Mar Exam 1 PDF

Summary

This document appears to be lecture notes, or course materials. It covers topics within the psychology field, including motivation, perception, and learning processes. The document includes sections on Maslow's hierarchy of needs, perception, learning theories, and the self.

Full Transcript

Motivation Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: A motivational theory that ranks human needs in a pyramid: physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, and self-actualization. People are motivated to satisfy basic needs before higher-level ones. Motivation: The driving force that...

Motivation Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: A motivational theory that ranks human needs in a pyramid: physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, and self-actualization. People are motivated to satisfy basic needs before higher-level ones. Motivation: The driving force that encourages individuals to take action to fulfill needs and desires. Type of Benefits: Hedonic vs. Utilitarian: o Hedonic: Pleasure-oriented, focused on fun and enjoyment. o Utilitarian: Functionality-oriented, focused on practical use or necessity. Drive Theory vs. Expectancy Theory: o Drive Theory: Suggests people are motivated to reduce internal tension caused by unmet biological needs. o Expectancy Theory: Focuses on goal-directed behavior, where motivation is influenced by expected outcomes and the value placed on those outcomes. Perception Sensation: The initial detection of stimuli by sensory receptors (e.g., sight, sound, touch). Exposure: The process of being exposed to stimuli in the environment. Absolute Threshold: The minimum level of stimulus intensity needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time. Differential Threshold (JND): The smallest difference in stimulus intensity that a person can detect. Weber’s Law: The principle that the JND is proportional to the original intensity of the stimulus. Mere Exposure Effect: The tendency to develop a preference for things simply because they are familiar. Attention: The process of selectively focusing on specific stimuli in the environment. Perceptual Vigilance: The tendency to notice stimuli that are relevant to current needs. Perceptual Defense: The tendency to ignore or distort stimuli that are threatening or uncomfortable. Source Factors that Influence Attention Likelihood: Factors like novelty, contrast, size, and personal relevance that make a stimulus more likely to capture attention. Relationship between Attention and Arousal (Yerkes-Dodson Model): Describes an inverted U-shaped relationship, where moderate arousal leads to optimal attention and performance. Adaptation: The process of becoming less sensitive to a stimulus over time due to prolonged exposure. Interpretation: Assigning meaning to sensory stimuli based on experiences, expectations, and context. Interpretational Biases: Congruency Effects: People tend to interpret information more favorably when it aligns with their existing beliefs or expectations. Learning and Memory Learning Processes: Intentional vs. Incidental: o Intentional: Conscious effort to learn. o Incidental: Unintentional or passive learning. Learning Theories: Frameworks explaining how people acquire, retain, and recall knowledge. Classical Conditioning: Learning through association, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful one. o Stimulus Generalization: Responding similarly to similar stimuli. o Stimulus Discrimination: Differentiating between similar stimuli. o Extinction: The weakening of a learned response when reinforcement is no longer available. Operant Conditioning (Instrumental Learning): Learning through consequences (reinforcement or punishment). o Positive Reinforcement: Adding something desirable to increase behavior. o Negative Reinforcement: Removing something undesirable to increase behavior. o Punishment: Adding or removing something to decrease behavior. The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model: A model describing memory as a process involving sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Sensory Memory: Brief storage of sensory information. Short-Term Memory: Temporary storage of information for immediate use. Long-Term Memory: Long-lasting storage of information. Declarative vs. Procedural Memory: o Declarative: Facts and events (episodic, semantic). o Procedural: Skills and actions (e.g., riding a bike). Chunking, Rehearsal, Encoding, Recirculation, Retrieval: Techniques to organize, retain, and recall information. Recognition vs. Recall: o Recognition: Identifying information when presented with it. o Recall: Retrieving information from memory without cues. Primacy and Recency Effects: The tendency to remember the first and last items in a series better than the middle ones. Nostalgic Marketing/Nostalgic Attachment: Leveraging positive memories from the past to create emotional connections with products or brands. The Self Cognitive Dissonance: The mental discomfort experienced when holding conflicting beliefs or attitudes, leading to a motivation to resolve the inconsistency. Personality Theories: Frameworks for understanding how personality develops and influences behavior. o Freudian Theory: Personality is shaped by unconscious desires and childhood experiences. o Trait Theory: Focuses on identifying consistent characteristics (traits) that define personality. Anthropomorphization: Attributing human characteristics to non-human entities (e.g., animals, objects, brands). Self-Image Congruence Models: The idea that consumers prefer products or brands that match their self-concept (actual, ideal, or ought self). o Actual vs. Ideal vs. Ought Self: ▪ Actual Self: Who you are. ▪ Ideal Self: Who you aspire to be. ▪ Ought Self: Who you feel you should be based on societal expectations. Demographics Age: Age influences consumer behavior based on life stage, preferences, and priorities. Characteristics of Different Age Cohorts: Generational differences (e.g., Baby Boomers, Millennials, Gen Z) shape consumption patterns, preferences, and attitudes. Perceived Age vs. Chronological Age: How old people feel vs. their actual age; perceived age can influence buying behavior more than chronological age. Gender: Gender differences affect consumption, often influenced by societal roles and expectations. Consumption Patterns: Men and women often differ in consumption due to different social roles and goals (e.g., agentic vs. communal goals). Agentic vs. Communal Goals: o Agentic: Independence and achievement-oriented (often linked to male roles). o Communal: Relationship and community-oriented (often linked to female roles). Psychographics: The study of consumers' lifestyles, attitudes, and values to understand deeper motivations behind behavior. o Advantages: Provides insight into consumers' desires and preferences beyond demographics. o Disadvantages: Difficult to measure and segment effectively.

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