The Use and Non-Use of Chemical Weapons: From WWI to Cold War PDF

11/11/2023 The Use and Non-Use of Chemical Weapons: From World War I to the End of the Cold War Dr Susan Martin, BA3 WMD, 2324 1 Rest of Term Today: Use and Non-use of Chemical Weapons, plus practice short answer questions 24 November: Use and Non-use of CBN in the Vietnam War, plus practice essay q...

11/11/2023 The Use and Non-Use of Chemical Weapons: From World War I to the End of the Cold War Dr Susan Martin, BA3 WMD, 2324 1 Rest of Term Today: Use and Non-use of Chemical Weapons, plus practice short answer questions 24 November: Use and Non-use of CBN in the Vietnam War, plus practice essay questions 1 December: Limited Nuclear War 1950s-1970s, plus practice exam questions 8 December: Questions, Review, Conclusion Term One Exam: 11 December, 13:00-15:00, King’s Bldg K1.28 2 1 11/11/2023 Term Two: New classroom: Waterloo FWB 2.46 (On 16 Feb, we are in Waterloo FWB 3.146.) Teaching for Term Two starts on Friday 12 January 12 Jan: CBN at the End of the Cold War 3 Key Questions 1.How can we best explain and understand the use and non‐use of chemical weapons in this period? 2.When, why and with what effect have they been used? Why have they not been used in other conflicts? 3.What factors influenced decisions about use/non‐use? How did those influence decision‐making? * What factors have been argued to affect the use and non‐use of weapons in the previous cases we’ve looked at? Do the same factors operate in these cases? 4 2 11/11/2023 Other questions 1. How do you assess the military utility and effectiveness of chemical weapons? 2. Were chemical weapons a failure in WWI? What is the definition and measurement of success/failure that we should use? What is the evidence for failure or success? 3. What has been the impact of norms and international agreements on state decisions in regard to these weapons? 4. Does the experience with chemical weapons in these cases still have relevance for today, or have things changed so much that any lessons drawn from these cases are not applicable today? What has changed, and why does it/does it not eliminate the relevance of the lessons from these earlier conflicts? 5 Outline Overview of Chemical Weapons and World War I Overview of Chemical Weapons and World War II [Discussion: Factors that determined non-use between the Allies and the Axis?] Overview of Chemical Weapons and Iran-Iraq War [Discussion: Factors that determined use and non-use?] Factors that influenced use/non-use in other cases that you read about? 6 3 11/11/2023 Conflicts before 1945 in which Chemical Weapons were used include: World War I 1919: Britain uses against Bolsheviks in Russian Civil War 1922-1927: Spanish use against Rif rebels in Spanish Morocco 1936: Italy uses mustard gas against Ethiopians 1937-1945 Japan against China 1942-1945: Nazi Germany uses in concentration camps 1944-1949 Greek Civil War (Respiratory irritant used to drive guerillas out of caves) 7 Conflicts after 1945 in which Chemical Weapons were used include: 1962-1973: US and SV uses tear gas and defoliants in Vietnam 1963-1967: Egypt uses against Yemen 1961-1994: South Africa 1965-1980: Rhodesian conflict 1970s (early): Portugal uses defoliants and herbicides against insurgents in Angola (1975-1983: alleged use of ‘yellow rain’ by Soviet backed forces in Laos and Kampuchea, and in 1980 in Afghanistan by Soviets) 1977: Shaba rebellion, Zaire (both sides, poison arrows) 1979: Kampuchea against Vietnamese (poisoned weapons) 1983-1987: Iran-Iraq War (Iraq, ? Iran) 1987-1988: Iraq uses chemical weapons against the Kurds 1983-2009: Sri Lankan Civil War (Tamil Tigers) 1995: Aum Shinrikyo uses sarin in attack on Tokyo subway 2007: Insurgents in Iraq use chlorine gas truck bombs 2013-: Use by Assad regime in Syrian civil war; 2014+ : ISIS use of chlorine in Iraq/Syria 8 4 11/11/2023 Overview Chemical Weapons through the Cold War: Efforts to Control 1899: Declaration (IV,2) concerning Asphyxiating Gases. The Hague, 29 July 1899: ‘The Contracting Powers agree to abstain from the use of projectiles the sole object of which is the diffusion of asphyxiating or deleterious gases.’ WWI: Use despite Declaration IV, 2 Attempt to re-invigorate norm against CW use with Washington Treaty (1922), Geneva Protocol (1925) Use in interwar years WWII: Use by Japan against China but not used by or against other powers; use in concentration camps; discovery of nerve agents Developments after WWII Major power use: US use of irritant and anti-plant agents in Vietnam; allegations of Soviet use in Asia (Yellow rain) Use by other states: Egypt, Rhodesia, South Africa, Iran-Iraq War (incl. nerve agents) Role of chemical weapons in Europe/US-USSR Chemical weapons proliferation Link between CW and NW in the Middle East 9 Chemical Weapons Overview: Post Cold War (not exhaustive) Yugoslav forces use tear gas (1991) Reports of use during Bosnia war (1994-5) Reports of use by Russian forces in Chechnya (1994-95) Russia alleges Chechen separatist use Toxic Industrial Chemicals (TICs) (1995-2000) 1997 Chemical Weapons Convention EIF Allegations of use in Sudan (1999-present) Moscow theatre siege—security forces use a fentanyl compound, with death of 130 hostages, most because of the gas (2002) Balochi separatists accuse Pakistan of use (1005-6) Kurds accuse Turkey of use (2006) Iraqi insurgents use chlorine truck bombs (2007) Use of chemical weapons in Syria Civil War by Assad regime (sarin; chlorine) and IS (mustard) (2012/2013-present) Assassination of Kim Jong-nam with VX nerve agent by DPRK (2018) Salisbury Novichok poisonings (2018) 10 5 11/11/2023 1899/1907 Hague treaty Article 23 (a) of 1899 Hague regulations: ‘In addition to the prohibitions provided by special Conventions, it is especially forbidden (a) To employ poison or poisoned weapons;….. (e) To employ arms, projectiles, or material calculated to cause unnecessary suffering’ (IV, 2): Declaration concerning the Prohibition of the Use of Projectiles with the Sole Object to Spread Asphyxiating Poisonous Gases ‘The Contracting Powers agree to abstain from the use of projectiles the sole object of which is the diffusion of asphyxiating or deleterious gases.’ (emphasis added) 11 World War I: First Use of Chemical Weapons Despite the Hague Convention, during the first months of World War (1914), the French began to use (or at least to plan for the use of) tear gas grenades and cartridges (ethyl bromoacetate-- first developed in 1912 for police use) 12 6 11/11/2023 LH Haber (p.25) argues that the French plans ‘reflected a growing belief that chemical substances, in addition to high explosives, were needed to drive the enemy from casements, dug-outs and trenches 13 The Germans respond The Germans also made use of a non-lethal agent, at Neuve Chapellle on 27 October 1914 The agent was dianisidine chlorosulphonate, which causes violent sneezing, in howitzer shells According to LH Haber (The Poisonous Cloud), the Germans did not conduct any tests, so used too little agent; also, they belatedly discovered the agent was effective for only a short time [Fritz Haber –German scientist known as the ‘father of chemical warfare’ developed and supervised the use of chlorine gas on the Western Front at Ypres in 1915] 14 7 11/11/2023 World War I: 2nd Battle of Ypres, 22 April 1915 The Germans launch operation “Disinfection” at 4pm A furious bombardment was followed by the release of chlorine gas (first use of a lethal agent in WWI) The green-grey gas spreads both along the line as well as in depth French and Algerian troops are hit the hardest, and the gas is said to cause ‘instant pandemonium.’ 15 16 16 8 11/11/2023 The British retaliate in-kind Was retaliation in kind the only or the best option? Brown argues that British decision to retaliate is as important as the German decision to initiate (9) German initiated in hopes of devising a solution to tactical military problem— stalemate of trenches Britain retaliated with full realisation that land war had become unlimited (9) Immediately dispatched crude gauge bandages to be turned into masks Feared morale problem if did not respond in kind (9) 17 The rest of war sees development of different agents, munitions and delivery methods (1915 chlorine; 1915 phosgene; 1917 mustard) By the end of the war, every major power is using chemical agents 18 Defences also evolve: 18 9 11/11/2023 LIEVENS PROJECTOR GERMAN SOLDIERS PREPARIN G FOR A GAS ATTACK ON RUSSIAN FORCES, POLAND, C. 1915. British soldiers loading and fitting electrical leads to a battery of livens projectors 19 1 9 ~Cross Section of a British Gas Shell US Gas Training 1918 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L6PkuSMCUn0 Watch later if interested! 