Media & Society Final Exam Review - Maria Silva PDF

COM 224-9 Final Exam Review (Chapters 7, 2, 3, 11, 12, 14, 16) Chapter 7 Movies and the Power of Images - 10 questions How We Got Here: The Early Development of Movies (pages 195-199) All bolded terms All inventions All inventors and filmmakers, and their works *****Eadweard Muybridge,...

COM 224-9 Final Exam Review (Chapters 7, 2, 3, 11, 12, 14, 16) Chapter 7 Movies and the Power of Images - 10 questions How We Got Here: The Early Development of Movies (pages 195-199) All bolded terms All inventions All inventors and filmmakers, and their works *****Eadweard Muybridge, an English photographer living in America, is accredited with being the first to do both ○ Muybridge studied horses in motion and proved that a racehorse gets all four feet off the ground during a full gallop ○ 1880: Muybridge developed a method for projecting the photographic images onto a wall for public viewing ******1884: George Eastman developed the first roll film - huge improvement over heavy metal and glass plates ****Louis Aimé Augustin Le Prince invented the first motion picture camera using roll film and is credited with filming the first motion picture, Roundhay Garden Scene, in 1888 *****Hannibal Goodwin improved Eastman’s roll film by using thin strips of more pliable material called celluloid, which could hold a coating of chemicals sensitive to light ○ It enabled a strip of film to move through a camera and be photographed in rapid succession, producing a series of pictures ○ Celluloid was transparent and ideal for projection ***Edison directed his assistant William Kennedy Dickson, to combine his incandescent light bulb, Goodwin’s celluloid, and Le Prince’s camera to create another early movie camera, the kinetograph and a single-person viewing system, the kinetoscope ○ ***Kinetoscopes allowed individuals to view motion pictures through a window in a cabinet that held the film. The first kinetoscope parlor opened in 1894 and was such a hit many others followed! ***Edison patented several inventions and manufactured a new large-screen system called the vitascope, which enabled film strips of longer lengths to be projected without interruption and hinted at the potential of movies as a future mass medium Narrative filmes: movies that tell stories To become a mass medium, films had to offer what books achieved: the ability to create worlds and engage imagination **Méliès is considered one of the first filmmakers to use special effects and narrative storytelling in film. He pioneered the use of multiple exposures, time-lapse photography, dissolves, and hand-painted color to create fantastical stories, moving film beyond simple documentary footage. ○ Notable Work: A Trip to the Moon (1902), which is famous for its imaginative narrative and groundbreaking visual effects. **Edwin S. Porter advanced the technique of editing in film, developing the concept of continuity editing to create a more coherent, narrative structure.. ○ Edwin’s most important film: The Great Train Robbery (1903), a landmark film that used cross-cutting to build tension and narrative complexity, introduced the western genre as well as chase scenes ****D.W Griffth ○ The single most important director in Hollywood’s early days ○ Refined many of the narrative techniques introduced by Méliès and Porter - including varied distances, close up shots, multiple story lines fast-paced editing,  and symbolic imagery ○ D.W. Griffith's The Birth of a Nation (1915), was the first feature-length film (a film that is more than one hour long) produced in America The first to try at dominating the movie business was Thomas Edison who formed the Motion Picture Patents Company (MPPC), known as the Trust, in 1908 A cartel of major U.S. and French film producers, the company tried to control the industry by overseeing patents on key film technologies and signing an exclusive deal with George Eastman, who agreed to supply movie film on to Trust-approved companies Hollywood became the film capital of the world The Economics of the Movie Business The Major Studios, the New Big Five (p. 216) ○ Disney ○ Warner Brothers ○ Universal ○ Sony Pictures ○ Paramount Review Figure 7.2 Market Share Of U.S. Film Studios and Distributors (In $ Millions) The Rise and Decline of Hollywood’s Studio System Era (p. 200-207) Talkies ○ Talkies - movies with sound, beginning in 1927 ○ The conversion of talkies was expensive, however, requiring tremendous investment in new sound stages and equipment ○ The rise of talkies helped establish the major studios’ control over the movie industry Indies ○ films produced outside the transitional Hollywood system The advent of home video rentals gave independent films that couldn’t go into mainstream theaters a way to reach bigger audiences News studios were founded in order to distribute movies made outside the Hollywood establishment - marketed indie films, pushed for access to  multiplex theaters, and campaigned recognition at industry award shows The rise of major film festivals like Sundance Film Festival (held every January in Park City, Utah); New York’s Tribeca Film Festival; and festivals in Toronto, Austin, and Cannes gave independent movies a platform from which to gain publicity - and possibly even a distribution deal with