General Psychology Module 1 PDF

Table of Contents MODULE 1: THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY LESSON 1: Psychology as A Science Learning Objectives Keywords and Phrases INTRODUCTION THE EMERGENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE Schools of Thought in Psychology: Latest Schools of Thought in Psycholo...

Table of Contents MODULE 1: THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY LESSON 1: Psychology as A Science Learning Objectives Keywords and Phrases INTRODUCTION THE EMERGENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE Schools of Thought in Psychology: Latest Schools of Thought in Psychology Psychology in the Philippines KEY FILIPINO PSYCHOLOGISTS Methods of Research Used in Psychology Branches of Psychology Importance of Psychology Summary Suggested Readings Exercises/Written Assignment References/Bibliography LESSON 2: THEORIES OF MOTIVATION Learning Objectives Keywords and Phrases INTRODUCTION The Different theories of Motivation Motivation – Behavior Relationship Summary Suggested Readings Exercises/Written Assignment References/Bibliography MODULE 2: BIOLOGICAL BASES OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR LESSON 1: FACTORS AFFECTING DEVELOPMENT Learning Objectives Keywords and Phrases Introduction Biological Factors Principles of Development Environmental Factors Interaction of Biological and Environmental Factors Summary Suggested Readings Exercises/Written Assignment References/Bibliography MODULE 3: PHYSIOLOGICAL DETERMINANTS OF BEHAVIOR LESSON 1: THE NERVOUS SYSTEM Learning Objectives Keywords and Phrases Introduction The Organization of the Nervous System Summary Suggested Readings Exercises/Written Assignment References/Bibliography LESSON 2: THE ENDOCRINE GLANDS Learning Objectives  Keywords and Phrases Introduction There are eight (8) types of Endocrine System Relationship of the Nervous System and Behavior Relationship of the Endocrine Glands and Behavior Summary Suggested Readings Exercises/Written Assignment References/Bibliography MODULE 4: SENSATION, PERCEPTION AND EXTRA SENSORY PERCEPTION LESSON 1: THE SENSATION Learning Objectives Keywords and Phrases INTRODUCTION General Characteristics of the Senses The following are the known senses: Summary Suggested Readings Exercises/Written Assignment References/Bibliography LESSON 2: PERCEPTION Learning Objectives Keywords and Phrases Introduction Sensation and Perception Relationship Psychologists divide the process of perception into three processes, namely: Factors Influencing Perception Errors of Perception Extra Sensory Perception The Rhine Experiments Extrasensory Perception In General Can We Develop Extrasensory Perception? Summary Suggested Readings Exercises/Written Assignment References/Bibliography MODULE 5: INTELLIGENCE, THINKING AND CREATIVITY LESSON 1: INTELLIGENCE Learning Objectives Keywords and Phrases INTRODUCTION Primary Factors of Intelligence Classifications of Intelligence Measurement of Emotional Competencies. Other Psychologists classified intelligence into nine (9) types: Factors Affecting Intelligence Levels of Intelligence The Measurement of Intelligence Summary Suggested Readings Exercises/Written Assignment References/Bibliography LESSON 2: THINKING  Learning Objectives Keywords and Phrases INTRODUCTION Process of Thinking Steps in the Thinking Process Problem-Solving Stages in Problem Solving Strategies for Problem-Solving (Morris, 1991) There are two types of heuristic approach as follows: Decision Making Summary Suggested Readings Exercises/Written Assignment References/Bibliography Lesson 3: Creativity Learning Objectives Keywords and Phrases INTRODUCTION There are three (3) components of creativity in individuals: Personality Characteristics and Behaviors of a Creative Person Ways on How to Improve your Creative Thinking Summary Suggested Readings Exercises/Written Assignment References/Bibliography MODULE 6: LEARNING AND MEMORY LESSON 1: LEARNING Learning Objectives Keywords and Phrases Introduction Nature of Learning Types of Learning Theories of Learning Types of Reinforcement Theory and Research-Based Principles of Learning Applications of Principles or Theories of Learning Study Tips for Effective Learning Summary Suggested Readings EXERCISES/WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT References/Bibliography LESSON 2: MEMORY Learning Objectives Keywords and Phrases Introduction Types of Memory Improving Memory Summary Suggested Readings Exercises/Written Assignment References/Bibliography LESSON 3: FORGETTING Learning Objectives Keywords and Phrases  Introduction Psychologists have proposed three major theories of interference in forgetting: Summary Suggested Readings Exercises/Written Assignment References/Bibliography MODULE 7: EMOTIONS AND ATTITUDE LESSON 1: EMOTIONS Learning Objectives Keywords and Phrases Introduction Nature of Emotion Classifications of Emotion Theories of Emotion Management of Emotion Summary Suggested Readings Exercises/Written Assignment References/Bibliography LESSON 2: ATTITUDES Learning Objectives Keywords and Phrases Introduction Measurements of Attitude Attitude-Behavioral Relationship Summary Suggested Readings Exercises/Written Assignment References/Bibliography MODULE 8: MOTIVATION LESSON 1; MOTIVATION Learning Objectives Keywords and Phrases Introduction Nature and Types of Motivation Classifications of Motive General Ways of Motivating People Summary Suggested Readings Exercises/Written Assignment References/Bibliography MODULE 9: PERSONALITY LESSON 1: PERSONALITY Learning Objectives Keywords and Phrases Introduction Concepts of Personality Components of Personality Theories of Personality The Psychological Stages of Personality Development Personality Dynamics Summary Suggested Readings  Exercises/Written Assignment LESSON 2: FILIPINO VALUES Learning Objectives Keywords and Phrases