20 10 11/11/2023 Was gas a failure in WWI? 21 21 Was Gas a Failure in World War I? What is measure of success or failure? Did it break stalemate? Was it ‘decisive’? Brown (Chemical Warfare: A Study in Restraints) distinguishes the period 1915-1917 from July 1917 onwards For 1915-17 he argues: Use of gas expanded over course of war, but once both sides ‘acquired protective equipment, gas lost its critical role’ (Brown 10) Qualitative arms race offense vs defense, but gas relegated ‘to supporting role’—all agents were non-persistent and had to be breathed into lungs, so emphasis on surprise (Brown 11); Gas could not compete with conventional weapons; they entailed an additional logistical burden, could not be used in all weather, and could not overcome passive defenses (Brown 11) 22 11 11/11/2023 Was Gas a Failure? What is measure of success or failure? Did it break stalemate? Was it ‘decisive’? Brown argues for July 12, 1917 onwards mustard gas introduced (by Germans, at Ypres again) (and Haber adds, gas shells were used with HE shells) Persistent agent—could last for more than week Effective through skin contact (percutaneous) Effects not felt immediately, delaying protection Gas mask not enough; needed suits, and needed to protect/decontaminate food, weapons, other material Brown argues that by mid-1918 ‘gas was competing with air power and the tank as the most rapidly expanding weapons of land warfare’; chemical weapons production at limit (12) 23 Was Gas a Failure (WWI)? Brown (33) argues gas in WWI had 3 central characteristics: 1. It was versatile (offence or defence, mobile or position warfare); 2. Logistical requirements complicated the battlefield; gas was an additional burden, not a substitute; 3. Demanded sophisticated individual and unit training. >>>>If it could be used without retaliation, useful >>>>But ‘once the enemy retaliated, the game did not appear worth the candle’ (Brown 37) 24 12 11/11/2023 Was Gas a Failure (WWI), cont.? LF Haber says yes overall, it was not a significant addition to the weaponry of armed conflict (259, 277); conventional weapons hurt the enemy just as much and were simpler and less dependent upon the weather (278). Military lacked commitment to gas warfare and pursued it haphazardly; Organisation of gas warfare was amateurish; Defense was sufficient to contain the threat. In addition, Gas could not be controlled (wind, weather); Complicated (logistics, training, defences); But it did have a psychological effect. 25 CW in World War I War came to an end on 11 November 2018 Question what role of gas would have been if war had continued: There had been widespread escalation in the use of gas—in weapons, delivery systems, targets; Gas was being used on massive scale; With plans to continue doing so—UK plans for 4,000 ton of gas to be produced each month, US 14,900 tons (Brown 31). Question if gas would have been married to air power: Image of strategic gas attacks by planes on cities; As well as further advances in agents, weapons, etc. LF Haber argues that gas plus tank would have ‘decided the issue’ if war continued, gas in large part because of the German lack of rubber and fabric for defences (265). 26 13 11/11/2023 1925 Geneva Protocol https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/en/ihl-treaties/geneva-gas-prot-1925 Covers ‘the use in war of asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases, and of all analogous liquids, materials or devices,’ and states that such use ‘has been justly condemned by the general opinion of the civilized world’. Extends the prohibition to ‘the use of bacteriological methods of warfare and agree to be bound as between themselves according to the terms of this declaration.’ Applied only to those states who ratified: ‘The present Protocol will come into force for each signatory Power as from the date of deposit of its ratification, and, from that moment, each Power will be bound as regards other Powers which have already deposited their ratifications.’ Many states, when they joined, added reservations declaring that it would cease to be binding on them if their enemies, or the allies of their enemies, failed to respect the prohibitions of the protocol. >>> no first use treaty instead of absolute prohibition 27 Chemical Weapons in World War II 28 14 11/11/2023 Different phases/parts of war Japanese use in Sino-Japanese War Why used? Why no retaliation for that use? Lack of use in European theatres Why not initiated by Allies Why not initiated by Germans When Germany on offensive; When Germany on defensive Lack of use in Pacific in later stages of war 29 Japanese CW (Grunden 2017; Tanaka 2015) Japan had ratified the 1907 Hague Convention on land warfare, which prohibited the use of poison weapons in war; it did not sign the Geneva Protocol of 1925. Interest in CW begins with first German use in WWI (Grunden); Tanaka argues that Japan feared that Russian Revolutionary Army might use CW against Japanese troops in Siberia. Japanese scientists and military men sent to Europe and US to investigate CW (Tanaka). CW program grew sporadically in 1920s and 1930s (Grunden). After earthquake in 1923, Army rebuilt and upgraded CW program and Navy started its own (Grunden). 1929 Okunshoima facility starts to produce tear and mustard gas; other agents e.g. lewisite, sneeze and nausea gas, Hydrocyanic acid gas (Tanaka). Production reached peak between 1937 and 1944 (Tanaka). 30 15 11/11/2023 Japanese Use, cont. July 1937 Sino-Japanese war begins and Number One Chemical Experimental Battalion sent to China (Tanaka); permission to use CW given on July 28. From 1937 to 1945, the military services of Japan used chemical weapons on over 2000 occasions, primarily in the China Theatre of Operations (Grunden, 2017). In interrogation, officers claimed that responsibility for approving CW was intentionally hazy (Grunden, 2017). Mostly tear gas, but also lethal CW (mustard beginning in 1939); Chinese lacked CW and CW defences; Japanese troops often at numerical disadvantage; Used when on offensive, in open terrain. 31 Japanese Use, cont. According to Chinese army records, at least 2000 Chinese were killed and 35,000 injured (Tanaka) By end of war, estimated 25% of the Japan artillery munitions and 30% of all aircraft munitions were chemical (McCamley 2006: 50, as cited by Filipec) Also lots of injuries to Japanese involved in production of agents (Tanaka) Evidence of experimentation on Chinese, Russian, American and Polish prisoners of war On-going issues: removal of abandoned CW (Japanese forces are believed to have abandoned between 700,000-2 million chemical weapons in China); issue of compensation. 32 16 11/11/2023 The Western Allies Used policy of deterrence (threatening retaliation in kind) to prevent use of CW; believed (rightly) that Germans were ahead in CW. 33 May 10, 1042: Prime Minister Winston Churchill's Broadcast Report on the War ‘The Soviet Government have expressed to us the view that the Germans in the desperation of their assault may make use of poison gas against the armies and people of Russia. We are, ourselves, firmly resolved not to use this odious weapon unless it is used first by the Germans. Knowing our Hun, however, we have not neglected to make preparations on a formidable scale. ‘I wish now to make it plain that we shall treat the unprovoked use of poison gas against our Russian ally exactly as if it were used against ourselves and if we are satisfied that this new outrage has been committed by Hitler we will use our great and growing air superiority in the West to carry gas warfare on the largest possible scale far and wide against military objectives in Germany. ‘It is thus for Hitler to choose whether he wishes to add this additional horror to aerial warfare.’ 34 17 11/11/2023 June 5, 1942: President Franklin D. Roosevelt's Statement on the Use of Poison Gas White House news release ‘Authoritative reports are reaching this Government of the use by Japanese armed forces in various localities of China of poisonous or noxious gases. I desire to make it unmistakably clear that, if Japan persists in this inhuman form of warfare against China or against any other of the United Nations, such action will be regarded by this Government as though taken against the United States, and retaliation in kind and in full measure will be meted out. We shall be prepared to enforce complete retribution. Upon Japan will rest the responsibility.’ 