a studio like Miramax Different genres of films and their societal significance: ○ Why are documentaries an important alternative to traditional Hollywood filmmaking? What contributions have they made to the film industry? (p. 214) Documentary film genre developed as a style that interprets reality by recording actual people and settings Documentaries offer realistic, fact-based storytelling, providing a contrast to the fictional narratives of Hollywood films They focus on social, political, and environmental issues, often driving public awareness and activism By tackling controversial or unpopular subject matter and raising awareness. The Invisible War (about sexual assault in the military) Chapter 2: The Internet and Digital Media - 5 questions How We Got Here: The Development of the Internet (p.35-41) ***The Four Phases: All phases and what characterizes them ○ The Pre-Web Internet - This phase was before the creation of the World Wide Web. It focused on military and academic use, such as ARPAnet in the late 1960s. Protocols (rules) were being established. ○ Web 1.0 - The Internet Becomes a Mass Medium - Emerged in the early 1990s with the creation of the World Wide Web, making the Internet accessible to the public. ○ Web 2.0 - The Internet Gets Interactive - Starting in the early 2000s, this phase introduced user- generated content, interactivity, and social networking. ○ Web 3.0 - The Internet Starts to Think - Introduced in the late 2000s and 2010s, this phase focuses on data-driven, intelligent, and connected systems. The Internet of Things. etc. Our Complex Digital Environment (pg. 41-46) All bolded terms ○ There are the benefits and complications of unrestricted communication ○ Benefits: address injustice and organize grassroots movements (#MeToo, #BlackLivesMatter) ○ Complications: cyberbullies, trolls, criminals, authoritarian governments, and terrorists ○ Content can be easily manipulated ○ Photoshop artists manipulate fashion spreads and social media photos ○ There are consequences ○ Ex. Media companies have fought to maintain control of their copyrighted brand assets Decentralizing the Creation and Spread of Information ○ Gatekeepers  The most powerful gatekeepers are now Internet corporations People or policies that control access to something, or who decide whether a message will be distributed ○ Misinformation False or misleading information is spread by people who assume it’s true ○ Disinformation False or misleading information spread knowingly by people with malicious intent Manipulating Media ○ Remix culture Be able to define remix culture and know what IS an example of remix culture and what is NOT an example of remix culture A term used to describe a society in which people are able to create and communicate by remixing, editing, combining, manipulating or repurposing existing texts. Example: Telling a friend to “Let it go,” remixing the film Frozen. ○ Deepfakes images or videos that use advanced digital technology to create fraudulent but convincing content ○ ****Right of fair use a legal doctrine that permits people to use copyrighted material without permission as long as it does not compromise the material’s value ○ Why is image manipulation a concern for journalists? ○ Erosion of Trust Manipulated images can undermine the credibility of news organizations if they unintentionally share doctored content. Trust is fundamental to journalism; once it's lost, it’s difficult to regain. ○ Deepfakes and Credibility Deepfakes can create highly realistic but entirely false images or videos, making it hard for audiences to distinguish truth from falsehood. They can mislead audiences, harm reputations, and spread false narratives, sometimes even leading to political, social, or economic consequences ○ Spread of Misinformation and Disinformation Misinformation: Incorrect information shared without intent to deceive. Disinformation: Deliberate creation and sharing of false information to manipulate public opinion. Manipulated images can easily go viral, amplifying the spread of misinformation and disinformation faster than corrections can reach the public. ○ Polarization and Division Misleading visual content can reinforce biases, deepen societal divisions, and provoke hostility or violence. For instance, images taken out of context can be weaponized to promote ideological agendas. ○ Challenges to Verifying Authenticity Journalists face increasing difficulty in verifying the authenticity of visual content, especially as manipulation technologies improve. Traditional verification methods may not suffice, requiring new tools and skills to assess digital forgeries. ○ Legal and Ethical Implications  Sharing manipulated content, even unknowingly, can result in legal liabilities for defamation or privacy violations. Ethical concerns arise when journalists inadvertently become complicit in spreading propaganda. ○ Audience Skepticism Frequent exposure to manipulated content can lead to public skepticism, where audiences doubt even genuine content, a phenomenon known as the "liar’s dividend." This undermines journalists' ability to inform the public effectively. Five major Tech Companies ○ Apple ○ Amazon ○ Facebook ○ Microsoft ○ Google Chapter 3: Digital Gaming and the Media Playground - 5 questions Digital Gaming and