Long Term Memory - Introduction to Cognition Psychology PDF

Long Term Memory Introduction to Cognition Psychology Subject: Cognition Date: Long Term Memory 1  VOCABULARY What makes for Good Mnemonics Peg Word mnemonics: and Technique...

Long Term Memory Introduction to Cognition Psychology Subject: Cognition Date: Long Term Memory 1  VOCABULARY What makes for Good Mnemonics Peg Word mnemonics: and Techniques? the “peg” is an 1. Minimize interference: Maybe organizational technique. don’t watch a show while Incidental: Memories studying built as a result of 2. Exploit pre-existing information experience (not in memory: Link what you’re conscious). learning to what you already Intentional: Learning or know. studying how to do it. a. Deep processing 3. Use imagery to enhance memory: Make it memorable and and vivid. Are you learning it or recalling it? Encoding specificity: Memories are encoded with the context in which the remembered material was presented. Context reinstatement: Retrieving memories in the same context that they were encoded in should help retrieval. How do we make memories permanent in LTM? Consolidation: Cognitive processes that transform new memories from a fragile state to a more permanent state Temporal process Take breaks before they take you Long Term Memory 2  Sleep facilitates consolidation How do neurons do it? Long-term potentiation: Enhanced firing of neurons alter repeated stimulation due Losing Memory to structural changes at the Retrograde Amnesia: memory loss prior synapse to head injury. Increased firing of neurons Can’t recall memories from the past overtime Typically, it is a gradual loss of First time: Certain firing memory rate Anterograde Amnesia: Memory loss post- Structural changes in head injury. synapse result in increased Unable to encode new memories firing when the stimulus is continued to be presented Elizabeth Warrington on Amnesia and Memory Occurs in the synaptic cleft Participants learned words Reactivation: Replay of Gave first 3 letters and asked memory orchestrated by the whether they could remember the hippocampus during the word consolidation Which of the two words did they After consolidation, the see (they don’t know it’s an hippocampus is mostly amnesia study) unrequired to retrieve Graded Amnesia: Right up to the event, memory. you have more significant amnesia, as the bars get smaller, you get less and less memory loss. Long Term Memory 3  Mere exposure effect: Repeated Long-Term Memory exposures to a stimulus lead to a Explicit Memory (conscious preference toward that stimulus without memory) explicit awareness of repeated exposures Episodic memory Ex. brands having distinct identities Personal events, Contextual cueing effect: Visual search episodes. for targets in repeated arrays become faster Who, what, when, without explicit memory of repeated arrays where? Statistical learning effect: Statistical Testing Episodic Memory regularities can be learned without explicit awareness of learning Recall: have observers try to Tendencies for certain sequence of reproduce their events to occur representations Autobiographical Memory: Memories of Recognition: have your life (episodic and semantic) observers report Multidimensional (usually visual and whether or not they’ve olfactory + Emotional) seen the stimulus Sensory Pieces before Sensory Component Recollection: high confidence, needs the The importance of visual memory source memory. damage to visual areas of the brain has a more severe impact on Hippocampus autobiographical memory by Familiarity: variable causing retrograde amnesia than confidence, NO damage to other sensory cortices. source memory. Semantic Elements Rhinal Cortex Semantic Component Semantic memory Loss of semantic memory is Facts and general strongly correlated with impaired knowledge autobiographical memory. Implicit Memory If semantic memories are lost, so (unconscious memory) are the autobiographical Long Term Memory 4  Procedural memory memories. Muscle memory How We Feel Skill/Ability Emotional Components Priming We attend to and retrieve more More efficient emotional events information Positive autobiographical processing after memories contain more sensory previous exposure and contextual details than Contextual cueing negative and neutral memories effect Biased towards good emotions Chun and Jiany, Fading affect bias: Positive memories 1998 appear to be more resistant to Visual search for forgetting than negative memories the same search PTSD is an exception array gets faster over repeated exposure without remembering the repeated search arrays. Conditioning An automatic response to a stimulus Long Term Memory 5  Life vs. The Lab Flashbulb Memory Cabeza et al. (2004) A special case of memory surrounding How does the vividness of real shocking or emotionally charged events memories compare to memory Highly emotional, often detailed and tasks we use in the lab? more confident in our recollections While in the fMRI scanner Are Flashbulb Memories more stable? Observer took photos Talarico and Rubin (2013) (O-pictures) People tend to be more confident. Someone else took If they probe the details, they are photos of the same no more detailed locations (L-pictures) More of a case of overconfidence Same kind of activity in memory as opposed to building in frontal and detailed, robust memories parietal lobes Are Flashbulb Memories more Hippocampus has accurate? more activity in O and L pictures. Rimmele et al. (2011) Parietal cortex: Same Memory surrounding negatively charged