Introduction Filipino Values that may influence our personality and relationships with others: Values of Modern Filipino Strategies in Improving Personality Summary Suggested Readings Exercises/Written Assignment MODULE 10: ADJUSTMENT, BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS AND TREATMENT LESSON 1: ADJUSTMENT Learning Objectives Keywords and Phrases Introduction Adjustment Process There three Types of Frustration Patterns of Adjustment The Different Types of Defense Mechanism Summary Suggested Readings EXERCISES/WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT References/Bibliography LESSON 2: BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS *** There ere are major types of personality disorders, namely: Summary Suggested Readings Exercises/Written Assignment References/Bibliography LESSON 3: TREATMENT FOR PERSONALITY AND BEHAVIORAL Learning Objectives Keywords and Phrases Introduction There are different strategies on how to treat or cure these behaviors and personality disorders: Summary Suggested Readings Exercises/Written Assignment References/Bibliography MAIN REFERENCE General Psychology. 2009. Bautista, C., Camacho, B., and Santos, Z. PUPOU. ISBN NO.: 978-971-0169-18-4 MODULE 1: THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY LESSON 1: Psychology as A Science Learning Objectives At the end of this module, you should be able to: 1. acquire a thorough understanding of the field of psychology, its being a science and the scientific approach to the study of human behavior; 2. determine the great contributions of the schools of thought towards the development of psychology as an applied science; 3. trace the development of psychology as a field of study in the Philippine setting and the identification of Filipino pioneers in the field; and, 4. recognize the value of psychology in everyday life. Keywords and Phrases  Psychology  Filipino Psychology  Business Psychology  Sport Psychology  Developmental Psychology  Psychology as a Science  General Psychology  Schools of Thought INTRODUCTION The study of psychology involves three things; acquiring a specialized knowledge about behavior, learning new ways of thinking about behavior, and developing attitudes and motivation consistent with the science of psychology. As a science, psychology systematically explores behavior, generating principles to explain behavior, what regularities and irregularities exist in behavior and how we account for them. Psychologists look or search for the factors or variables that most likely account for behavior. They formulated their hypotheses that propose generating evidence to comprise them. They also propose theories at times based on the research evidence. A landmark in the history of psychology was the development of the first intelligence test by Alfred Binet, a French psychologist. The first test laid the groundwork for the development of psychometrics, the measurement of intelligence and aptitude as well as of emotional disturbances. Perhaps the most controversial figure in the study of human behavior is Sigmund Freud, an Austrian psychiatrist and founder of the Psychoanalytic School, which holds that human behavior is guided and controlled by unconscious thoughts and motivations. Hence, psychology is considered one of the most interesting fields of study because it touches almost all aspects of life. This is the reason why psychologists are very much in demand nowadays – in the school setting, in industries, in the family, in the military and in hospitals – giving people advise on problems so that they will live more useful and happier lives. The study of psychology is a philosophical concept that dates back to the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China and India. Psychology began adapting a more clinical and experimental approach under the medieval Muslim psychologists and physicians, who built psychiatric hospital for such purpose. Through the use of psychological experimental dates back to Alhazen’s book of Optics in 1021, psychology as an independent experimental field of study began in 1879, when psychologist and physician, Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively for psychological research at Leipzig, University in Germany for which Wundt is known as the Father of Psychology. The American philosopher William James published his seminal book in 1890, laying the foundation for many of the questions that psychologists would focus on for years to come. Other important contributors to the field includes Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850 – 1909) a pioneer in the experimental study of memory at the University of Berlin and the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849 – 1936) who investigated the learning process now referred to a classical conditioning (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology Retrieved 02-11-09). B. F. Skinner is one of the most stimulating theorists, who was the proponent of the Behavior of Organism: An experimental Approach, Appleton-Century- Crofts, New York, 1938. B. F. Skinner, an American psychologist who began studying animal learning in 1938. Skinner coined the term reinforcement. He is also the proponent of the Principles of Learning. While psychology has its roots in ancient philosophy, it was not until 1879 that the first psychological laboratory was founded and that the discipline emerged as a science and separate from philosophy and physiology. THE EMERGENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE 1.1 Pre-scientific era In the ancient world, three important figures: Aristotle, Hippocrates, and Galen became interested in the study of psychology. Aristotle is known as the father of modern science, Hippocrates, the father of medicine, and Galen contributed much on the science of the body (anatomy). The word psychology was coined by a German