Society (pg. 75-81) How does gaming contribute to a broader media culture? (Think books, TV, movies, etc.) ○ Video games have inspired movies such as, Warcraft (2016), the Resident Evil series (2001-2017), Rampage (2018), Detective Pikachu (2019), and Sonic the Hedgehog (2020) ○ For many Hollywood blockbusters today, a video game spin-off is a must-have ○ The box-office hit Guardians of the Galaxy (2014) inspired the episodic digital game Guardians of the Galaxy: The Telltale Series (2017), which is available on console, PC, and mobile platforms ○ Books and digital games have also influenced each other ○ Japanese manga and anime (books and animation) have inspired video games, such as Akira, Astro Boy, and Naruto. Addiction and Other Concerns ○ The potential for playing addition ○ Parents, politicians, the medical establishment, and media scholars have expressed concern about the addictive quality of video games and have raised the alarm about violent and misogynistic game content - standard fare for many of the most heavily played games - and issues of representation ○ Less than 3% of games have gaming disorder - “by impaired control over gaming, increasing priority given to gaming over other activities to the extent that gaming takes precedence over other interests and daily activities, and continuation or escalation of gaming despite the occurrence of negative consequences” Violence, Misogyny, and Representation ○ Violent, misogynistic, and racist content has from time to time spurred calls for more regulation of digital games ***The Gender Problem in Digital Games (pg. 78-89) ○ Anita Sarkeesian and the #GamerGate ○ Anita Sarkeesian, a media critic, became a central figure in the #GamerGate controversy, which highlighted issues of misogyny/sexism and harassment in gaming culture. The Business of Digital Gaming (pg. 81-85) Selling Digital Games: The three main pay models in the digital game industry: the boxed game/retail model, the free-to-play model, and the subscription model ○ Boxed game/retail model - the most traditional and dates back to the days of cartridges on Atari, Sega, and Nintendo console systems. ○ Free-to-play model - common with casual and online games like Super Mario Run, offered online or as downloads at no charge as a way to gain or retain a large audience ○ Subscription model - gamers pay a monthly fee to play Digital Gaming, Free Speech, and Democracy (pg. 85-87) ***Supreme court ruling, results and why ○ 2011: Landmark decision over a California law enforcing fines for renting or selling M-rated games to minors, the Supreme Court granted digital games speech protections afforded by the First Amendment Chapter 11 Advertising and Commercial Culture - 10 questions The Shape of Contemporary U.S. Advertising (pg. 316-324) All bolded terms in section: mega-agencies, boutique agencies, market research, VALS, storyboard, viral marketing, media planners and media buyers, saturation advertising, spam, predictive marketing ○ Mega-agencies (316) - large ad firms that form when several agencies merge and that maintain regional offices worldwide ○ Boutique agencies (316) - which devote their talents to only a handful of select clients. Breaking away from bigger agencies, many of these creative individuals formed small boutique agencies. Offering more personal services, the boutiques prospered, bolstered by innovative ad campaigns and increasing profits from TV accounts. By the 1980s, large agencies had bought up many of the boutiques. ○ Market research (318) - Consumers’ views are the most difficult to understand, so account planners coordinate market research to assess the behaviors and attitudes of consumers toward particular products long before any ads are created. ○ VALS (318) - Values and Lifestyles (VALS) strategy. Using questionnaires, VALS researchers measure psychological factors and divide consumers into types. VALS research assumes that not every product suits every consumer and thus encourages advertisers to vary their sales slants to find market niches. ○ Storyboard (319) - a sort of blueprint or roughly drawn comic-strip version of the potential ad. ○ Slogan (315) - a phrase that attempts to sell a product by capturing its essence in words. ○ viral marketing—short videos or other content that (marketers hope) will quickly gain widespread attention as users share it with friends online or by word of mouth. ○ Media planners analyze the effectiveness of various media channels, such as the  Internet, TV, radio, and outdoor advertising. ○ Media buyers negotiate rates and place ads with the specific media outlets that planners determine to be the best suited to reach the audience and later measure the effectiveness of those ad placements. ○ saturation advertising, in which a variety of media are inundated with ads aimed at target audiences. ○ Spam - unsolicited commercial e-mail ○ This increasingly detailed data helps advertising companies target us with ads today and predict what we might want to purchase down the road. Called predictive marketing, this new marketing strategy is as much about creating a desire for future products and services as it is about getting people to buy current ones. Persuasive Techniques in Contemporary Advertising (pg. 324-328) **** All bolded terms in the section, know the