events tends to be associated Prefrontal cortex: Same but with higher confidence but is not not significant necessarily more accurate. Hippocampus: More activity So then, what do we remember best? in O than L pictures Significant life events Highly emotional events Transition points in our lives Long Term Memory 6  Memory Across the Memory and Making You Lifespan Self-Image Hypothesis: Memory is Reminiscence bump: The enhanced for events that occur as a tendency to have better person’s self-image (identity) is formed. memory of recent events and of Largely established in adolescence and events that occurred in early adulthood adolescence and early adulthood (10-30 years) Cognitive Hypothesis: Encoding is better during period of rapid change that are We seem to have better followed by stability memories in adolescence and early adulthood but why? The reminiscence bump is shifted for those who experienced a major life Self-mage (self- change after adulthood conception) Stability increases when there are Cognitive (fully develop more mundane memories cognitive abilities) More unstable when there are Cultural life script (fully multiple, constant highly emotional aligned what stages you and big changes should be going through) Cultural life-script Hypothesis: Within a culture, there are expectations of when things should happen so you may have societal or cultural pressures Long Term Memory 7  Imperfect Memory What Happens When We Don’t Memory is non-verdical Know? Memories are not fixed or Source loss: Where you no longer know perfect where the information came from Your recollection of Ex. not knowing where your phone is. events, your Source misattribution: Where you’re knowledge, confused about what you think you recall experience and expectations Schema: What you know (from your life experience) about the environment you’re They are constructive in (building upon memories when you retrieve them) Script: What typically happens in a given environment Memory as a Construct Ex. sitting down once you enter a Barlett (1932) classroom English participants with Testing Schema no prior exposure read this piece of First Nations Brewer and Treyens (1981) folklore (The War of Participants were taken to an office Ghosts) and were asked to and were asked to wait there recall it at various delays 35 seconds later, they were taken to When recalled shortly another room and were asked to recall after → More accurate what they saw in the office Longer delay → Less Almost all participants remembered accurate the desk and chair If there is a delay, they are This is what you expect to see in more likely to lose details an office that are not culturally 8/30 remembered the skull that was in familiar. there It will fit more to their Violated schema cultural schema Long Term Memory 8  Misinformation effect: Misleading information presented after a person witnesses an event can change how that person described the event. Gaslighting: A form of memory abuse based on misinformation and denying people’s feelings and experiences. Loftus and Palmer (1974) Participants saw a film of car accidents Asked to describe the film How fast were the cars going when they…? Bumped, hit, contacted, smashed, collided. The words used to describe the crash are leading Bias Long Term Memory 9  Language and Communication Introduction to Cognition Psychology Subject: Cognition Date: Language and Communication 1  What is Language? How Do We Learn Language? Shared tool for 1. Innate: We are predisposed to communicating acquire language. It can use any sensory 2. Learned: We learn language the channel: speech and same as we learn everything else. hearing (most common), tactile forms like braille, Is Language Learned through sign language, and Reinforcement? theoretically imagine an B.F. Skinner (Behaviourist olfactory language Perspective) Sign Languages Learned through reinforcement Enormously variable and punishment in sign languages Noam Chomsky (Cognitive (same as verbal) Perspective) Everyone wants to Innate, we learn it as a set of communicate neural structures because we are Deaf communities predisposed to do so build this due to the Innate vs. Learned absolute need to We can understand and produce a communicate sentence we haven’t heard before Writing as Telepathy: Breaks the operant wants us to think of conditioning model writing as the closest thing to telepathy Doesn’t allow for new behaviour Writing is communicating in Children don’t need explicit visual symbols; it’s rewards to learn language how you take ideas Unless you want to construed out of your mind and survival as a reward put it into someone else’s They absorb language Reading is when you There’s a developmental window take someone else’s wherein language acquisition is Language and Communication 2  thoughts they have easier (the critical window is expressed, take them childhood) into your mind, and 0-6 years, if language was understand the learned like any other skill author’s thoughts then we shouldn’t have this window. Language acquisition is an innate function of the human brain Language and Communication 3  What Makes Up A Can You Read Faster Given the Language? Right Font? Linguistic units: Building Yes, but your preferred does not equal blocks of language your fastest Lexicon: All the words you Wallace et. al know and can be used across Visual appearance of text matters domains Very individual, varies for each Phonemes: Sound in language person. The font you think you In English, vowels and read best in is unrelated