Meaning of Philo PDF

Ethics and Morals  Morals- refer to specific beliefs or attitudes that people have or to describe acts that people perform. Thus, it is sometimes said that an individual’s personal conduct is referred to as his morals, and if he falls short of behaving properly, this can be described...

Ethics and Morals  Morals- refer to specific beliefs or attitudes that people have or to describe acts that people perform. Thus, it is sometimes said that an individual’s personal conduct is referred to as his morals, and if he falls short of behaving properly, this can be described as immoral. Ethics- the discipline of studying and understanding ideal human behavior and ideal ways of thinking. Thus, Ethics is acknowledged as an intellectual discipline belonging to philosophy. Philosophy Gk. Philia- means friendship or love Sophia- means wisdom. Thus, it is a love of wisdom. Areas or Branches of Philosophy 1. Metaphysics- wonders as to what constitutes the whole reality. 2. Epistemology- asks what the basis for determining what we know is. 3. Axiology- refers to the study of values. 3.1 Aesthetics- concerns itself with the value of beauty. 3.2. Ethics- concerns itself with the value of human actions. Descriptive and Normative Ethics Descriptive study of ethics reports how people, particularly group, make their moral valuations without making any judgment either for or against these valuations. This is the work of a social scientist like historian or sociologist or anthropologist. Normative study of ethics is often done in philosophy or moral theology. A normative discussion prescribes what we ought to maintain as our standards or bases for moral valuation Issue, Decision, Judgment, and Dilemma Issue- used to refer to those particular situations that are often the source of considerable and inconclusive debate When one is placed in a situation and confronted by the choice of what act to perform, she is called to make a moral decision When a person is an observer who makes an assessment on the action or behavior of someone, she is making a moral judgment Going beyond the matter of choosing right over wrong, or good over bad, and considering instead the more complicated situation wherein one is torn between choosing one of the two goods or choosing between the lesser of two evils: this is moral dilemma  Reasoning Principle- rationally established grounds by which one justifies and maintains her moral decisions and judgment. Moral theory- is a systematic attempt to establish the validity of maintaining certain moral principles. It can also be referred as framework Framework- theory of interconnected ideas, a structure through which we can evaluate our reasons for valuing a certain decision or judgment. Sources of authority Several common ways of thinking about ethics are based on the idea that the standards of valuation are imposed by a higher authority that commands our obedience. Law  Positive law- refers to the different rules and regulations that are posited or put forward by an authority figure that require compliance. Religion Divine Command Theory- it expresses a claim that many people of a religious sensibility find appealing and immediately valid: the idea that one is obliged to obey her God in all things. The divinity called God, Allah, or Supreme Being commands and one is obliged to obey her creator  Many of us had been brought up with one form of religious upbringing or another, it is very possible that there is a strong inclination in us to refer to our religious background to back up our moral valuations.  We are presented with more or less clear code of prohibitions given by religion- thou shall not kill-seem to intuitively coincide with our sense of ethics should rightly demand.  Religion is not simply prohibitive, but it also provides ideals to pursue. Culture Cultural Relativism- what is ethically acceptable or unacceptable is relative to, or that is to say, dependent on one’s culture. This means cultural relativism leads us to: a. Conform to what we experience, which is the reality of the differences in how cultures make their ethical valuations. b. By the taking one’s culture as the standard, we are provided a basis for our valuations. c. This teaches us to be tolerant of others from different cultures, as we realize that we are in no position to judge whether the ethical thought or practice of another culture is acceptable or unacceptable.  Senses of the Self Subjectivism  Thestarting of subjectivism is the recognition that the individual thinking person (the subject) is at the heart of all moral valuations.  Sheis the one who is confronted with the situation and is burdened with the need to make a decision or judgment.  Subjectivismleaps to the more radical claim that the individual is the sole determinant of what is morally good or bad, right or wrong. Psychological Egoism “Human beings are naturally self-centered, so all our actions are always already motivated by self- interest.”  This is the stance taken by psychological egoism, which is a theory that describes the underlying dynamic behind all human actions.  As a descriptive theory, it does not direct one to act in a particular way. Instead, it points out that there is already an underlying basis for how one acts.  The ego or self has its desires and interests, and all our actions are geared toward satisfying these interests. Ethical egoism  It prescribes that we should make our own ends, our own interests, as the single overriding concern.  We may act in a way that is beneficial to others, but we should do that only if it ultimately benefits us.  One should consider herself a priority and not allow any other concerns, such as the welfare of other people, to detract from this pursuit.