definitions and be able to match with an example famous-person testimonial, in which a product is endorsed by a well-known person. plain-folks pitch, associates a product with simplicity. Any ad that shows a “real” person (not a model or an actor) is using this technique. snob-appeal approach attempts to persuade consumers that using a product will maintain or elevate their social status. Advertisers selling jewelry, perfume, clothing, and luxury automobiles often use snob appeal. bandwagon effect, points out in exaggerated claims that everyone is using a particular product. the hidden-fear appeal, plays on consumers’ sense of insecurity. Deodorant, mouthwash, and shampoo ads frequently invoke anxiety irritation advertising: creating product-name recognition by being annoying or obnoxious. association principle, a widely used persuasive technique that associates a product with a positive cultural value or image even if it has little connection to the product. myth analysis, which provides insight into how ads work at a general cultural level. Advertising and Concerns about Commercial Speech (pg. 328-337) commercial speech—any print or broadcast expression for which a fee is charged to organizations and individuals buying time or space in the mass media. Puffery - ads featuring hyperbole and exaggeration ex. “New and improved” Deceptive - misleading ex. “The greatest”, “The best” Do Alcohol Ads Encourage Binge Drinking? (p. 332) Ethical question. What are the four serious contemporary issues regarding health and advertising? (p. 330-333) ○ Eating disorders ○ Tobacco ○ Alcohol ○ Prescription Drugs  In contrast, studies that use local-level data measured over a year find wide variation in the level of advertising and are likely to conclude that alcohol advertising significantly increases alcohol consumption. Yes, alcohol ads can encourage binge drinking by normalizing excessive consumption, particularly among impressionable audiences. However, the extent of their influence depends on factors like individual responsibility, societal norms, and regulatory measures. Chapter 12 Public Relations and Framing the Message - 5 questions The Practice of Public Relations (p. 350-359) ○ Press releases, Video news releases (VNRs), Public service announcements (PSAs) Paid media, Earned media, Media event, Lobbying ** Press releases - Press releases, or news releases, are announcements written in the style of news reports that present new information about an individual, a company, or an organization and pitch a story idea to the news media. Video news releases (VNRs) - issuing video news releases (VNRs): thirty- to ninety-second visual press releases designed to mimic the style of a broadcast news report. Public service announcements (PSAs) - public service announcements (PSAs): fifteen- to sixty-second audio or video reports that promote government programs, educational projects, volunteer agencies, or social reform. Paid media - paid media—that is, advertising—to their clients when it seems appropriate. Earned media - Earned media, however, carries the aura of legitimate news and thus has more credibility than advertising does. Media event - media event is any circumstance created for the sole purpose of gaining coverage in the media Lobbying - the process of attempting to influence lawmakers to support and vote in favor of an organization’s or industry’s best interests. ○ Six principles of effective crisis communication from the federal government’s Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication Be First. Crises are time sensitive. Communicating information quickly is almost always important. For members of the public, the first source of information often becomes the preferred source. Be Right. Accuracy establishes credibility. Information can include what is known, what is not known, and what is being done to fill in the gaps. Be Credible. Honesty and truthfulness should not be compromised during crises. Express Empathy. Crises create harm, and the suffering should be acknowledged in words. Addressing what people are feeling, and the challenges they face, builds trust and rapport.  Promote Action. Giving people meaningful things to do calms anxiety, helps restore order, and promotes a restored sense of control. Show Respect. Respectful communication is particularly important when people feel vulnerable. Respectful communication promotes cooperation and rapport. ○ How does public relations differ from advertising? Public relations involves more complex messages that may evolve over time and that may be transmitted to the public directly or indirectly Public Relations and Democracy (p. 363) ○ Greenwashing Greenwashing - In 1992, the Federal Trade Commission first issued its “Green Guides”—guidelines to ensure that environmental marketing practices don’t run afoul of its prohibition against unfair or deceptive acts or practices, sometimes called greenwashing. Definition: Deceptive practices in environmental marketing Example: A company claims its products are “eco- friendly” without providing evidence or making meaningful changes to its practices. Tensions between Public Relations and the Press (p. 359-362) ○ Flack, Public Relations Society of America Ethics Code - know all core values ADVOCACY - We serve the public interest by