Ethics Midterm Exam PDF

CHAPTER 3: o “Lance Armstrong beat cancer and then won the Tour de Subjectivism & Ethical Egoism France bike rac...

CHAPTER 3: o “Lance Armstrong beat cancer and then won the Tour de Subjectivism & Ethical Egoism France bike race seven times.” o “Shakespeare wrote Hamlet.” - Language is also used for other SUBJECTIVISM = Morality is Grounded on purposes. Its purpose is to get the Feeling (Emotions & Desire) listener to do something. o “Aaargh!” EMOTIVISM = Moral Language does not o “Way to go, Lance!” determine “facts”, the are expressions of “what o “Damn Hamlet!” we feel” Comparison ETHICAL EGOISM = Self-Interest as the Obligation of any Individual - According to the first theory, Simple Subjectivism, moral language is about stating facts about what they feel -- The Basic Idea of Ethical Subjectivism ethical statements report the speaker’s attitudes or feelings of approval or - Ethical Subjectivism is the idea that our disapproval. moral opinions are based on our - According to Emotivism, however, moral feelings and nothing more. On this view, language is not fact-stating language; it there is no such thing as “objective” right is not used to convey information or to or wrong. make reports. It is used, first, as a - When someone says that something is means of influencing people’s behavior. wrong, one is not stating a fact about - If someone says, “You shouldn’t do that something. Instead, one is merely that,” he is trying to persuade you not to saying something about one’s feelings. do it. Thus, his utterance is more like a The Evolution of the Theory command than a statement of fact; “You shouldn’t do that” is like saying “Don’t do The First Stage: Simple Subjectivism that!” - When a person says that something is Emotivism emphasizes that disagreement morally good or bad, this means that he comes in different forms. or she approves of that thing, or disapproves of it, and nothing more. - I believe that Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone in the assassination of President Problems: John F. Kennedy, and you believe there was a conspiracy. This is a - Simple Subjectivism cannot account for disagreement about the facts—I believe disagreement. something to be true which you believe - Simple Subjectivism implies that we’re to be false. always rig - I am rooting for the Atlanta Braves to The Second Stage: Emotivism win, and you want them to lose. Our beliefs are not in conflict, but our desires - Language, Stevenson said, is used in are—I want something to happen that many ways. One way is to make you want not to happen. statements—that is, to state facts. - In the first case, we believe different o “Gas prices are rising.” things, both of which cannot be true. Stevenson calls this disagreement in belief.  - In the second case, we want different moral judgments cannot be criticized outcomes, both of which cannot occur. because they are not judgments at all; Stevenson calls this disagreement in they are mere expressions of attitude, attitude. which cannot be false. That is one problem for Emotivism. Emotivism - Another problem is that Emotivism (Emo) cannot explain the role reason plays in ethics. “X is good” is an emotional exclamation (not a truth claim) & means “Hurrah for X!” The Role of Reason in Ethics - Pick your moral principle by following - A moral judgment—or for that matter, your feelings. any kind of value judgment—must be - Moral judgment is an expression of supported by good reasons. Any feeling, not a statement that is literally adequate theory of ethics should be able true or false to explain how reasons can support moral judgments. AJ Ayer & Logical Positivism Moral Language as Performative - Empirical Proposition (Testable by sense experience) “It’s snowing outside.” - Performative language refers to - Analytic Proposition (True by Definition) language that performs a specific action “All bachelors are single.” or function. - Logical Positivist’s Claim - In the case of ethical norms, the - If a statement is neither empirical nor language used to describe and analytic, then it is meaningless. communicate these norms can serve as - If a statement is neither empirical or a performative utterance that reinforces analytic, then one is not stating a truth their existence and importance. claim (true or false); one is perhaps - For example, when someone says, merely expressing feelings. "lying is wrong," they are not just stating a fact, but also performing an action by Any genuine truth claim is either empirical reinforcing the norm against lying. (testable by sense experience) or analytic (true Similarly, when a group or society by definition). collectively agrees on certain ethical norms and values, they can use Moral statements aren’t either empirical or language and communication to perform analytic. and reinforce those norms, shaping the ______________________________________ behavior and actions of individuals _____ within the group. /: Moral statements aren’t genuine truth claims. Do We Have an Obligation to consider Other Peoples’Welfare Problems: Ethical Egoism - Although Emotivism is an improvement on Simple Subjectivism, both