35 June 8, 1943: Roosevelt, Statement Warning the Axis against Using Poison Gas ‘From time to time since the present war began there have been reports that one or more of the Axis powers were seriously contemplating use of poisonous or noxious gases or other inhumane devices of warfare. I have been loath to believe that any Nation, even our present enemies, could or would be willing to loose upon mankind such terrible and inhumane weapons….Use of such weapons has been outlawed by the general opinion of civilized mankind. This country has not used them, and I hope that we never will be compelled to use them. “I state categorically that we shall under no circumstances resort to the use of such weapons unless they are first used by our enemies. As President of the United States and as Commander in Chief of the American armed forces, I want to make clear beyond all doubt to any of our enemies contemplating a resort to such desperate and barbarous methods that acts of this nature committed against any one of the United Nations will be regarded as having been committed against the United States itself and will be treated accordingly. “We promise to any perpetrators of such crimes full and swift retaliation in-kind and I feel obliged now to warn the Axis armies and the Axis peoples, in Europe and in Asia, that the terrible consequences of any use of these inhumane methods on their part will be brought down swiftly and surely upon their own heads. Any use of gas by any Axis power, therefore, will immediately be followed by the fullest possible retaliation upon munition centers, seaports, and other military objectives throughout the whole extent of the territory of such Axis country.’ 36 18 11/11/2023 Why did Allies not respond with retaliation to Japanese use of chemical weapons against China? Threat of retaliation was not carried through. Allied Forces did consider the possibility of the use of chemical weapons in retaliation to the Japanese use in China. But the UK worried that retaliation in kind against Japan would encourage German gas attacks against Britain (interdependence of theatres). In 1944, the United States agreed that it would not retaliate unliterally. ? If Allies were ready to retaliate (what retarded preparations?) 37 Germany What about Germany? It initiated use of lethal chemical weapons in WWI. It signed the Geneva Protocol in 1925 and ratified it in 1929. It invented nerve gases. It used gas in its concentration camps. Why did it not use nerve gases or other chemical weapons in its military operations? 38 19 11/11/2023 Germany Was producing and stockpiling Tabun (12,000 metric tons by end of war) and Sarin by 1943, and had filled aerial bombs and artillery shells Didn’t use CW strategically or on battlefield. Why? Hitler’s experience in WWI?; No gas masks for horses (Göring at Nuremberg—not verified); Belief that Allies also had nerve agents; Not useful when on offensive (did not need, would slow down), and when on defensive, German cities vulnerable; Hitler evidently ordered its use at end, but military refused. 39 Why did the Allies not initiate chemical warfare in Europe? Demands of coalition warfare—while US cities were not vulnerable, cities of allies were—Moon argues that this vulnerability deterred Allies from initiating use; (32) Debates over utility; Effort involved in preparation, especially if use in one theatre (e.g. Japan) meant use in other (Europe) and vice versa (interdependence of theatres); Stated policy of ‘for retaliation only’ limited preparation for use, as emphasis was given for weapons that would definitely be used. 40 20 11/11/2023 Why did the US not initiative chemical warfare in 1945, in the Pacific? Competed with other supplies that needed to be moved to the Pacific—and supplies that US knew would be used (uncertainty in regard to use of CW—because policy was to use only in retaliation) Overtaken by nuclear weapons? (not clear NW ever involved in discussions on use of chemical) Debates about what might have happened if invasion had gone forward Brown argues that if CW was sold as way to shorten war, Truman would have approved 41 Possible lessons about CW from WWI and WWII What lessons do you draw about the factors that influence the use and nonuse of chemical weapons? To what extent are these factors similar to (or different from) the factors that affected use in the cases of BN use we have examined? 