acting as responsible advocates for those we represent. We provide a voice in the marketplace of ideas, facts, and viewpoints to aid informed public debate HONESTY - We adhere to the highest standards of accuracy and truth in advancing the interests of those we represent and in communicating with the public. EXPERTISE - We acquire and responsibly use specialized knowledge and experience. We advance the profession through continued professional development, research, and education. We build mutual understanding, credibility, and relationships among a wide array of institutions and audiences. LOYALTY - We are faithful to those we represent, while honoring our obligation to serve the public interest. FAIRNESS - We deal fairly with clients, employers, competitors, peers, vendors, the media, and the general public. We respect all opinions and support the right of free expression. Public Relations Today (p. 344-345) ○ Stakeholders, Public relations Stakeholders - people who have an interest in what is happening. Public relations - defines public relations as “a strategic communication process that builds mutually beneficial relationships between organizations and their publics.” Chapter 14 The Culture of Journalism Values, Ethics, and Democracy + Identifying Fake News - 5 questions A Guide to Identifying Fake News ○ Types of Fake News (Be able to define and apply to a situation/example) *** Satirists - a technique that uses humor and detailed research to critique the news media and the political system Examples: Saturday Night Live, The Daily Show, the Onion Hoaxes and Hucksters Huckster - someone who aggressively promotes or sells products of questionable authenticity of value P.T. Barnum is America’s most famous huckster Examples: the Bigfoot film clip, the Lock Ness Monster Often harmless Can cause real harm (particularly with Ponzi scheme financial hoaxes or internet phishing scams in which people are promised money and end up losing everything Opinion Entrepreneurs - media outlets - from websites and talk ratio to newspapers and cable news- that seek to influence the news and public agenda, often with false or inaccurate stories The work of opinion entrepreneurs usually starts as a report by one outlet or pundit, which then expands into an increasingly bigger issue as more opinion entrepreneurs join in and exemplify that particular interpretation of a story The work of opinion entrepreneurs is aided by social media sites Example: The “birther” story which questioned former president Barack Obama’s U.S. citizenship (and thus his qualifications to be president) Propagandists - official state actors who spread coordinated partisan messages meant to propagate a point of view Propaganda - communication strategically placed, either as advertising or publicity, to gain public support for a special issue, program or policy Today North Korea, China, and Russia are the most easily identifiable propagandists, each with a secure hold on major national outlets (either owning them outright or by influencing them through coercion) and a sophisticated system of news and media that supports the goals of the refine both within the country and outside its borders Information Anarchists - actors who want to stir the pot, make some people angry with outrageous statements and allegations, and create doubt and mistrust (sometimes called gaslighting) in order to undermine the legitimacy of genuine news and create the perception that the truth might never be determined The term “gaslight” comes from British dramatist Patrick Hamilton’s 1938 play Gas Light and the 1944 American film adaptation Gaslight, directed by George Cukor and starring Ingrid Bergman and Charles Boyer  In the film Boyer plays Gregory Anton, a scheming husband who tries to convince his young wife, Paula (Bergman), that she is going mad. Chapter Opener, Journalism’s Role in Democracy ○ The only media business that is specifically mentioned and protected by the U.S. Constitution The Press The Essential Elements of News ○ Values in American Journalism, Essential Elements, Characteristics ○ Values in American Journalism Ethnocentrism - an underlying value held by many U.S. journalists and citizens, it involves judging other countries and cultures according to how they live up or imitate American practices and ideals Responsible capitalism - an underlying value held by many U.S. journalists, it assumes that businesspeople should compete with one another not primarily to maximize profits but to create prosperity for all Small-town pastoralism - an underlying value held by many U.S. journalists, it favors the small over the large and the rural over the urban Individualism - an underlying value held by many U.S. journalists, it favors individual rights and responsibilities above group needs or institutional mandates ○ Essential Elements **** “Journalism’s first obligation is to the truth.” - Journalists need to sort through the information and try to tell the most accurate version of the story possible (and follow up on that story) “It’s first loyalty is to its citizens.” - The citizens are reporter’s ultimate boss (not the news organization, advertisers, sources) “It’s essence is a discipline of verification.” - Getting the most reliable account of events, confirming what they have found is true with verification “It’s practitioners must maintain an independence from those they over.” - Journalists need to disclose and avoid conflicts of interest, i.e. A reporter cannot write a raving review on a TV show their best friend produced “It must serve as an independent monitor of power.” - Journalism should give a voice to the voiceless and monitor the powerful (watchdog role) ○ Characteristics Newsworthiness - information most worthy of transformation into news stories Ethics and the News Media SPJ Code of Ethics, Nellie Bly, Ethical Predicaments, Resolving Ethical Problems SPJ Code of Ethics ***** ○ Seek Truth and Report It: ethical journalism should be accurate and fair. Journalists should be honest and courageous in gathering, reporting, and interpreting information.  ○ Minimize Harm: ethical journalism treats sources, subjects, colleagues, and public members as human beings deserving of respect. ○ Act Independently: ethical journalism's highest and primary obligation is to serve the public. ○ Be Accountable and Transparent: ethical journalism means taking responsibility for one’s work and explaining one’s decisions to the public. Nellie Bly ○ Nellie Bly faked mental illness so she could report from inside an asylum in the 1800s, investigative journalists have used deception to get stories Ethical Predicaments ○ Deploying deception Nellie Bly ○ Invading privacy The public’s right to know vs. a person’s right to privacy “Minimize harm” ○ Conflict of interest Definition - any situation in which a journalist may stand to benefit personally from stories they produce Resolving Ethical Problems ○ Golden mean (Aristotle) - The “Golden Mean” is about finding a middle ground or balance. Instead of going to extremes, Aristotle said we should try to find the fair middle point between two sides. For example, if you’re trying to decide how much to say in a difficult situation, the “golden mean” would suggest saying enough to be honest, but not so much that it hurts someone. ○ Categorical imperative (Kant) - Kant’s rule says, “Act as if what you do could become a rule everyone follows.” This means if you think something is the right thing to do, it should be okay for everyone to do it in similar situations. For example, if you think it’s okay to tell a small lie to avoid trouble, you’re saying it should be okay for everyone to lie whenever they want—so you have to think carefully! ○ Greatest good for the greatest number (Bentham & Mill) - This idea, often linked to philosopher John Stuart Mill, suggests we should try to make choices that help the most people possible. Sometimes, that means one person might have to sacrifice something small if it benefits many others. It’s like choosing a plan that makes the most people happy or does the least harm to the most people. ○ Chapter 16 Legal Controls and Freedom of Expression Freedom Expression Today ○ Memorize the First Amendment **? ○ “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.”  ○ Watergate Scandal, Buckley v. Valeo (1976), Citizens v. Federal Election Commission (2010) ****** 1974: Emerging from the Watergate scandal (President Nixon’s illegal tactics in the 1972 election), Congress amended federal election law to limit campaign contributions 1976: Buckley v. Valeo (1976), the U.S. Supreme Court suggested for the first time that political contributions count as speech The main explanation for why corporations and rich individuals can now spend money extraordinary amounts on elections lies in another decision by the Supreme Court, Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010) The five-to-four decision said that it was a violation of First Amendment free-speech rights for the federal government to limit spending for TV and radio advertising, usually done through organized Super PACs (political action committees), which are most often sponsored by corporate interests or super-rich donors ○ Do social media companies violate users’ First Amendment rights when they ban users based on the content of their posts? Social media companies do NOT violate users’ First Amendment rights when they ban users based on the content of their posts The First Amendment and Democracy ○ Who are the most powerful gatekeepers? The most powerful gatekeepers are now Internet corporations All cases and their results, All Acts, All Sections ***** ○ Sedition Act of 1798 What it was: A law that made it illegal to criticize the U.S. government, including Congress and the President. Why it mattered: Tested the boundaries of the First Amendment's protection of free speech and press. Impact: Highlighted tensions between government control and individual freedoms. Outcome: Expired in 1801; helped establish the precedent for strong protections under the First Amendment. Censorship is the act of prohibiting the expression of ideas or speech, typically to protect society from perceived harm. New York Times v. Sullivan 1964 The 1964 case established that public officials must prove "actual malice" to win a defamation lawsuit. ○ Actual Malice: ○ Knowledge that the statement was false or reckless disregard for the truth. ○ Significance: ○ Strengthened protections for freedom of the press. ○ Ensured that journalists could critique government officials without excessive fear of legal repercussions. ○ Reinforced the principle of open debate in a democracy. Why were films not constitutionally protected as a form of speech until 1952? Reason: ○ In the 1915 Mutual Film Corporation v. Industrial Commission of Ohio ruling, the Supreme Court decided that films were a business and not a form of expression, making them unprotected by the First Amendment. o Films were viewed primarily as entertainment rather than a medium for ideas or public debate. Change in 1952: ○ The Burstyn v. Wilson ruling overturned this precedent. ○ The Court declared that films are a significant medium for communicating ideas and deserve First Amendment protection. ○ This case involved the banning of the Italian film The Miracle, which was deemed sacrilegious. Why did film review boards develop, and why did they eventually disband? Development: Film review boards emerged in the early 20th century due to public concerns about the moral impact of movies. Local governments or states established boards to review and censor films deemed inappropriate for public viewing. They aimed to regulate content such as violence, sexual imagery, and controversial topics to align with community standards. Disbanding: They were rendered less necessary due to the rise of self-regulation within the industry, such as the Motion Picture Production Code. Legal challenges in the 1950s and 1960s argued that film review boards violated the First Amendment, leading to their decline. The Supreme Court's protection of films as free speech (1952) also weakened their authority. Motion Picture Production Code (1930): Also known as the Hays Code, it was established by the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America (MPPDA) to avoid government censorship. Set strict guidelines for acceptable content, banning depictions of violence, sexual content, and controversial themes. Enforced in 1934 with the formation of the Production Code Administration (PCA). Disbanding of the Hays Code: By the 1960s, societal norms had shifted, and the rigid rules of the Hays Code were  outdated. Films began pushing boundaries, and the industry needed a more flexible system. Current Movie Rating System (1968) The Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) introduced a voluntary rating system to replace the Hays Code. Ratings like G, PG, R, and later PG-13 and NC-17 provide guidance for audiences rather than outright censorship. Section 315 - part of the 1934 Communications Act; it mandates that during elections, broadcast stations must provide equal opportunities and response time to for qualified political candidates Communications Act of 1934 - the far-reaching act that established the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and the federal regulatory structure for U.S. broadcasting Fairness Doctrine - repealed in 1897, this FCC rule required broadcast stations to both air and engage in controversial issue programs that affected their communities and, when offering such programming, to provide competing points of view Section 230 - part of the 1996 Communications Decency Act; it protects any company operating an “interactive computer service” from liability for anything published on their service by a third party Part of the Communications Decency Act of 1996, it protects Internet platforms from being held liable for user-generated content. Allows platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube to moderate content without being considered publishers. Unprotected Forms of Expression (know ALL for the final exam and quiz) p. 463-470 ○ Seditious expression - speech that promotes rebellion against the government, not protected under the First Amendment ○ Copyright infringement - Using someone else's protected work without permission ○ Copyright - legally protects the rights of authors and producers to their published or unpublished work (writing, music, lyrics, TV programs, movies, or graphic art designs) ○ Public domain - at the end of the copyright preios, would give the public free access to the work ○ Libel - defamation of character in written or broadcast form Different from slander - spoken language that defames a person’s character How to determine libel, you have to prove: 1. That the public statement about them is false 2. That damages or actual injury occurred (such as the loss of a job, harm to reputation, public humiliation, or mental anguish) AND  3. That the publisher or broadcaster was negligent in failing to determine the truthfulness of the statement Obscenity - Content that violates societal standards of decency and has no artistic, literary, or scientific value. ********* ○ expression that is not protected as speech if these three legal tests are met: 1) the average person, applying contemporary community standards, would find the material as a whole appeals to prurient (having or encouraging an excessive interest in sexual matters) interests 2) the material depicts or describes sexual conduct in a patently offensive way 3) the material as a whole lacks serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value Indecency is protected by the First Amendment but restricted to certain hours, while obscenity is not protected at all. Privacy Violations - Sharing or using someone's private information without consent, especially when it causes harm