scientist, Rudolf Gloclenius in 1693. Aristotle encourages us to use logic to make inferences about the mind as well as to observe behavior. He said that “No one loves the man whom he fears.” Socrates urges us to know ourselves. He believes that “an unexamined life is not worth living.” Plato (428 B.C. – 347 B.C.) He was an ancient philosopher who wrote the “Republic”. He is the founder of the Academy, one of the great philosophical schools of antiquity. His thoughts had enormous impact on the development of western philosophy. Psychology is a relatively new discipline but it has its roots in ancient and modern philosophy. Philosophers have long sought to answer basic questions about human nature. The following philosophers have contributed much to the development of modern psychology: a. Rene Descartes (1596 -1650). He was a French mathematician, philosopher, and physiologist who is considered to be the Father of Modern Psychology. He was also the founder of the new Analytical Geometry. Descartes proposes a mechanism for automatic reaction in response to external events. He was also the founder of Reflex Theory.  b. John Locke (1632 – 1704) An English philosopher and considered the first empiricist, but equally important to social contract theory. Locke’s theory of the mind is often cited as the origin for modern conception of identity and the self. He postulated that the mind was a blank slate or tabula rasa. Locke maintained that people are born without innate ideas. The importance of his goal is to determine the limits of human understanding. c. David Hume (1711 – 1776). A Scottish philosopher, economist, historian and one of the principal early philosophers of empiricism. He was the first philosopher of the modern era to produce naturalistic philosophy. Hume’s Science of Man is the only solid foundation for the other sciences and that the correct method for this science is experience and observation (the empirical method). d. John Stuart Mill (1806 – 1876). An English philosopher who helped develop and defend utilitarianism. Mill is an empiricist, which means, he sought to build a system in ethics and politics based on experience and observation as much as people do in science. Mill argues that an act is good or bad based on its consequences and not based on the intentions, motives or character of the person who performs the action. http://www.jour,uns.edu/donica/ethics/mill.html Retrieved 02-14-09. He develops the “harm principle which holds that each individual has the right to act as he wants, so long these actions do not harm others. He was also the proponent of the Theory of Liberty. 1.2 Scientific Era (School of Thought in Psychology) Modern psychology is deeply rooted in the older disciplines of philosophy and physiology. But the official birth of psychology is often traced to 1879, at the University of Leipzig in Germany. Wilhelm Wundt, a physiologist established the first laboratory dedicated to the scientific study of the mind. Wundt’s laboratory soon attracted leading scientists and students from Europe and United States. Among these were James McKeen Cattell, one of the first psychologists to study individual differences through the administration of “mental test”, Emile Kraepelin, a German psychiatrist who postulated a physical cause of mental illness and in 1883 published the first classification system for mental disorders and Hugo Munsterberg, the first to apply psychology to industry and law. Wundt was extraordinarily productive over the course of his career. Wundt is also known as the Father of Psychology. The American philosopher William James published his seminal book, Principles of Psychology in 1890 laying the foundation for many of the questions that psychologists would focus on for years to come. In 1883 G. Stanley Hall established the first true American Psychology laboratory in the United States at Johns Hopkins University and in 1892; he founded the American Psychological Association and became the first president. Mary Whiton Calkins created an important technique for studying memory and conducted one of the first studies on dreams. In 1905, she was elected the first female president of the American Psychological Association. Edward Lee Thorndike conducted the first experiment on animal learning and wrote a pioneering textbook on education psychology. In 1890, An Austrian physician Sigmund Freud, who was trained as a neurologist and had no formal training in experimental psychology, had developed a method of psychotherapy known as Psycho-analysis. Freud’s understanding of the mind was largely based on interpretive methods and introspection and was focused in particular on resolving mental distress and psychopathology. Freud’s theories became very well-known largely because they tackled subjects such as sexuality and repression as general aspects of psychological development. Although Freud’s theories are only limited interest in modern academic psychology but in clinical work these theories have been very influential and significant. Schools of Thought in Psychology: 1. Structuralism. It is the study of mind and its structures. The structuralists believed that the primary objective of psychology is to study directly the basic elements of conscious experience. The elements are images, emotions and sensation. The founders were Wilhelm Wundt, Titchener, and James. The method used is introspection, which means self-analysis, of your record, explanation and interpretation of your own experiences. 2. Functionalism. The functionalists believed that many psychological processes could not be meaningfully broken into  more basic components. It stresses that the mind functions to aid the individual in adjusting to changes in its environment through learning. The founders are William James, John Dewey, Titchener and Angell. The methods used are introspection and observation. 