42 21 11/11/2023 Iran-Iraq War Chemical Weapons used On battlefield, both offensively and defensively; Threat of use in the ‘war of the cities’; In the Anfal campaign, against the Kurds. 44 The Beginning of the Iran-Iraq War 1980-1982 War began with Iraqi surprise attack Dec 22, 1980 (long standing rivalry and hope Iran weakened by revolution and purge) Iran had large advantage in numbers—human wave attacks Once Iraqi offensive stalled, Saddam Hussein began to consider use of CW as force multiplier to counter Iranian superiority in numbers (Tucker 249-50) Iraq experiences further setbacks, including March 17 1982 Iraqi defeat at Khorramshahr By early summer, Iran forces are threatening Basra, Iraq’s 2nd largest city 45 22 11/11/2023 The Use of Chemical Weapons By 1982, US moves from neutrality to supporting Iraq July 1982: Tear gas used on small scale in attack near Basra (? If testing reaction?) 1983: Starts small-scale use of mustard Tucker (War of Nerves) reports that such ‘special strikes’ required authorisation from Saddam Hussein, who feared international response of the violation of the 1925 Geneva Protocol (Iraq acceded to the Protocol in 1931) Summer 1983: Iran sends letter to UNSG alleging use of chemical weapons; Tucker reports that US secretly verified the Iranian allegation and delivered an official note to Iraq saying that the US opposed chemical weapons as a matter of principle. Iraq temporarily halts attacks; US continues to tilt toward Iraq, and US and Iraq restore diplomatic relations in November 1984 46 The Use of Chemical Weapons, 2 March 1984: Iraqi uses CW as part of effort to dislodge Iran from Majnoon Island, after conventional attack fails. November 1984: In February 1984, an Iraqi press release warned, “The invaders should know that for every harmful insect there is an insecticide capable of annihilating it whatever their number and Iraq possess[es] this annihilation insecticide.” [psychological value of CW?] ~~~ some gaps in use as Iraq tries to surmount technical and operational difficulties, concerns about international reaction December 1986: Saddam Hussein authorizes use without prior approval and effectiveness increases (Tucker) 47 23 11/11/2023 The Use of Chemical Weapons, 3 Shane Harris and Matthew M Aid (2013), “Exclusive: CIA Files Prove America Helped Saddam as He Gassed Iran’ According to Harris and Aid: Beginning in 1987, US started sharing intelligence information with Iraq, to help avoid Iranian breakthrough in 1988 spring offensive (fear was that Basra would be captured, Iraqi military would collapse and Iran would win the war). ‘The DIA was authorized to give the Iraqi intelligence services as much detailed information as was available about the deployments and movements of all Iranian combat units. ‘ ‘The sarin attacks then followed.’ April 1988: Iraq uses sarin on front line troops on Al-Faw Peninsula, with Iraq regaining control; Tucker and McCarthy (in Planning the Unthinkable) argue CW were not needed;? psychological effect ‘According to the CIA, two-thirds of all chemical weapons ever used by Iraq during its war with Iran were fired or dropped in the last 18 months of the war.’ 48 The Use of Chemical Weapons, 4 Effectiveness of Iraqi use of CW increases with experience (learning curve). Used to maintain momentum of assault. Used to deny terrain (persistent agents); useful in mountainous and rough terrain, allowing a few troops to hold territory; Used mustard (a blister agent) but also nerve agents like tabun and possibly sarin. Iran estimates that it suffered 60,000 casualties from chemical weapons. 49 24 11/11/2023 Halabja and the Anfal Campaign 1987-1988 Anfal campaign of attacks on Kurdish villages Amnesty International estimates that more than 100,000 Kurds were killed or disappeared. Use against Iraqi Kurds to punish them and to end rebellion/for repression To repel an Iranian advance (started March 13) and inflict a psychological blow on the Kurds. Iran captured Halabja on March 14. Saddam Hussein orders attack on Halabja to kill Kurds and any Iranians there: The attack on March 16 starts with napalm, then chemical weapons--mustard gas, phosgene, and nerve gas (tabun and sarin). This was then followed by an artillery barrage. Chemical weapons killed between 2,000-5,000; injured another 10,000. Iraqi claims of Iranian responsibility were picked up by Western