theories - A normative ethical theory that asserts imply that our moral judgments are, in a individuals should act in their own self- sense, beyond reproach. interest. - For Simple Subjectivism, our judgments - According to Ethical Egoism, an cannot be criticized because they will individual's moral duty is to maximize always be true. For Emotivism, our  their own well-being, regardless of the Key Concepts impact on other - Principle of Utility - The goal of behavior is to Capitalism & the Self achieve well-being or happiness. o It basically states that “I want what I - Hyperreality of the Self (Hyper want because it will make me happy. Individualism) ” - Hyper-sensitization - Principle of Greatest Happiness - “the - Culture Industry greatest happiness for the greatest number - Culture of ‘Crisis’ Industry (CoCi) of people” Capitalism o This means ‘all’ members of a community should reach - A Socio-Economic System grounded on ‘happiness’. Not only a majority. the principles of ‘Liberalism’ (Life, o The minority’s feelings must be Liberty, Property) that emphasizes the listened to and factored into the free- market system and private pursuit of happiness ownership of the means of production in pursuit of economic interest, capitalism CONCEPTS II also evolved into the 20th-century Key Concepts system of Neoliberalism (Highlights deregulation of the free-market system - Pleasure Principle as it expands the framework of o We are motivated to obtain pleasure Globalization) and avoid pain to satisfy biological - It underlines the value of individual needs choice & effort. o Desire for immediate gratification o This is the driving force of the Id A Culture of Pity ▪ The Id acts as the driving APPEAL TO PITY EXAMPLES: force of personality as it strives to fulfill the most Mr. Hughes, it would be wrong for you to flunk basic urges that people me for cheating. I am a single mother, and to have. provide for my kids, I have to work two jobs. At ▪ It is the animalistic part of the end of the day, I am exhausted and don't the personality have time to study. Key Concepts Mr. Hughes, I deserve an "A" on this paper. I passed up a skiing weekend just to write it. Plus, - Felicific/Hedonistic Calculus I worked really, really hard on it. o An algorithm that takes into account the pleasure and pain involved in CHAPTER 5 : UTILITARIANISM any activity o “Maximizing pleasure and CONCEPTS minimizing pain governs everything we do, say, and think.” Basic Concepts ▪ If an act produces more - Means/Ends - pleasure than pain, it is right o Means - Causal actions that are ▪ If an act produces more done in order to reach the Ends pain than pleasure, it is o Ends - subjective goals an individual wrong has  THE TROLLEY PROBLEM STRENGTHS “A trolley is heading near five persons who are 1.The most ethical choice is the one that tied up and unable to move in this scenario. produces the greatest good for the greatest You're standing near to a lever that can redirect number. the trolley onto a new track, maybe sparing the 2. Utilitarianism encourages us to consider the lives of those five people. However, there is one interest of the whole: both majority and minority. person on the alternate track, and lifting the lever would result in the death of that one person 3. It also encourages us to think beyond in order to save five others.” individual or special interests and prioritize the greater good THE UTILITARIAN PERSPECTIVE: WEAKNESSES Pulling the switch to redirect the 1.We cannot predict the future, so we don't know trolley in this situation would result whether the consequences of our actions will be in saving five and sacrificing one, good or bad. maximizing total pleasure or well- being 2. Has trouble for accounting for values such as HOWEVER: justice and individual rights. Purposefully causing harm to one 3. Utilitarian i f t a k e n in an ideologically person is morally objectionable, even extreme sense can lead to morally troubling if it leads to higher general happiness. conclusions when applied in a one-size- fits-all Highlighting the value of individual manner. (May devalue intrinsic motivations) rights, the idea of not willfully causing damage to innocent people, or other EXAMPLES OF UTILITARIANISM moral reasons DOPAMINE NATION PROPOSITIONS DOPAMINE: The motivation hormone - Bentham’s utilitarianism has three - We are in a moment in time where there is propositions too much of everything. o Morality of an action depends solely - The See-Saw effect on the consequences of the action; - Pain (dissatisfaction, anxiety, depression) on nothing else matters. one side, Pleasure on the other o An action’s consequences matter MINDFUL SOLUTIONS: only insofar as they involve the greater or lesser happiness of 1.Abstinence – to kick the habit you need to stop individuals doing it for 30 days. o In the assessment of consequences, each individual’s 2. Pain first = Give yourself safe, healthy happiness gets equal consideration. discomfort and adversity will lead to longer term ▪ Nobody’s well being matters pleasure and improved mental health (examples: more just because they are exercise, cold water shower or ice bath) rich, or