Memory: Remembrance of Things Past and Future PDF

Chapter 6: Memory: Remembrance of Things Past – and Future  Learning Outcomes Define memory and differentiate between types of memories. Explain the processes of memory. Explain the stages of memory.  Learning Outcomes Identify contributors to forgetting. Describe th...

Chapter 6: Memory: Remembrance of Things Past – and Future  Learning Outcomes Define memory and differentiate between types of memories. Explain the processes of memory. Explain the stages of memory.  Learning Outcomes Identify contributors to forgetting. Describe the biological aspects of memory. Kinds of Memory  Explicit Versus Implicit Memories Explicit memory – declarative memory – Memory for specific information; that can be stated or declared – Information can be autobiographical or general Implicit memory – nondeclarative memory – Memory of how to perform a procedure or skill – Skill memories  Explicit Memory Episodic memory – autobiographical memory – Memories of things that happen to us or take place in our presence – Autobiographical memories Semantic memory – General knowledge  Implicit Memory Procedural memory – Skill memory – Things people do, not things stated clearly – Things done repeatedly – habits Memory of things that reflect repetition that makes associations automatic  Retrospective Memory Versus Prospective Memory Retrospective memory – Recalling information previously learned Prospective memory – Remembering to do things in the future – May fail due to preoccupation or distraction  Prospective Memory Prospective memory tasks – Habitual tasks Easier to remember than occasional tasks – Event-based tasks Triggered by events – Time-based tasks Performed at a certain time or after a certain time has elapsed  Prospective Memory Age related decline – More related to speed of cognitive processing than loss of information Moods and attitudes and prospective memory – Depressed people less likely to push to remind themselves to do what they intend to do Processes of Memory  Encoding Transforming information into psychological formats that can be represented mentally – Visual – represented as a picture – Acoustic – represented as sounds – Semantic – represented in terms of meanings  Storage Maintaining information over time Methods of storing information – Maintenance rehearsal Repetition of action till it is stored in memory – Elaborative rehearsal Formation of memory by linking new information to what one already knows. Ex; remember a persons name based on characteristics of that specific person. Remembering where your school is located based on land marks  Truth or Fiction? Learning must be meaningful if we are to remember it.  Truth or Fiction? Learning must be meaningful if we are to remember it. FICTION!  Retrieval Locating information with in memory and returning it to consciousness Retrieval relies on cues  Definition of Memory Process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved. Stages of Memory Three Stages of Memory  Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory Three stages of memory – Sensory memory: commonly used to remember who and what is within our current environment. – Short-term memory (STM): used to remember information within the context of a specific present time event (ex: parties, prices of food items in a coffee shop) – Long-term memory (LTM): a type of memory that stores key important information for times to come. (ex: remembering who your ex cheated you on with, your arch enemy during a previous Badminton tournament, memories of your friend falling into a canal.) Stages determine whether and how  Sensory Memory First stage of memory encountered by a stimulus Holds impressions briefly, but long enough so series of perceptions become psychologically continuous – Memory trace Decays within a second Visual sensory register  Truth or Fiction? If you can see, you have a photographic memory.  Truth or Fiction? If you can see, you have a photographic memory. TRUE! But its not strong like those of Mike Ross of “Suits”  Iconic Memory Icons – is a type of very short-term visual memory that lasts for only a fraction of a second. It helps us remember images or scenes we've just seen for a brief moment, even after the actual visual input is gone. – Brief, but accurate, photographic memories – Eidetic imagery the ability to remember an image in so much detail, clarity, and accuracy that it is as though the image were still being perceived. It is not perfect, as it is subject to distortions and additions (like episodic memory), and vocalization interferes with the memory.“  Example of iconic memory Think of iconic memory like taking a mental photograph of what you just saw. For example, if you look at a picture and then close your eyes, you can still "see" the image in your mind for a split second. That’s your iconic memory at work! It's almost like a snapshot, but it fades away very quickly— within about half a second. This type of memory helps us process and make sense of our surroundings before we decide what to pay attention to or remember longer. Iconic memory is commonly used by athletes in the middle of play, drivers driving on a busy highway, or soldiers in the middle of battle  Echoic Memory Echoes – Form of sensory memory through the mental representations of sounds Memory traces of echoes last longer than icons  Short-Term Memory Focusing on a stimulus in the sensory register, retains it in short-term memory (STM) for a minute or so after the trace decays – Also called working memory Rehearsal allows information to be retained indefinitely  Serial Position Effect Tendency to recall the first and last items in a series – May be