3. Behaviorism. It argued that observable behaviors were the proper subject matter. They emphasized that what we do is the ultimate test of who we are. We do things because of the environmental conditions we have experienced and continue to experience. This school of psychology studies only the observable and measureable behaviors. The founders are John Watson, B.F. Skinner and Ivan Pavlov. The method used is observation and experimentation. 4. Gestalt. It focused on describing the organization of cognitive processes. Gestalt is a German word which means configuration, pattern, association, and form. It also studies how the mind creatively organizes pieces of information into unified wholes. The whole is important than the sum of its parts. The founders were M. Wertheimer, K. Koffka and W. Kohler. The methods used are group therapy, observation, and phenomenology. 5. Psycho-analysis. It focused on the theory that human behavior and personality development is due primarily to unconscious motivation. This school of psychology would like to know the causes and cure of mental disorder as well as personality disorders. The founders were Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler and Carl Jung. The methods used are hypnotism, dream analysis, and studying slips of speech (Buskist, 1990). Latest Schools of Thought in Psychology 1. Existentialism. It is concerned with meaninglessness and alienation in modern life, for they believe that these feelings lead to apathy and other psychological problems. Existentialist R. D. Laing believes that we must reevaluate our attitudes toward psychotic behavior. The founders are Jean-Paul Sartre, Rollo May and R. D. Laing.(Morris, 1991). 2. Humanistic. It emphasizes the whole person and the importance of each person’s subjective experience. The central concept in humanistic psychology is the need for self-actualization. The humanistic psychologists believe that the most important is the  underlying need to develop our full potentials. It also emphasizes our capacity to choose our life patterns and to grow to greater maturity and fulfillment. Freedom is another key concern in humanistic psychology. The founders were Carl Roger and Abraham Maslow. The method used is group encounter. 3. Cognitive. It refers to the ways we process or transform information about the world around us. This includes the mental processes of thinking, knowing, perceiving, attending and remembering. Cognitive psychology has been applied to help people overcome psychological problems. Founder is Ulric Neisser (Crider, 1989). The methods used are cognitive therapies. 4. Biological. It helps us understand how the body and brain work to create emotions, memories, and sensory experiences. Biologically-oriented psychologists may study evolutionary and hereditary influences on behavior, how messages are transmitted within the body or how blood chemistry is linked with moods and motives {Myers, 1986). Psychology in the Philippines As early as 1910, two years after the University of the Philippines was established, psychology was taught at the Department of Philosophy and Psychology, College of Liberal Arts. The Department was headed by Dr. Henry S. Townsend, an American who taught all of the Psychology courses offered then, namely: General Psychology, Genetic Psychology, Educational Psychology and Test and Measurement. Psychology separated from the College of Liberal Arts and became part of the College of Education and Dr. Townsend continued to be the head of Philosophy at the College of Arts (de la Llana, 1972: 4; Santamaria, 1961; 13 – 14 as cited in http://web.kssp.upd.edu.ph/psych/history.htm Retrieved 01-15-09). Zeus Salazar 1985, a historian identified four traditions upon which Philippine psychology is rooted: (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filipino- psychology, Retrieved 02-15-09): 1. Academic Scientific Psychology, Western tradition. This follows the tradition of Wilhelm Wundt in 1876 and is essentially the American-oriented western psychology being studied in the Philippines; 2. Academic Philosophic Psychology: Western Tradition. This was started by priest-professors at the University of Santo Tomas. This tradition is mainly focused on what is called rational psychology; 3. Ethnic Psychology. This is the tradition on which Philippine psychology is primarily based. This refers to the indigenous concepts that are studied using indigenous psychological orientation and methodologies. 4. Psycho-Medical Religious Psychology. The tradition that fuses native healing techniques and explain it in an indigenous religious context. KEY FILIPINO PSYCHOLOGISTS  Dr. Jose Rizal The first Filipino social psychologist; his paper was about the Indolence and Motivation of Filipinos. Indolence: The Effects of the Environment.  Dr. Jesus Perpinan He finished his Ph.D. in Psychology in 1933.  Dr. Angel Blas The founder of Experimental Psychology in 1938 at University of Sto. Tomas  Dr. Estefania Aldaba-Lim A clinical psychologist who started the psychology program at Philippine Women’s University.  Dr. Alfredo Lagmay A natural scientist and doctor in experimental psychology at the University of the Philippines.  Dr. Marcelo Ordonez A clinical psychologist, he was the Director of the Guidance and Counseling at the Manuel L. Quezon University and a Consultant and Director of the Polytechnic University of the Philippines. He developed a standardized test in mental ability.  Dr. Mariano Obias A comparative and physiological psychologist.  Fr. Jaime Bulatao,SJ A clinical psychologist who established the Psychology Department at the Ateneo de Manila University. He is one of the founding Fathers of Psychology in the Philippines  Dr. Patricia Licuanan A contemporary psychologist who prepared the modules on Psychology in the Philippines, History and Current Trends.  