a man, or a woman, PHILIPPINE WAR ON DRUGS or a kid, or an elder. "Shoot-to-kill" policy against suspected drug An action is right if it produces the greatest criminals overall ‘balance’ of happiness over unhappiness THE UTILITARIAN PERSPECTIVE: - It was adopted with the purpose of lowering KEY CONCEPT drug-related crimes. PRINCIPLE OF UTILITY-WELL-BEING OR - Potentially boosts general satisfaction in the HAPPINESS long term by making communities safer PRINCIPLE OF GREATEST HAPPINESS- HOWEVER: GREATEST HAPPINESS FOR GREATER The strategy has resulted in enormous loss of NUMBER OF PEOPLE life and violations of individual rights, resulting in PLEASURE PRINCIPLE-MOTIVATED TO a fall in general well-being. OBTAIN PLEASURE AND AVOID PAIN COVID-19 PANDEMIC FELICIFIC/HEDONISTIC CALCULUS- Due to the pandemic, a lot of regular economic ALGORITHM INVOLVE PLEASURE AND PAIN flow was halted. IN ANY ACTIVITY THE UTILITARIAN PERSPECTIVE: EXAMPLES 1.Reduces the population’s suffering. DOPAMINE NATION- MOTIVATION HORMONE 2.Avoids overwhelming the healthcare system. PHILIPPINE WAR ON DRUG-SHOOT TO KILL POLICY 3.Allocates for “better” distribution of resources COVID-19 PANDEMIC-REGULAR ECONOMIC HOWEVER: FLOW WAS HALTED. - Picking and choosing on who the healthcare GUIDED QUESTIONS workers should give immediate medical treatment may come off as an ethical - SHOULD WE FOCUS ON ACTIONS AND concern. ITS INTRINSIC VALUE OR FOCUS ON - May lead to the exclusion of individuals who THE RESULT? might have benefited from treatment - WHAT SHOULD EVERY PERSON SEEK IN THEIR LIFE? WHAT UTILITARIANISM - MOTIVATES US TO ACCOMPLISH OUR UTILITARIANISM GOALS? - ETHICAL THEORY FOCUS ON OUT COME - PART OF CONSENQUENTIALISM CHAPTER 6: THEORY OF TOOKBOX - DETERMINE RIGHT OR WRONG CULTURAL RELATIVISM JEREMY BENTHAMS CultureDeterminesValues - FATHER OF UTILITARIANISM - PHILISOPHER AND REFORMER (CR) - BORN IN 1748 “Good” means “socially approved” BASIC CONCEPTS Such “X” is socially approved. - MORAL AGENCY-ETHICAL DECISION Therefore, “X” is good BASED ON RIGHT OR WRONG - CONSENT-PERMITTING AN ACT TO BE Main Claims RECOGNIZE BY SOME AUTHORITY - MEANS- CASUAL ACTION It says that there is no universal truth in ethics; - END- GOAL/PURPOSE there are only various cultural codes.  Different societies have different moral codes. One influential part of natural law is the principle of double-effect. No objective standard to judge our norms as better than that of others. It says that under certain conditions, it is permissible to do something that has a morally SUPERNATURALISM good, intended effect and a morally bad DivineCommandTheory(DCT) unintended side effect. (SN) Subjectivism (SB) “X is good” means “God desires X.” Definition: Subjectivism suggests that Pick your moral principles by following God’s moral judgments are based on individual will.” feelings. o "X is good" translates to "I like CLAIMS X." o Pick your moral principles by There exists Objective values (Independent following your feelinMoral from humans); God is the Source. judgments describe how we feel about a particular subject. Morally right means “Commanded by God”, o To call something “good” is whereas morally wrong means “forbidden by simply to indicate a positive God.” feeling toward it. Main Claims: We are free agents, but we must follow God’s o There is no objective truth in law to live morally moral matters, meaning that right and wrong are relative to Right conduct is “Right” because God each person. commands it & He made it right. o Moral opinions vary from one person to another based on God is “All powerful, All-Knowing, & All-good.” individual emotions and perspectives. NATURAL LAW ETHICAL EGOISM (EE) MoralityisGroundedonNature LAW (NL) Each person ought to pursue his or her own exclusive “self-interest.” Nature has its order & purpose. The principle of self-interest accounts for all of one’s obligations. This purpose is knowable throughreason (not convention). Claims What “good” is: o“X” is right if it is to your own “Good” means what all things seek after – advantage. o The individual takes priority over telos. “Bad” or “evil” is what is to be avoided. others. Anything contrary to a things purpose is bad. Ayn Rand (1905-1982) o Capitalism is a morally superior Therefore: economic system & morality demands absolute respect for If “X” is natural, then it is good. the rights of individuals. o Altruism is a destructive ethical If “X” is unnatural, then it is morally wrong. idea for it denies the value of the individual. THE PRINCIPLE OF DOUBLE EFFECT INTRODUCTION What is the origin of government? The Death of God POWER & SOVEREIGNTY Friedrich Nietzsche How much authority does the state have over individuals? The outcome of history is the Disbelief in God (devoid of Divine purpose and meaning) APPEAL TO SECURITY Science and Humanism replaces God Thomas Hobbes The Crisis of Nihilism The Social Contract Revaluation of Values Hobbes argues that morality does not depend on religion; morality serves as the solution to a Normativity practical problem that arises for self-interested human beings. - Normativity refers to the set of standard values that encompass all