LTM - Encoding, Retrieval and Consolidation.pdf

LTM: Encoding, Retrieval & Consolidation COG N I T IVE P SYCHOLOGY WEEK 6 DR ÉA DAOI N S L AT TERY Short Answer Question Practice Discuss the concept of priming. Provide a specific example of how priming can be observed in everyday life. Priming refers to the presentation of a stimulus changes a per...

LTM: Encoding, Retrieval & Consolidation COG N I T IVE P SYCHOLOGY WEEK 6 DR ÉA DAOI N S L AT TERY Short Answer Question Practice Discuss the concept of priming. Provide a specific example of how priming can be observed in everyday life. Priming refers to the presentation of a stimulus changes a person’s response to a test stimulus. The test stimulus can be the same or similar to the priming stimulus. A person may or may not remember the original presentation of priming stimuli. The propaganda effect is an example of priming in everyday life. The propaganda effect refers to the phenomenon that people are more likely to believe statements to be true if they have been exposed to them before, regardless of their actual veracity. This effect highlights how exposure to information can influence perceptions of truthfulness. Some Questions to Consider What is the best way to store information in long-term memory (LTM)? What are some techniques we can use to help us get information out of long-term memory when we need it? How is it possible that a lifetime of experiences and accumulated knowledge can be stored in neurons? How can the results of memory research be used to create more effective study techniques? Getting Information Into LTM Encoding: Acquiring information and transforming it into memory Retrieval: Transferring information from LTM to working memory Maintenance rehearsal – Repetition of stimuli that maintains information but does not transfer it to LTM Elaborative rehearsal – Using meanings and connections to help transfers information to LTM. Levels of Processing Theory (1) Memory depends on how information is encoded. Depth of processing – – Shallow processing ▪ little attention to meaning ▪ focus on physical features ▪ poor memory Deep processing ▪ close attention to meaning ▪ better memory Levels of Processing Theory (2) (a) Sequence of events in Craik and Tulving’s (1975) experiment. (b) Results of this experiment. Deeper processing (fill-in-the-blanks question) is associated with better memory. Other Factors That Aid Encoding Visual imagery Self-reference effect Generation effect Organising to-be-remembered information Relating words to survival value Retrieval practice Bower and Winzenz (1970) Experiment Participants in the repetition group repeated word pairs. Participants in the imagery group formed images representing the pairs. Retrieving Information from LTM (1) Retrieval: Process of transferring information from LTM back into working memory (consciousness) – Most of our failures of memory are failures to retrieve. Retrieving Information from LTM (2) Cued recall: – Most of our failures of memory are failures to retrieve – Cue presented to aid recall – Increased performance over free recall – Retrieval cues most effective when created by the person who uses them Retrieving Information from LTM (2) Mantyla’s (1986) Experiment Memory was best when retrieval cues were created by the participant (top bar) And not as good when retrieval cues were created by someone else (middle bar). Control participants who tried to guess the words based on retrieval cues generated by someone else did poorly (bottom bar). Encoding Specificity (1) We learn information together with its context. Baddeley’s (1975) “diving experiment” – Best recall occurred when encoding and retrieval occurred in the same location. Encoding Specificity (2) a. Godden and Baddeley’s (1975) “diving” experiment; b. Grant et al.’s (1998) “studying” experiment; c. Eich and Metcalfe’s (1989) “mood” experiment. Results for each test condition are indicated by the number directly under that condition. The matching colors (light green to dark green, and light orange to dark orange) indicate situations in which study and test conditions matched. State-Dependent Learning Learning is associated with a particular internal state. – Better memory if person’s mood at encoding matches mood during retrieval. Matching the Cognitive Task Transfer-appropriate processing – memory task results improve if the type of processing used during encoding is the same as the type during retrieval. Morris and coworkers (1977) experiment: Participants who did a rhyming-based encoding task did better on the rhyming test than participants who did a meaning-based encoding task. Result predicted by the principle that better retrieval occurs if the encoding and retrieval tasks are matched. Consolidation (1) Transforms new memories from fragile state to more permanent state. – Synaptic consolidation: rapid, occurs at synapses. – Systems consolidation: gradual, reorganization of neural circuits. Consolidation (2) Synaptic and systems consolidation. (a) Synaptic consolidation involves changes at the synapses. (b) Systems consolidation involves reorganization of neural connections and takes place over a longer time span. Consolidation (3) Müller and Pilzecker’s experiment (1900): (a) In the immediate (no delay) condition, participants used the first list (1) and then immediately learned the second list (2). (b) In the delay condition, the second list was learned after a 6-minute delay. Numbers on the right indicate the percentage of items from the first list recalled when memory for that list was tested later. Synaptic Consolidation (1) Hebb (1948) – Learning and memory represented in the brain by physiological changes at the synapse. – Neural record of experience. Long-term potentiation (LTP) – Enhanced firing of neurons after repeated stimulation. – Structural changes and enhanced responding. Synaptic Consolidation (2) What happens at a synapse as: (a) A stimulus is first presented. The record next to the electrode indicates the rate of firing recorded from the axon of neuron B. (b) As the stimulus is repeated, structural changes are beginning to occur. (c) After many repetitions, more complex connections have developed between the two neurons, which causes an increase in the firing rate, even though the stimulus is the same one that was presented in (a). Systems Consolidation Standard model of consolidation – After encoding, activity of hippocampus fades with time. Sequence of the events: (a) Connections between the cortex and the hippocampus are initially strong. (b) As time passes, activity occurs between the hippocampus and the cortex, a process called reactivation. (c) Over time, connections are formed between cortical areas, and the connections between hippocampus and the cortex are weakened and eventually vanish. Based on: Frankland, P. W. & Bontempi, B. (2005). The organization of recent and remote memories, Neuroscience, 6, 119–130. Memory Loss and Injury (1) Standard model of consolidation based partly on observation of injury/trauma-related memory loss. Retrograde amnesia: loss of memory for events prior to the trauma. Graded amnesia: memory for recent events is more fragile than for remote events. Memory Loss and Injury (2) Retrograde and Anterograde amnesia The vertical lines, which symbolize the amount of retrograde amnesia, indicate that amnesia is more severe for events or learning that were closer in time leading up to the injury. This is the graded nature of retrograde amnesia. Systems Consolidation Multiple trace model of consolidation – Hippocampus is activated during retrieval of both recent and remote memories (Gilboa and coworkers, 2004). Consolidation and Sleep Memory consolidation appears to be enhanced during sleep (Gais & et al., 2006) – One reason: sleeping stops interference from environmental stimuli. Some memories are consolidated more than others (Wilhelm& et al., 2011) – Memory for task was stronger when participants expected to be tested after awaking. Sleep Deprivation & Memory Problems Reconsolidation: Memory Updating Retrieved memories become fragile and are consolidated again → reconsolidation. Nader et al. (2000): rat experiment. Hupbach et al. (2007): human reconsolidation experiment. Memory is a “work in progress” … constantly constructed and remodeled in response to learning and conditions. Reconsolidation and PTSD Posttraumatic stress disorder causes severe emotional responses to traumatic memories. Brunet et al. (2008) – Participants reactivated a traumatic memory. – Drug administered to block amygdala stress receptors during reconsolidation of memory. – Later reactivation of same memory showed lower stress responses. Memory and Effective Studying Elaborate—associate what you are learning to what you already know. Generate questions and self-test. Take breaks – Spacing effect: Memory is better for multiple short study sessions – Consolidation is enhanced by sleep after studying. Avoid the “illusion of learning” – Familiarity does not mean comprehension. Support Your Learning See the short videos below, that speak about some of the key elements learnt in this Chapter. What is memory consolidation and reconsolidation? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JKiV3FNpXhk Sleep deprivation and memory problems – Robbert Havekes – TEDxDenHelder https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F39IBJZlsek Test yourself on this topic What is encoding? What is retrieval? What contributions of each for successful memory? Describe the connection between consolidation and sleep. What is the difference between elaborative rehearsal and maintenance rehearsal in terms of the procedures associated with each type of rehearsal.