Dr. Sinforoso G.Padilla A Ph.D in Clinical and Experimental Psychology from the University of Michigan. His leadership proved to be a turning point in the growth and development of academic psychology. In 1932, he established the  first psychological clinic at UP to provide vocational guidance and educational testing. It is also during Padilla’s time that the UP Department of Psychology announced the offering of psychology as a major field of concentration in the graduate level. He was also the author of the Philippine Self-Administering test. Enriquez as cited in http://web.kssp.upd.edu.ph/psych/history.htm Retrieved 02-15-09.  Dr. Agustin S.Alonzo Finished his doctorate in Experimental psychology from the University of Chicago and became the first Filipino Chair of UP Department of Psychology.  Dean Francisco Benitez Under the leadership of Dean Benitez, the UP modeled for the entire country the curricular utilization of psychology in education. In 1959, the Department of Psychology was transferred to the College of Arts and Sciences “an event which marked the meaning of the discipline from the apron strings of education in UP (Lagmay as cited in UPDP, History Retrieved 02-15-09).  Dr. Isidoro Panlasigue Graduated with a degree in Educational Psychology in 1928 and authored the first Filipino book on Psychology entitled Psychology: An Introductory Text  Dr. Fredegusto G.David He obtained his Ph.D. in Physiological Psychology from Temple University of Pennsylvania in 1973.  Dr. Virgilio G. Enriquez Ph.D. in Social Psychology from Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois. He established the National Organization of Filipino Psychology (Pambansang Samahan sa Sikolohiyang Filipino) in 1975. He is considered the Father of Filipino Psychology.  Dr. Elizabeth Ventura She was the first female Chair of the Psychology Department. She has worked extensively in the area of psychological testing and measurement and child psychology. She was instrumental in the development of the Philippine Thematic Apperception Test together with Dr. Alfredo Lagmay.  Dr. Annadaisy Carlota She developed the Panukat ng Pagkataong Pilipino (PPP) one of the indigenous personality test that is currently gaining popularity for school, industry and research use.  Dr. Lynna Marie Sycip She is known for her work in assessing the construct of well-being and in developing several aptitude tests.  Dr. Fredegusto G. David and Prof. Amaryllis T. Torres They were the first two members of UP faculty who used Filipino in teaching psychology.  Rogelia Pe-Pua  She wrote a book entitled Sikolohiyang Filipino, Teorya, Metodo at Gamit (Filipino Psychology Theory, Method and Application in 1982 (http://web.kssp.upd.ph/psych/history.htm Retrieved 02-14-09). Methods of Research Used in Psychology The goal of research psychology is to produce new knowledge about human behavior and cognition and to develop theories that explain and integrate these new knowledge. The following are the methods of research: 1. Observational Research. It is designed to observe the existing relationships among variables. In observational research, the psychologists observe and measure the variables of interest without attempting to influence the values of variable or to intervene in any other way (Buskist,1990). 2. Self-Report. It is a technique in which people provide information about themselves, their age, gender, feelings, beliefs, evaluation and interest to the researcher. These kinds of studies are aimed chiefly at discovering people’s attitude about particular topics or at understanding behavior that is not easily observed under normal circumstances. 3. Survey Questionnaire. This is a series of written questions or statements specifically designed to address a particular topic. A questionnaire may be administered to one person at a time or to a group of persons or large group under studied. 4. Interview. An interview is a conversation with a purpose and it is a face to face interaction. The respondents are required to respond verbally to the questions and the researcher then records the respondents’ answer either in written form or in video 5. Natural Observation. It is a type of research, where data are gathered by observing behavior as it occurs naturally. Individuals are observed in the context of their normal daily routine, often without being aware that they are part of a psychological study. 6. Case Study. It is an intensive investigation of a single individual or a small group of individuals over an extended period of time based on the use of observation technique. The case study examines one individual in depth, usually through analysis of that individual’s self- report. The case study is particularly useful in clinical setting, where  therapists attempt to understand and modify individual’s thinking and behavior. 7. Experimental Research. This kind of research is more comprehensive because the researcher manipulates certain variables and measures their effects on other variables. There are three types of variables: a. Dependent variable – the variable that is being measured. This factor might be changed by changes in the independent variables. b. Independent variable – the variable that is being manipulated c. Relevant variable – the variable that may affect the independent and dependent variables. 8. Correlation. It is a statistical measure of relationship. It indicates the extent to which two factors vary together and thus how well one factor predicts the second factor. A positive correlation indicates a direct relationship, meaning that two factors increase together or decrease together. Thus, if amount of violence viewed on television positively correlates with aggressive social behavior, then, people’s viewing habits will predict their aggressiveness. A negative correlation is equally predictive –it indicates an inverse relationship, meaning - as one factor increases the other decreases. The findings on self-esteem and depression provide a good example of a negative correlation. People who score low on self-esteem tend to score high on depression (Myers, 1986). Branches of Psychology Psychology is the scientific study of human and animal behavior and cognitive process. There several branches or fields of psychology: 1. General psychology is a study of psychological concepts and principles governing human behaviors. 