aspects of human The social contract is the solution to escape life, including ethics (moral normativity), the so-called state of nature, a condition of “one knowledge (epistemic normativity), against everyone” brought about by individual aesthetics (aesthetic normativity), and social self-centeredness. norms (social normativity). The social contract provides the rules to meet THE SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY common interest by surrendering personal ones and is enforced by law & sanctions. Is Morality All About Rules? SOLITARY, POOR, NASTY, BRUTISH, SHORT The Social Contract Hobbes on the State of Nature Chaos / Anarchy If we cannot appeal to God, natural purpose, or altruism, is there anything left to base morality A pre-political / pre-social condition (condition on? prior to civil society) The Social Contract Theory explains both the A war of all against all (Bellum omnium contra purpose of morality & and of the state. Moral omines). rules make social living possible & and the state (through the government institution) exists to This basic condition of equality of mankind is enforce the most important of those rules. the principal source of chaos and misery. Morality consists in the set of rules, governing LIFE, LIBERTY, PROPERTY behavior, that rational people will accept, on the condition that others accept them as well. John Locke - The Social Contract MAIN FEATURES Classical Liberalism. The individual is the most important unit of analysis and claimant of Rights. HUMAN NATURE The State (Government) ensures the What are human beings like ‘essentially’? maintenance of conditions and arbiter of disputes. It is instituted to ensure that individuals CIVIL SOCIETY enjoy their rights to the fullest.  Power resides in the people (as ‘reason’ The State of Nature -> The Social Contract dictates it, and not Divine Right). Jean Jacques Rousseau Life, Liberty, Property (Locke’s State of Nature) “Man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains.” The Social Contract The Enlightenment Natural Rights as Laws of Nature. Life, Liberty, Property – Reason dictates that Opposition to Authority all mankind is equal and independent. Rationalism (Age of Reason) No one ‘ought’ to harm another life, Cultural Optimism (Progress) health, liberty, and property. The Return to Nature The “law of nature” deficiency prompts us to enter into a social contract to Natural Religion (no dogmas) establish an organized law and order to Human Rights (Declaration of the Rights address the uncertainties of the state of of Man) nature, where such uncertainties are replaced by the predictability of laws and Freedom impartial institutions built on trust. Power resides in the people (as ‘reason’ Positive Freedom: dictates it, not Divine Right). The Right to Revolution. If government Enabling Conditions to empower fails to protect life, liberty, and property. individuals (Freedom to) Capacity of individuals to pursue their Life, Liberty, Property (Fiduciary Trust The own goals Social Contract) Negative Freedom: Locke views government as comprised of two parties to the “trust”. Absence of Constraints (Freedom from) The People (Both trustor and Freedom from external beneficiary) coercion/limitations The Legislature (The trustee) Thus, the people have “rights”, the Rights government as trustee has only duties. Positive Right: Comparison of Hobbes and Locke’s Social Contract Theory Rights that entail an obligation (Entitlements) Negative Right: Natural Rights (Rights that do not impose an obligation) Classical Utilitarianism and the Principle of Utility 1. The Origin and Meaning of Utilitarianism Derived from the Latin word utilis (meaning The Origin of Government - > Divine Right or “useful”) and uti (meaning “to use”), the term "utility" generally refers to usefulness. Social Contract?  However, in the context of utilitarian ethics, utilitarianism, argues that the ultimate moral it refers to the moral value of an action principle is to maximize collective welfare based on its capacity to produce happiness by promoting the greatest balance of over suffering. This contrasts with the pleasure over pain. According to Bentham, practical, functional understanding of utility humans are inherently driven by two as seen in technology, where usefulness may "sovereign masters" — pleasure and pain. blur the line between humans and machines, Thus, any moral system must prioritize potentially reducing human beings to mere maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain. extensions of technological processes. Bentham contends that, just as people cannot 2. Ethical Foundation of Utility as escape the experiences of pleasure and pain, Happiness any moral perspective detached from these In utilitarian ethics, utility is defined by experiences is misguided. For Bentham, actions that bring about the greatest maximizing utility requires policymakers to happiness and minimize suffering for the aim for the highest collective happiness by most people. Classical Utilitarianism holds evaluating the intensity and duration of that the “most useful” actions are those that pleasure and pain resulting from actions. yield the highest balance of happiness over This focus on the measurable aspects of unhappiness. Therefore, an action is morally pleasure remains central to Bentham’s right if it maximizes happiness for the version of utilitarianism. majority of those affected. 