to the consonants (44 total) font you actually read best in Morphemes: Smallest Studying Visual Perception and meaningful unit Cognition Free morphemes can Applied Perception and Psychophysics stand alone as words but Laboratory (APPLY Lab) don’t have to. Dr. Anna Kosovicheva Bound morphemes only How visual perception supports appear as a part of a word what we do in the world, how it with a root meaning. works and how we can use that Derivational understanding to help solve Morphemes problems Un in Unkind. Individual differences in visual Inflectional perception including what font is Morphemes best for you and why that font works best for you Modify aspects of the word apart What our eye movements can tell from meaning. us about how we extract information from words on a Cats from Cat screen Graphemes: Written symbols Eye Movements in Reading that represent a specific sound in a language We don’t look at every word Ex. c and k from click Reading, for skilled readers, is a fundamentally cognitive process — Language and Communication 4  Graphemes to Phonemes is words on the page meaning in mind orthographic mapping Skilled readers make eye movement Complex in tonal jumps called seccades. languages Jump every 10-15 characters Orthographic Mapping: How How much you get in a single we take symbols and match glance is called a visual span. them to a sound Perception and Context Reading Word Superiority Effect: Letters are easier to recognize if they’re in a word than when alone or in a non-word. Word Frequency Effect: Participants did a lexical decision (word/nonword) task for 14635 monosyllabic and disyllabic words and the same number of non-words 16 hour long experiment Participants are slower from distinguishing words from non- words if it an uncommon word than if it is a common word. Language and Communication 5  Does English ever make Sapir-Whorf you want to pull your Language is not just a tool for hair out? communication, rather it fundamentally This is the problem of influences and shapes how we think. lexical ambiguity Winawer (2007) Biased Dominance The existence of different labels When meaning is a helped colour discrimination function of how commonly Simultaneous performance of a verbal a word is used in a given task (=verbal interference) diminished setting (context dependant) the advantage while spatial If you do ballroom interference didn’t dancing you might think ball refers to a dance but if you do soccer you think it is a sports bal When meaning isn’t contextually are generally dominant Balanced Dominance When meaning isn’t contextually or generally dominant Mold for sculpting or food mold Garden Path Sentences: something is wrong with the sentence They lead you in one direction and then something goes wrong– informative tool about language processing Language and Communication 6  Resolving Ambiguity Tanenhause et. al (1995) Where do we look when given an ambiguous sentence? Apple on the towel in the box Look at the apple, then the towel, then the box Where you look reflects how you are trying to interpret the sentence. Language and Communication 7  Judgement and Decision-Making Introduction to Cognition Psychology Subject: Cognition Date: Judgement and Decision-Making 1  Descions: What can I do? Automatic Thinking What are my options? Fast, instinctive, emotional: Reasoning: Why should I System I Thinking do it? How do I weight No time to really thinking options? about what you’re doing Why Do We Study This? Conscious Thinking How we use Slow, effortful, calculating and information is conscious: System 2 Thinking important to know Heuristics: Cheat codes for real life Why do people make the decisions they do? We rarely get to be as deliberate as we want. What influences us to make those Heuristics often let us take the judgements? easy way out, they mostly work but they’re not perfect. Why do we make certain mistakes (and Availability Heuristic: What’s ready to how to avoid them) mind in this situation? Cognitive bias For ex. What causes more deaths? Shark attacks or sand Cognitive errors Thinking something is more common or more likely because of what comes to mind Depends on individuals schema but also around semantic knowledge. Representativeness Heuristic: Does this instance match your stereotype? Schema’s are like objects in an environment, scripts are what should happen, representativeness heuristic is more on a meta level idea. Judgement and Decision-Making 2  Why Are Some Data Points Sticky in Anchoring: Shifting the Our Memory? starting point to change Frequency or event decisional behaviour Ease of retrieval: How easy you Tversky and Kahneman can get it out of memory (1974) Recency of event Anchoring can get you to overuse a value as a Reporting or advertising reference point, even when Event saliency (does it stand out?) those references are totally Emotional Valence unrelated to the task Exposure to information Roulette showed 10, about certain events average answer was 25% What is more dominant in the media? Roulette showed 65, average answer was Conjunctive Fallacy: Failing to realize 45% that a conjunction of events cannot be more probable than each event Law of Sample Size: The individually fewer samples, the more variance Framing: Which of these seems better than the other? 