2. Counseling psychology is the study of individuals with less serious problems and counsels individual with emotional as well as personal problems. 3. Filipino psychology is the study of psychology that is rooted on the experience, ideas and cultural orientation of the Filipinos (http://psychology,wiki,com/wiki/Filipino- Psychology Retrieved 02-07-09) 4. Sport psychology is a specialization within psychology that seeks to understand psychological/mental factors that affect performance in sports, physical activity and exercise and apply these to enhance individual and team performance. 5. Developmental or genetic psychology is the study of mental, physical, social, and emotional growth in humans from prenatal period to childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age. 6. Physiological psychology is the study of the brain, the nervous system and the body’s chemistry in relation to behavior. 7. Experimental psychology is the study of the basic processes as learning, memory, sensation, perception, cognition, motivation and emotion. The area of interest is in the difference the way men and women store and retrieve information from memory, the way they process sensory information and the way they go about solving complex problems. 8. Personality psychology is the study of the differences in traits among people such as anxiety, sociability, self-esteem, the need for achievement and aggressiveness. 9. Social psychology investigates the influence of people on one another. It is also a study on the relationship of people in a group. 10. Industrial/organizational psychology is the study of psychological principles in training personnel, improving working conditions, and studying the effects of automation on humans. 11. Business psychology refers to the application of organized knowledge about human behaviors to improve personal satisfaction and productivity on the job. It is also a study of the different psychological concepts and principles as applied to marketing, consumers, and advertising. 12. Psychiatry is a medical specialty course that legally treats people with behavioral disorders through drugs, electric shock or through conversation. 13. Ergonomic psychology is a combination of engineering and psychology and is closely related to experimental psychology. The designed machines must be suitable for use by human beings and must be concerned on the safety aspects of the machines (DuBRIB, 1985).  14. Human Engineering is a field of psychology which attempts to design machinery, equipment and the work environment to fit human characteristics, both physical and mental. 15. Psychometrics is a study that deals with development of valid, reliable, and standardized test instruments to measure individual’s personality, aptitude, intelligence and interest. Importance of Psychology 1. Learning psychology is fun because you begin to appreciate your totality, individuality and peculiarities; 2. You start to develop self-confidence because you begin to discover your own potentials; 3. You develop effective study skills like reading skills, listening/hearing skills, note-taking skills, comprehension, preparing for test, learning from the test like following directions, spelling skills, and avoiding abbreviations; 4. You find it easy to adjust, interpret, and understand people’s behavior or acquire a better understanding of how people behave and think as they do; 5. You attain happiness and personal satisfaction; and, 6. You learn systematic methods to observe, describe, explain and predict behavior. Everything we think, say, or do is influenced by where we came from, the people we interact with, what has happened to us in the past and what might happen to us in the future. Summary This module focuses on the nature of psychology, the emergence of psychology as a science, schools of thought, branches of psychology and importance of psychology. It introduces an exciting and challenging nature of psychology’s quest to understand the actions, desires and thoughts of human beings. Moreover, psychology is both a field of study and a means of improving life (Kimble as cited by Crider, 1989). Through the knowledge of psychology, we will become aware of our behaviors, become more humane, appreciate and accept individual differences and be successful in our careers. Further, we can apply the different psychological concepts and principles in our relationships with our family, friends and co-workers. In this module, we will explore the background and development of modern psychology and its roots in the field that belongs to humanities and sciences. Specifically, you will know that psychology is entirely a combination of philosophy and physiology – the branch of biology that studies human organism Suggested Readings Morris, Charles G. 1991. Understanding Psychology, Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. Myers, David G. 1989. Psychology. Second Edition, Worth Publisher, Inc. New York. Exercises/Written Assignment 1. Find out the description or explanation of the different fields/branches of psychology. Which one of these branches are of interest to you and why? 2. Compare the different schools of thought and the methods used by the founders of each school. 3. Do you agree that psychology is really one of the most interesting fields of study? Why or why not? 4. Why did people in the early times try to find explanations for human behavior before they know about psychology? 