3. Three Core Propositions of Classical Kant on Duty Ethics (Normative Ethics) Utilitarianism o Consequentialism: The morality of 1. Doing the Right Thing as a Moral Duty: an action depends only on its Kant on Motives & Actions consequences; other factors are Immanuel Kant, a German Enlightenment irrelevant. philosopher, grounds morality solely in o Happiness-Based Outcomes: Only reason, where doing the right thing is based the happiness or unhappiness on a sense of duty rather than conditional produced by an action's outcomes. In contrast to utilitarianism, consequences is considered morally which evaluates actions by the happiness significant. they produce, Kant asserts that “The good o Equal Consideration of will is good not through what it effects or Happiness: Each individual’s accomplishes, not through its efficacy for happiness counts equally in attaining any intended end, but only through assessing an action's outcomes, its willing” (4:394). For Kant, an action is regardless of personal attributes morally valuable when done purely out of like wealth, influence, or duty, reflecting a commitment to universal appearance. Thus, utilitarianism moral laws without seeking personal benefit. maintains that everyone’s well- 2. Kant on Rethinking the Motive of Actions being holds the same value. Kant challenges the idea that ends justify 4. Human-Centered Morality vs. means by examining morally questionable Theocentric Morality historical practices, such as boiling people as Classical Utilitarianism marks a shift from punishment or sacrificing children to pre-modern, theocentric morality, where appease gods. These actions, while accepted divine commandments dictated right and within certain cultures, demonstrate the wrong. In contrast, utilitarianism places limits of cultural relativism and humanity's pursuit of happiness at the center utilitarianism. Kant argues that, although of ethical decision-making, emphasizing that these practices may have served social morality should serve practical human functions, they lack moral justification. interests rather than being solely based on Cultural relativism accepts practices based religious edicts. Happiness, as an ethical on tradition, while utilitarianism might goal, implies a state of fulfillment for endorse them if they serve a majority’s humanity and a life lived to its fullest happiness. For Kant, however, true morality potential. is not conditional on societal norms or 5. Jeremy Bentham’s Principle of Utility outcomes but lies in adherence to moral Jeremy Bentham, a leading proponent of  duties that respect the intrinsic worth of moral actions, dictating what “ought” and individuals. “ought not” to be done, and freedom is fully 3. Reason as the Basis of Morality & Human realized only when one aligns with rational, Autonomy moral principles. Kant contends that morality should not rely on experience, which is often clouded by biases and personal desires. Instead, he emphasizes that morality should be grounded in “reason” to maintain objective validity. Human beings, unlike animals or objects bound by nature’s laws, possess rationality and autonomy, enabling them to create and follow moral principles. Freedom, for Kant, is not about acting without limits but is the “capacity to practice self- autonomy.” He distinguishes human action by reason, allowing one to choose whether to follow moral laws rather than acting purely out of instinct or desire. 4. Universality: The Good is without Condition Kant introduces the concept of the “categorical imperative,” a universal law that all rational beings would acknowledge as valid in every situation. This imperative embodies actions that are universally right and unconditionally good, demonstrating a form of morality that does not depend on specific outcomes or conditions. For Kant, a genuinely good act is one that can be universally applied without contradiction, standing independently of personal inclinations or situational factors. 5. Treating Others not as “Means” but as “Ends” Kant’s ethics demand that we treat every individual as an “end in themselves” rather than as a “means” to achieve our own goals. This principle reflects respect for human dignity, prohibiting the use of others merely for personal or societal benefit. For Kant, moral obligations derive from the recognition of each person’s inherent worth, ensuring that actions respect and uphold the autonomy and value of all individuals. 6. The Importance of Autonomy Autonomy, or self-determined moral action, is central to Kantian ethics. True freedom, in Kant’s view, involves the ability to understand and choose to follow moral laws established by reason. Unlike unchecked desires that may lead to harmful behaviors, autonomy requires rational self-governance, enabling individuals to act ethically by their own choice rather than being driven by external forces or impulses. Reason guides