Ethics Reviewer PDF

ETHICS REVIEWER Chapter 1: What Is Morality? Problem of Definition: Morality is about "how we ought to live," but no single definition satisfies everyone. The minimum conception of morality is rational conduct guided by reason and equal regard for everyone’s interests(EM)....

ETHICS REVIEWER Chapter 1: What Is Morality? Problem of Definition: Morality is about "how we ought to live," but no single definition satisfies everyone. The minimum conception of morality is rational conduct guided by reason and equal regard for everyone’s interests(EM). Case Examples: Baby Theresa, Jodie and Mary, and Tracy Latimer—each case raises ethical questions about life, death, and how we value human existence(EM). Reason and Impartiality: Moral reasoning should be based on facts and should not be influenced by personal biases(EM). Baby Theresa Case: Illustrates moral issues like using people as a means and the value of life. Minimum Conception of Morality: The basic idea that morality involves guiding conduct by reason and giving equal weight to everyone’s interests. Socrates: Quoted in the introduction as one of the first moral philosophers, emphasizing morality's broad scope by asking how we ought to live. Baby Theresa: A real-life case involving an infant with a fatal condition, raising ethical questions about life and using people as a means to an end. Jodie and Mary (conjoined twins): Another real-life case discussing the ethics of separating conjoined twins. Tracy Latimer: A case discussing euthanasia involving a severely disabled child whose father killed her, raising debates about the value of life and mercy killing (EM). Chapter 2: The Challenge of Cultural Relativism Different Cultures, Different Codes: Cultures have different moral beliefs. However, this does not mean there is no objective moral truth. Consequences of Cultural Relativism: If moral truth is relative, we cannot criticize other societies, or even our own, for improvement.  Moral Progress: Cultural relativism challenges the idea of moral progress, implying that customs of the past cannot be judged by today’s standards. Cultural Differences Argument: Claims that moral differences between cultures mean there’s no objective truth. However, this argument is flawed because disagreement doesn’t prove there’s no truth. Cultural Relativism: The idea that no universal moral truth exists and that morality is defined by a society’s customs. Moral Infallibility of Societies: Cultural relativism suggests that if a society accepts a practice, it cannot be morally wrong. Herodotus: Mentioned in relation to the ancient Greeks and Callatians, where different cultures had conflicting views on how to treat their dead. William Graham Sumner: Quoted in his book Folkways, describing cultural relativism and how morality is shaped by societal customs. Chapter 3: Subjectivism in Ethics Ethical Subjectivism: Moral opinions are based on personal feelings. Simple Subjectivism states that when someone says something is morally good, they are merely expressing approval. Problems with Simple Subjectivism: It fails to explain moral disagreement since people can’t truly disagree if both are just expressing personal feelings. Emotivism: A refinement of subjectivism. Emotivism argues that moral language is not about facts but about influencing others' emotions. Role of Reason in Ethics: While subjectivism undermines reason, morality often involves rational argument and logical thinking. David Hume: A major figure in philosophy, known for his influence on subjectivism and the role of emotions in moral judgments. Michele Bachmann: Mentioned briefly in the context of subjectivism, linking personal beliefs about morality with religious or political views. Chapter 4: Does Morality Depend on Religion? Divine Command Theory: Morality is based on God's commands. However, this theory is criticized because it implies that something is good simply because God commands it. Divine Command Theory: Morality is based on God’s commands—what is right is what God wills. Natural Law Theory: Morality is grounded in nature and reason, independent of religious belief. Moral Knowledge: Both religious and non-religious people use reason to determine what is right, implying that morality is not exclusively tied to religion. Problems with Divine Command Theory: Raises the question of whether something is right because God commands it, or if God commands it because it is right. Morality and Religion in Practice: Religion may influence moral views, but it’s debated whether it’s essential for moral understanding. Euthyphro Dilemma: Asks whether something is good because God commands it or if God commands it because it is good. Plato: Introduced in the dialogue Euthyphro with Socrates, questioning whether something is right because God commands it or if God commands it because it is right. Saint Augustine: A Christian philosopher, who distrusted reason and believed moral goodness depended on following God's will. Jeremiah: Quoted from the Bible, often used in debates over abortion by religious conservatives, though his words in context speak of his prophetic calling. Chapter 5: Ethical Egoism Psychological Egoism: The view that people always act in their own self-interest. This theory is considered implausible because it oversimplifies human motivations. Ethical Egoism: The idea that people ought to act in their own self-interest. It does not necessarily forbid helping others if it benefits oneself. Criticism: Ethical egoism can lead to endorsing harmful actions, and critics argue it fails as a moral theory. Arguments for Ethical Egoism: Some argue it promotes personal responsibility and rational self-interest.  Arguments Against Ethical Egoism: Critics say it leads to conflict and fails to consider the needs of others. Also, it might justify harmful behavior if it's in one's self- interest. Altruism: The practice of putting others' interests above one's own; ethical egoism rejects altruism as morally required. Ayn Rand: Known for her philosophy of Objectivism, which strongly advocates for ethical egoism, the idea that acting in one's self-interest is morally correct. Kurt Baier: A critic of ethical egoism, arguing that it fails to resolve moral conflicts and is not a sufficient moral theory.