4.5 stars by 3,000+ “Kills 97% of bacteria” or 5 stars by 2 people “Preserves 3% of germs” 20% fat or 80% fat free Framing Effect: Decisions are influenced by how a decision is stated, even when available choices lead to the same level of expected utility Positive Framing: This medication treats this condition Controlling the Plague: Imagine that the country is preparing for the outbreak of a potentially lethal disease Judgement and Decision-Making 3  that is expected to kill 600 Gambler’s Fallacy: Each people. event is individually Program A: 200 people probabilistic will be saved Every event is equally Program B: 1/3 likely to occur probably that 600 people No memory will be saved and a 2/3 probably that no people Hot Hand: An extension of the will be saved. gambler’s fallacy, so listen to the math and not your gut. 72% picked program A People appear more risk averse when presented with Base Rate Bug: An error or positive framing mistake in the base-rate Negative Framing: This proposed. medication has severe side effects Base Rate Neglect: Ignoring the base rate information in Which one are you most favor of more specific details. likely to take? Probably the positive. Casscells et al (1978) Controlling the Plague: Harvard tested 60 students Same situation as presented and faculty members above but different programs If a test to detect a disease Program A: 400 people (1/1000 prevalence) has a will die false positive rate of 5%, what’s the chance the Program B: 1/3 person actually has the probability that nobody disease? will die and 2/3 probability that 600 The actual answer is 1.8% people will die but people thought it would be less than 1%. Judgement and Decision-Making 4  Intuitive Thinking: Inherently non-deliberative, and probably very hard to articulate reasoning for an action Satisficing: Finding a sufficient course of action necessary for the task Finding a good enough solution to get out of the task, not the best, but good enough. Automatic thinking, System I Thinking behaviour. Utility Theory: Examining all choices and picking the one that maximized benefits whilst minimizing costs Expected Utility = P x V Subjective Utility Theory: Takes into account subjective, individual aspects Subjective utility: How useful is it to you? Subjective value: How valuable is it to you? Loss Aversion: Humans really don’t like to lose Impact of losing something is greater (emotionally) than it is when gaining something. Judgement and Decision-Making 5  Sunk Cost Fallacy: The idea that putting more resources will save your investment Or that you have spent too much on an investment and so you have to continue. Judgement and Decision-Making 6  Problem Solving Introduction to Cognition Psychology Subject: Cognition Date: Problem Solving 1  Inductive Reasoning: Drawing Conclusions You begin with specifics to Syllogism: Two premises and a which you make conclusion. If the two premises are generalizable conclusions true, then the conclusion must be true from Antecedents (p): If statement, if Elements of something (p) then the consequent (q) uncertainty and Consequents (q): Then statement probability If the Antecedent is known to be true No simple or single then q must be true as well solution Modus ponens: If p is true then q Deductive Reasoning: must be true. What must be true based on what you Modulus Tollens: If p is false then know/previous evidence q must not be true Generalizations taken Affirmation of the Consequent: to make specific Forbidden, just knowing q doesn’t tell conclusions us about the antecedent. Follows distinct logical rules Figure out a given fixed outcome Problem Solving 2  Confirmation bias is tending Bayes Rules: Posterior probability is the to select information that product of prior probability and likelihood confirms the rule or schema Probability theory that describes how you already have. people should update their beliefs Falsification tasks asks what about hypotheses based on evidence. would break the rule and is Goal State Gap: Problems that are defined better since it tells you as an obstacle or discrepancy between the something new current state and the goal state Permission Schema: If A is There must be a gap between where satisfied then B may be carried you are now and where you want to out. be. Property induction: Insight Problems: Solved in a Generalizing from properties or flash/instantly features Solved suddenly, without awareness Ex. you see a red berry, you know strawberries are Non-insight Problems: Achieving goals tasty so you think it’s a by going through intern stages in a good idea to try it. sequential manner Premise Typicality: How You go through stages of solving them representative is it of a larger Ex. Mathematical equations set? Dunker’s Candle Problem Closely related to representativeness Fix the candle on the wall without heuristic letting the candle drip wax on the floor Functional Fixedness: Restricting how we use (or think we can use) an object based on the schema’s we have for it. Artist has a scratch on his back and can’t reach it but he doesn’t use his paintbrush to get it either. Means-end Analysis: What are the subgoals that move you closer to the ultimate goal? Problem Solving 3  Ex. cat wants breakfast, can’t open the Reframing the Initial State: bag so they wake up human. Find a new way to describe the Intermediate goal: Wake up human! problem that helps you think about how to solve it Incremental process in a non- immedial problem Black’s Checkerboard Problem: If you remove two Incremental: Breaking the goal red corner pieces, can you tile down to increments 31 1x2 dominos to perfectly Analogical Transfer: Giving the solver information in Identification vs Description another way, so they can extend a solution from one Can you