more attention to first and last items – May rehearse first item more often and last most recently  Remember the sequence of words: Ball Five Green What are the three words you read and recite them in order:  Remember the sequence of words: Seven Blue Watch Road Sun Key  What are the 6 words you read and recite them in order:  Chunking A grouping of stimuli that is perceived as a discrete piece of information Number of items held in STM – – Seven (plus or minus two) – Chunking stimuli allows for semantic coding  Interference in Short-Term Memory Attention to distracting information interferes with STM Appearance of new information in STM displaces old information  Long-Term Memory Vast storehouse of information Permanent storage of all memories – Repression – Not supported by research  Truth or Fiction? All of our experiences are permanently imprinted on the brain, so the proper stimulus can cause us to remember them exactly.  Truth or Fiction? All of our experiences are permanently imprinted on the brain, so the proper stimulus can cause us to remember them exactly. FICTION!  Long-Term Memory Long-term memories are distorted – Schemas bias our memories No known limit known for amount of information stored in long-term memory (LTM) Long-term memories may last a life- time – Not lost by displacement Memory as Reconstructive  Levels of Processing Model of Memory Memories endure when processed deeply – Attention, encoding, storing, retrieval all involved  Truth or Fiction? It may be easier for you to recall the name of your first-grade teacher than the name of someone you just met at a party.  Truth or Fiction? It may be easier for you to recall the name of your first-grade teacher than the name of someone you just met at a party. TRUE!  Flashbulb Memories Tend to remember events that are important and emotionally stirring (ex: traumatic experiences, your first kiss, finally graduating college, etc.) – These types of memories are more distinctive – Increased networks of association (many emotions and symbolisms are attached to these memories) – Elaborative rehearsal – Secretion of stress hormones (only when  Truth or Fiction? You may always recall where you were and what you were doing during a significant life event.  Truth or Fiction? You may always recall where you were and what you were doing during a significant life event. TRUE!  Organization in Long-Term Memory Categorization of information – Hierarchical structure Superordinate classes of information Hierarchical Structure of Long- Term Memory  Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon “Feeling of knowing” (ex: I studied this last night what is this again?) – Acoustic and semantic coding may help provide a useful retrieval cue – May reflect incomplete learning  Context and State Dependent Memory Context dependent – Better retrieval in context in which information was originally acquired State dependent – Better retrieval in biological or emotional state in which it was learned  Truth or Fiction? If you study with the stereo on, you would probably do better to take the test with the stereo on.  Truth or Fiction? If you study with the stereo on, you would probably do better to take the test with the stereo on. TRUE! Forgetting  How do We Measure Forgetting? Nonsense syllables – Depend on acoustic coding and maintenance rehearsal Three tasks for measurement – Recognition – Recall – Relearning Method of Savings Ebbinghaus’s Classic Curve of Forgetting  Truth or Fiction? Learning Spanish can make it harder to remember French – and vice versa.  Truth or Fiction? Learning Spanish can make it harder to remember French – and vice versa. TRUE!  Interference Theory Retroactive interference – New learning interferes with the retrieval of old learning Proactive interference – Older learning interferes with the capacity to retrieve more recently learned material  Repression Freudian concept of motivated forgetting – Automatic ejection of painful memories from conscious awareness – Dissociative amnesia  Recovered Memories Recovery of repressed memories has little scientific support Implanting false memories  Infantile Amnesia Freud – repression Immature hippocampus Cognitive explanations – No interest in remembering the past – Specific episodes versus networks of memories – Unreliable use of symbolic language  Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia Anterograde Amnesia – Unable to remember events that occur after physical trauma Retrograde Amnesia – Unable to remember events that occur prior to physical trauma The Biology of Memory  Neural Activity and Memory Experience increases dendrites and synapses in cerebral cortex Long-term potentiation – Following brief, rapid stimulation an enhanced efficiency in synaptic transmission Neurotransmitters and hormones One Avenue to Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)  Can We Trust Eyewitness Testimony? Misinformation effect Wording of question can bias testimony – Younger children are more susceptible  Can We Trust Eyewitness Testimony? Problems with identification based on eyewitness – Less accurate identification of different racial/ethnic groups – Misleading suggestions can influence identification – More confidence regarding identification does not necessarily ensure accuracy  Brain Structures and Memory Hippocampus – new memories; episodic memories – relays sensory information to cortex Sensory cortex areas – Store sensory information – Integrated by limbic system  Brain Structures and Memory Prefrontal cortex – Ability to represent and be aware of past, present and future events Thalamus – Formation of verbal memories The Relationships Among the Various Kinds of Memories