillation. It is the separation of ethanol from the fermentation broth based on differences in boiling points. It involves heating the liquid mixture until it vaporizes, then cooling and condensing the vapors to collect the desired substance. The fermentation broth, which contains ethanol, water, and solids, is heated in a distillation column. Ethanol, having a lower boiling point (78.37°C), is vaporized and condensed to separate it from the water and other components. Rectification is a process that involves further purifying a substance, often through repeated distillation. In the context of bioethanol production, rectification is used to remove any remaining water or other impurities from the distilled ethanol, resulting in a highly concentrated ethanol product. This step is crucial for ensuring the quality and efficiency of the final bioethanol fuel (Britannica, n.d.). Dehydration. Also known as Drying, is the removal of water from the ethanol to produce anhydrous ethanol (fuel-grade ethanol) suitable for use as fuel. Molecular Sieves: Used to remove the remaining water content after distillation. The ethanol produced is typically 95% ethanol and 5% water after distillation. Azeotropic Distillation: An additional distillation step, sometimes with the addition of benzene or other chemicals, helps to remove the last traces of water, achieving fuel-grade ethanol (99.5% ethanol or higher). By-Product Processing. To handle the waste or by-products generated during the fermentation and distillation processes. The By-products consists of: Distiller's Dried Grains with Solubles (DDGS): The solid residue after fermentation, which is dried and used as animal feed. Carbon Dioxide: CO₂ generated during fermentation is captured and used in industries like beverage carbonation or as a raw material for other processes. Glycerol: sometimes produced during fermentation. c. Process Flow Diagram A typical Process Flow Diagram (PFD) for bioethanol production would include the following steps, represented in a sequence of interconnected processes as shown in Figure 7: Figure 7. Process Flow Diagram of bioethanol production process. Bioethanol production begins with milling grains to increase their surface area. The resulting particles are then mixed with water and enzymes to break down complex carbohydrates into simple sugars through a process called saccharification. Yeast is added to ferment these sugars, converting them into ethanol and carbon dioxide. The fermented mixture, or mash, is then distilled to separate the ethanol from water and other impurities. Further purification through rectification yields a high concentration of ethanol. Optional dehydration can remove any remaining water, resulting in anhydrous ethanol. The solid byproducts, known as Distiller's Dried Grains with Solubles (DDGS), are dried and pelletized for use as animal feed. Biogenic CO2, another byproduct of fermentation, can be captured for various applications. This process efficiently transforms grains into a renewable fuel source, bioethanol, while also producing valuable byproducts. 4. Common Manufacturing Problems and Proposed Solutions Although the potential of biodiesel and bioethanol are evident, problems can still be encountered during their production process. Generally, here are the common manufacturing problems that can be encountered during the production of these items and what can be done in order to lessen these problems in the future. Energy Consumption. Despite the promise of being a renewable energy, the production of biofuels can still be energy-intensive, which would heavily reduce the overall environmental good it can bring. This problem can be rooted from inefficient distillation, a feedstock with high moisture content, and incomplete reaction from the production process. Problems like these can be alleviated by further optimizing the production process and switching to renewable energy sources to power biofuel production facilities (IEA, 2023). Sourcing Feedstock. Excessive obtaining of feedstocks to be used in the production could lead to environmental issues like deforestation, due to the many resources it may require. However, this problem can be solved by promoting sustainable practices, like using waste materials as the feedstock (Chen et. al., 2020). Contamination on Fermentation. Specifically for bioethanol production, this could occur because of poor sterilization of equipment, inadequate control of fermentation temperature and pH level, and impurities in the feedstock. In turn, microorganisms forming could compete to reduce the efficiency of bioethanol. This problem could be alleviated by improving the sterilization procedures and controlling environment temperatures to reduce contamination (Rodionova et. al., 2016). 5. Product and/or Process Innovations (citations) Biodiesel and bioethanol have become essential renewable fuels, providing sustainable alternatives to conventional fossil fuels and supporting environmental protection efforts. Advances in production processes and product quality for these biofuels continue to enhance efficiency, lower costs, and reduce environmental impact. For biodiesel, innovations include refining transesterification methods, increasing the versatility of feedstocks, and minimizing unwanted byproducts like glycerol. For bioethanol, recent developments focus on improving fermentation processes, engineering yeast strains, and utilizing non-traditional feedstocks, such as lignocellulosic biomass, beyond standard crops like corn and sugarcane. These innovations in processes and products aim to boost fuel yield and quality and make biofuels more economically viable and environmentally friendly. a. Product Innovations i. Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil (HVO) is a renewable diesel fuel that adds hydrogen gas to vegetable oil. It has excellent performance characteristics, produces lower emissions, and can be used in all diesel engines as a blend or on its own. HVO can be used as an alternative for future heavy-duty transport as it is relatively simple to produce, as lipid feedstocks such as vegetable oils, used cooking oils, or even animal-derived oils are converted into renewable diesel through hydrogenation (Verger et al., 2022). Its properties are similar to conventional diesel, making it compatible with existing engine designs. However, HVO has a high cetane number and low viscosity and lubricity, which requires adjustment through blending (Lapuerta et al., 2011). Furthermore, a study by Szeto and Leung (2022) stated that HVO is a promising candidate, as it can be used in current CI engines without hardware modifications. Unlike fatty acid methyl esters (FAME)—the first-generation biofuel for CI engines—HVO lacks unsaturation and ester bonds, making it nearly free from FAME’s undesirable properties while being more economical and environmentally favorable. HVO is produced by reacting triglycerides with hydrogen at high temperatures and pressures, using catalysts with specific acidity levels. Overall, HVO is an advantageous renewable diesel fuel that delivers strong performance and reduced emissions, making it compatible with existing diesel engines, whether used alone or in combination with traditional diesel. HVO holds considerable promise as a clean and efficient biofuel in advancing the transition to sustainable transportation. ii. Microalgae-Derived Biodiesel Microalgae are known for their rapid growth and higher oil yields compared to traditional biodiesel feedstocks and have become promising sources for biodiesel production. Microalgae-derived biodiesel has long been considered a promising alternative to fossil fuels because of its ability to thrive in diverse environmental conditions (Carneiro et al., 2017). The production of biodiesel from microalgae is regarded as one of the most viable methods for advancing a circular economy (Gaurav et al., 2024). Microalgae-derived biodiesel offers a promising renewable energy source. Unlike traditional biofuels, microalgae can be cultivated on non-agricultural land or in wastewater, minimizing competition with food crops (Chhandama et al., 2023). Additionally, it helps mitigate environmental impacts by absorbing carbon dioxide and requiring fewer fertilizers. However, the commercial production of microalgae biodiesel faces challenges and exceptionally high costs associated with cultivation, harvesting, and oil extraction (Gaurav et al., 2024). Ongoing research is focused on improving algae strains, refining cultivation techniques, and lowering production costs to make microalgae biodiesel a more viable alternative to fossil fuels (Chhandama et al., 2023). iii. Advanced Bioethanol with Higher Octane Ratings Advanced bioethanol with higher

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