5. Observation is one of the methods of research used in predicting and understanding human behavior. In what way is this method scientific? Cite one or two examples. References/Bibliography Buskist, William, & Gerbing, David W. 1990, Psychology: Boundaries and Frontiers, Scott, Foresman/Little Brown Higher Education. Crider, Andrew, B; Goethals, George, R; Kavanaugh, Robert D.; Solomon, Paul R.; and William College, 1989,Psychology, Third Edition. Scott, Foresman and Company, Glenview, Illinois, Boston. DuBRIN, Andrew J., 1985, Effective Business Psychology, Second Edition, Reston Publishing Company, A Prentice-Hall Company. Morris, Charles G., 1991, Understanding Psychology, Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology ,Retrieved 02-11-09 http://web.kssp.upd.edu.ph/psych/history.htm, Retrieved 01-15-09 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filipino-psychology, Retrieved 02-15-09 http://psychology.wiki.com/wiki/Filipino-Psychology, Retrieved 02-07-09 http:/www.jour.uns.edu/docian/ethics/mill.html, Retrieved 02-14-09. LESSON 2: THEORIES OF MOTIVATION Learning Objectives At the end of this Module, you should be able – 1. identify the different theory of motivation; 2. discuss the similarities and difference of each theories of motivation; and, 3. Prepare an analysis on the different theories of motivation. Keywords and Phrases  Theories of motivation  Need Theory  Instinct theory  Maslow’s hierarchy of needs  Drive Theory  Need for achievement  Herzberg-two factor theory  Incentive theory INTRODUCTION Psychologists do not agree on which motivational concepts and theories best explain behavior. Theories of motivation are usually developed with a single perspective. For example, a cognitive psychologist might develop a theory that explains motivation from purely a cognitive point of view, overlooking other factors that might also be useful for understanding a given action. Presented below are theories of motivation and these will help you see the shortcomings of each theory and will give you an idea of the difficulties that the different psychologists have run to understand motivation: The Different theories of Motivation 1. Instinct theory. Instinct theory views that all behavior is motivated by instinct, which are innate or genetically determined tendencies to perform certain acts or respond in particular ways. In essence, instinctive behavior is any action that is not learned. 2. Drive theory. Drive theory is based upon the idea of homeostasis, the tendency for all animals to strive to maintain certain internal bodily states at constant levels Cannon as cited in Buskist (1990). At one time or another, however, an internal state may be thrown out of balance because a basic biological need goes unsatisfied. The unsatisfied need creates a state of internal tension or arousal called a drive. For example, when we have gone for a long period without eating, we usually feel hungry. Hunger may be viewed as a drive state caused by food deprivation that motivates individuals to seek food. In this drive state, the behavior of the individual becomes goal-oriented and the individual attempts to re-establish homeostasis either by eliminating or reducing the drive state. Drive theorists argued that there were two kinds of drives, primary drives arise from physiological needs and do not involve learning and the second (or acquire) drives are those brought about through experience, they are learned drives believed to underlie psychological motives such as acquiring wealth, desiring affiliation, seeking approval from parents and significant others. 3. Need Theories. The concepts of need and homeostasis formed the cornerstone of Abraham Maslow’s theory of motivation as cited in Buskist, (1990) a. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. According to Maslow, our motivation for different activities passes through seven states, with entrance to subsequent stages dependent upon satisfying the needs in previous stages. Our most basic needs are physiological, the need for food, water, rest, sleep. Until these needs are met, we cannot be motivated by needs found in the next stage. We find ourselves motivated by safety needs, including the need for security and comfort as well as for peace and freedom from fear. Once the basic and safety needs are met, we can become motivated by belongingness or attachment needs, the need to love and be loved, to have friends and to be a friend. Next, we are motivated by needs higher in the hierarchy only after lower needs are satisfied. If we are able to lead a life in which we have been able to provide ourselves with food and shelter and surround ourselves with loved ones and peace, we are free to pursue self-actualization or achievement of our greatest potential as humans whatever that potential might be. Maslow believed that self-actualized people are recognized by their unique qualities, including self-awareness, creativity, spontaneity, and willingness to accept change and confront challenges. Maslow considered people such as Albert Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt and Henry David Thoreau to be self-actualized. b. The Need for Achievement, Affiliation and Power. Henry Murray believed that human motivation is comprised of a variety of psychological needs. In describing these needs, Murray was careful to distinguish between biologically-based motives and psychologically-based motives. The major Murray’s need was the need for achievement (nAch), the motivation to meet or surpass performance standards or to accomplish difficult tasks. In addition, to the need for achievement, two other powerful motivators of human behavior appear to be the need for affiliation – the need to form friendships and associations with others and the need for power – the need to be in control of events, resources, or other people, usually for your own advantage. c. The Herzberg-Two Factors Theory. Herzberg says that man has a lower – and high- level of set of needs and that the best way to motivate someone is to offer the higher-level needs. The following factors are important under this theory: 1. Hygienic or maintenance Factors such as:  Better working conditions  Salary  Administration and supervision  Company’s policies   Relationship with fellow-workers  Relationship with superiors 2. Motivator Factors  Recognition  Achievement  Responsibility  Personal growth and development  Challenging jobs Herzberg’s theory states that higher level needs such as need for recognition, achievement, responsibility, personal growth and development and challenging jobs are considered best motivators. 