identify the problem or can space to another you describe it as well? Duckner’s Radiation Human-centered design (HCD): The Problem: A doctor is faced user can’t know what they need, and with a patient with a malignant the expert can’t know unless they tumor that is impossible to observe the use in the task operate on but if it isn’t Theory of Mind: Trying to intuit someone destroyed then the patient will else’s mental state so you can understand die. their actions Glick and Holyoke: Control vs. Analogical Transfer What did Glick and Holyoke find? Control group: 10% Transfer group: 30% When told to think about the fortress story, it went up to 70% Mapping correspondences: understanding the underlying commonalities Problem Solving 4  Being a prep cook in a restaurant Structural vs. Surface Features Experts look at structural common features whilst novices look at surface features Odon Device: A device to help with difficult births Blowing up a plastic bag and it picks up a cork in a wine bottle — generalized for an infant’s head (but done safely) Structural features are the same (How do I get this object out of this gap) Generalizing principles from one problem to a very different problem by commonality. Dunning-Kruger Effect: Non-experts believing they are as good as experts at a task or a domain of knowledge Confidence when they get it right Low performance, High confidence Mismatch between confidence and performance. Imposter Syndrome: High performance, Low confidence. Problem Solving 5  Knowledge and Intelligence Introduction to Cognition Psychology Subject: Cognition Date: Knowledge and Intelligence 1  Necessary Informaton: Is Characteristic Properties: What tells this information what you us that two items likely belong in the actually require to do the same category. task? Family Resemblence Do you have all the Families tend to look alike info you need to do the task? Essentialism: Fitting new information into our existing structures Sufficient Information: Do you have adequate Similar to Gestalt’s Principles information to clearly Certain features are more identify the concept important than others, and these Satisficing: The minimum ultimately determine identity and viable amount of category. information necessary to Problems with Essentialism do the task You can have things that look Satisfaction reflects like they belong to a category our desire to be as but it doesn’t lazy as we can get away with Knowledge and Intelligence 2  Rosch (1975) Prototype: The most thing-like thing. Categorical Priming The most typical item for its category 1. Hear a colour and then be with characteristic features descriptive shown a visual task of category members 2. Judge whether the two are High Prototypicality: Category the same; contrary to when members that closely resemble the shown B prototype 3. Bit longer to judge Low Prototypicality: Category because it is a poor members that do not closely resemble example because it’s more the prototype diffused and out towards Exemplars: The best version of a thing the edges of the prototype Rosch (1975) of green Rate how well the item is an example 4. Reporting whether the two of its category (AKA its colours are the same prototypicality) Categorical Membership Asked to rank from 1 to 7 The idea of belonging to a prototypicality from not very bird-like specific group or class (7) to very bird-like (1) Involves determining if an Everyone agreed that sparrows are object or concept fits birds within a category based on Some people questioned whether its characteristics penguins are birds This can and does change Typicality Effect: We process prototypical with context and prior objects preferentially (first and/or faster) knowledge Preference for prototypical objects especially when we live in Ontario Prototype is built off experience Similar to availability heuristic Sentence Verification: Faster to verify typical statements Knowledge and Intelligence 3  Learning Diagnostic Features Hierarchical Organization Medin et al (1982) Things that are alike are adjacent in space, with distinctions between sub categories. Learning about correlated features Distinction between kitchen and office chairs, still chairs but a little different Synthetic example but still belong in the hierarchical Give a set of organization of chairs. symptoms for a fake Basic to Superordinate: fewer shared diagnosis, they’re told features the symptom set Gets into structural similarity Basic to Subordinate: Picking up more detail and distinctions Some cortical areas are object and category selective Fusiform Face Area (FFA) Difference between Memorizing and Believed to be just faces but Understanding actually does a lot more. Unless you understand the underlying Expertise in particular commonalities, you won’t be able to object categories use what you know in different Parahippocampal Place Area situations (PPA) Gaining Knowledge Represents places in the world Formal instructional environments like LOC represents objects lectures or books Body Area (EBA) Life experience Preferentially represents body Informal explicit information via parts observation and so on General life experiences (implicit) Knowledge and Intelligence 4  Measuring Intelligence The question of psychometrics Alfred Binet and Theodore (IQ Testing) Tests the understanding compared to your average age group as well as what the entire test is normed to. Value of IQ testing is dubious, test results can be skewed by a lot of things that aren’t intelligence. Knowledge and Intelligence 5