press. It has been argued that the psychological effect was the main aim because could have done more damage with conventional weapons. Others argue that the attack as a whole brought the Iranian offensive to a halt. 50 War of the Cities (McNaugher; Tucker and McCarthy; etc) Started as early as 1982 1986-Iranian ballistic missile attacks against Baghdad, with Iraq unable to retaliate; this was politically unacceptable, and Iraq tuned to development of AlHussein missile More significant in 1988 Iranian setbacks, including loss of Al-Faw Peninsula In late spring Iran and Iraq use conventional missiles to attack each other’s cities; Iraqi threat of use of CW against cities (McNaugher 22) McNaugher: Iraq launched some 160 extended range SCUDs toward Tehran alone; caused panic and contributed to decline in morale, death toll of 2000, fleeing population; Iran launched some 70 SCUDS at Iraq, mostly at Baghdad, where life mostly continued as normal July 1988: Cease-fire signed >>Did threat of chemical weapons delivered by missile convince Iran to end the war? 51 25 11/11/2023 War of the Cities, 2 McNaugher argues no War of Cities started much earlier than 1988, but only in 1988 did it have much effect Importance of social and international context 1988 saw not just war of cities but Iraqi recapture of territory, US naval vessels challenging Iranian ones. In addition, the US had accidentally shot down an Iranian commercial airliner. Iranian war-weariness—demonstrations against the war, with some revolutionary Guards participating. Growing economic and political crisis in Iran. Iran relying on conscripts as opposed to earlier in war Helps to explain difference of effect of missiles on Iran vs Iraq. Also argues that CW use in final tactical battles was not key to Iraqi success. 52 Response to Use March 1984: UN Investigation; Security Council condemns use of chemical weapons but does not name Iraq. March 1986: A second UN investigation under the UN Secretary General’s mechanism; Iraq refuses to cooperate. During the war, Iraq did not acknowledge its use of chemical weapons. After the war, Iraq argued that Iran initiated use of CW and that it was simply responding in kind. US, UK, other states continue to support Iraq, some supply it with some dual-use materials; US providing intelligence from 1987. https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2015/jul/03/foreign-office-did-not-stop-iraq-making-weaponsdue-to-british-firms-presence https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1992/07/23/german-firms-primed-iraqs-warmachine/09371363-d003-4a78-88ef-476c183b21dc/ Use at Halabja generates more condemnation. 53 26 11/11/2023 Iran and Chemical Weapons During the war, the US blamed Iran and not Iraq for the use of chemical weapons, including at Halabja. In fact, not clear that Iran used them at all: 1997 US report states that evidence in the open literature does not provide sufficient evidence for Iranian use. Suggestion that some CW agent released by Iraq blew back onto Iraqi troops. Also suggestion that Iranian troops made use of Iraqi CW munitions it captured. In a 1987 interview, the Iranian representative to the United Nations (UN) stated that “…if the Iraqi regime does not take any steps in putting an end to the crimes of the Iraqi regime, we will retaliate in kind, and in that case, we will certainly announce it.” (NTI) An Iranian official stated that Iran did decide to acquire CW and possessed them, but then ended its CW program after the cease-fire. 54 Additional sources Use of CW in Ira-Iraq war: military results? Humanitarian results? Response of the international community? Documentary: A forgotten Crime https://www.journeyman.tv/film/6358/aforgotten-crime The Anfal campaign and the CW attack on Halabja: use of CW for internal threats https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MueGmjuf-fY (about 2 minutes) https://www.facebook.com/K24English/videos/halabjamassacre/1045609492255386/ (about 8 minutes) Human Rights Watch: https://www.hrw.org/reports/1993/iraqanfal/ and https://www.hrw.org/reports/1991/IRAQ913.htm#5 55 27 11/11/2023 Factors that influenced use and non-use in the IranIraq War? 56 Questions? Discussion of factors that influence use and non-use Other issues? Next week: CBN in Vietnam War Focus on Tannenwald reading 57 28