4. Optimal-Arousal Theory. This theory of motivation maintains exactly the opposite: all individuals behave to maintain an optimal level of arousal Berlyne as cited in Buskist, (1990). If you are bored, you find something fun or interesting or exciting to do, if you are worn out you might prefer to take a nap. According to Berlyne, our desire to engage in arousal-producing activities is motivated by the difference between our actual arousal level or our current level of arousal and our optimal arousal level or the level of arousal necessary for us to function at an efficient level. If there is no difference between the actual and optimal arousal level, an individual is functioning efficiently, but if an individual’s actual arousal level is less than his or her optimal arousal level, then he or she is motivated to increase it. 5. Opponent-Process Theory. According to Richard Solomon as cited by Buskist (1990), opponent-process theory, is that for every emotional experience there is an opposite emotional experience that maintains an equilibrium between opposing emotional and motivational states. Thus, we are motivated to maintain a relatively stable emotional state. The opponent emotion that develops in response to the initial emotion may persist longer than the initial emotion, thereby reducing the strength of the first emotion. 6. Incentive theory. This theory embodies the idea that external events such as goals or incentives, motivate or pull us to behave. Incentive theory focuses on behavior-environment interactions rather than on physiology-behavior interactions. It is an attempt to account for learned motivation. Incentive theory holds that both positive and negative incentives motivate our behavior. That is, we  either act to obtain a pleasurable outcome (positive reinforcers) or act to avoid or escape a negative outcome (negative reinforcers). For example, ask yourself why you study for an examination. Is it to earn a good grade or to avoid getting a failing grade. In either case, the behavior – reading and studying – is the same but the motivation is surely different. In incentive theory then, emphasizes the role of learning in understanding behavior and has some immediate practical implications for explaining an enormous variety of everyday actions. 7. Expectancy theory. Incentive theory is not the most important factor underlying motivation but rather is the individual’s anticipation or expectancy of the reward that motivates behavior. Why do you study? An expectancy theorist would answer. Because by doing so you are expected to get a higher grade and avoid failing grade.This led to the conclusion that the past experiences with studying have taught us that such behavior usually pay off; it is this past experience that gives rise to your expectation (Buskist, 1990). Motivation – Behavior Relationship Most motivated behaviors have some affective or emotional accompaniment, although, we may be too preoccupied in our striving toward the goal to focus on our feelings at the time. When we talk about motivation, we usually focus on the goal directed activity. Summary In every day conversation, the question asked is ‘what motivated you to work hard? To psychologists – whose discipline aims to reveal the causes of behavior – a motivation is a need or desire that serves to energize behavior and to direct it toward a goal. Most physiological needs create physiological drives that motivate need satisfaction. There are several types of motivation theory namely: Instinct Theory, Drive Theory, Need Theory, Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and Herzberg-Two Factor And Incentive Theory. Motivation is a goal-directed behavior. Motivation cycle starts with motive followed by instrumental or motivated behavior, attainment of goal and lastly feeling of satisfaction when you achieved your goal or dissatisfaction when failing to achieve the goal. Suggested Readings Buskist, William, Gerbing, DavidW.; 1990. Psychology: Boundaries and Frontiers, Scott, Foresman/Little Brown Higher Education. Crider, Andrew, B.; Goethals, George, R.; Kavanaugh, Robert, D.; Solomon, Paul, R.; and William College, 1989. Psychology. Third Edition, Scott, Foresman and Company. Glenview, Illinois, Boston, London. Morris, Charles G., 1991. Understanding Psychology, Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. Exercises/Written Assignment 1. Differentiate the following terms: a. Need; b. Drive; c. Motive; and, d. Urge. 2. Define and classify motivation. 3. Discuss the different theories of motivation and give examples. 4. Discuss the motivation-behavior relationships. 5. Why is motivation the best topic in psychology? References/Bibliography Sartain, Aaron Quinn; North, Alvin John; Strange, Jack Roy; Chapman, Harold Martin, Psychology: Understanding Human Behavior, Third Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company. Tuason, Elsa Hidalgo; Santamaria, Josefina Oliva; Tiongson, Corazon R., 1978, Behavioral Science As Applied to Business and Industry. University of the East , Manila. Myers, David G. 1989. Psychology. Second Edition, Hope College, Holland, Michigan, Worth Publishers, Inc.