Linguistic Meaning PDF

42 phrase is inside the phrase, while its governor is exterior to the phrase. In our example, kitten is the head of the phrase cute kitten, but the governor of this phrase is the verb runs. of that...

42 phrase is inside the phrase, while its governor is exterior to the phrase. In our example, kitten is the head of the phrase cute kitten, but the governor of this phrase is the verb runs. of that sentence. As mentioned in Ch. 1, 2.2.2, we distinguish two sublevels of representation in syntax: deep and surface sublevels. For deep-syntactic dependency relations and deep-syntactic structure, see Ch. 11, 2. a sentence, L1 and L2, such that at least some of one, for instance, L2, called (= morphological dependent), are imposed by the other, L1, which is the (= morphological governor). 3.2. In our sample sentence, the verb runs depends morphologically on the noun kitten verb in the present indicative in person and number with its subject. Therefore, we write Similarly, the adjective depends morphologically on the noun ( agrees with SG in number). 2 Morphological dependency manifests itself either as or - ment, we can mention a preposition that controls the case of the dependent noun (as in Ger. Bücher für Kind+er +ØACC ‘books for children’, where FÜR its nominal complements (as in Serb. pomagati ljud+ima DAT lit. ‘[to] help to.people’). 2 The pronominal adjectives and indeed adjectives in many languages (that have them), are invariable with respect to number. Cross-linguistically speaking, it is also possible for a noun to depend morphologically on the ‘book’, ‘interesting’, and ketab+e lit. -e, known as izafet  The three major types of linguistic dependency are logically independent of each other and can combine in a sentence in all possible ways. Thus, depend- opposite direction. In the sentence This cute kitten runs, the verb governs the noun semantically and syntactically, but is itself governed by it morphologi- cally; the pronominal adjective THIS but depends on it syntactically and morphologically (see Figure 2.1). Figure 2.1 Three types of linguistic dependency between the lexemes of the sentence This cute kitten runs Semantic and syntactic dependencies are universal in two respects. First, there is no language without semantic and syntactic dependencies between - tically linked to at least one other unit and all units are related – two by two – Morphological dependency, however, is not universal, also in two respects. On - - A dependency relation can be considered from the viewpoint of the dependent member, i.e., taking into account the role that the dependent plays with respect to the governor. At the semantic level, there is just one type of dependent: a (or semantic argument) of a lexical meaning ‘L’ (which corresponds to a pred- icate in the logical sense). At the syntactic level, there are two major types of dependents: (in a broad sense). “Syntactic oppositions in the domain of syntax. We distinguish and ; only the former are directly relevant in a textbook on semantics (Ch. 11, 2.3). In most cases, 44 SSynt-actants (such as the subject and the direct object in the case of verbs), some relevant syntactic properties are also recognized as its actants. Actants syntactic frame, or (see 1.3.3); they tend to be expressed in a way that is idiosyncratic, i.e., not fully foreseeable. In other words, their - stantials are free , and their expression is usually regular, and inde- pendent of the lexical identity of the governing L. The term valence came into linguistics from chemistry, where it refers to the capacity of atoms to bind with other atoms and form molecules. Analogously, structures. The in L’s The alternative term is the of L. Examples The verb [to] (John sold his car yesterday) has a semantic valence of 4: ‘person X sells entity or service Y to person Z for money W’. The noun (John’s idea to move house) has a semantic valence of 2: ‘person X’s idea to perform action Y’. The constructions into which L can enter as a dependent. The alternative term is the L’s passive syntactic valence is described in terms of (see 2.2 below), as well as the syntactic features of L and those of its governor. For the following syntactic roles (the list is, of course, not exhaustive): (1) the sub- The sun subjectival–is shining.); (2) the attribute of the For instance, in John wrote me a poem, the element me, which does not correspond to a Sem- actant of ‘write’, is considered to be its SSynt-actant – the indirect object – by analogy with such sentences as He gave me an apple, etc. copula (Max is–copular–[a teacher. verb (write–direct-objectival–[an article.); (4) an apposition of another noun (my friend–naming-appositive Collins). The - structions into which L enters as the governor of its actantial depend- ents, a.k.a.. Examples The active syntactic valence of the verb [to] (John sold his car yester- day. sells), the direct- objectival (sells ), the indirect-objectival (sells to Z or sells Z ]) and sells for W ), the dependent members of these constructions expressing the corresponding semantic actants of the verb. The active syntactic valence of the noun includes the subjectival-adnominal ’s idea an] idea of - tion (idea to ); their dependent members express the noun’s semantic actants. deep-syntactic actants is called the of L. This correspondence, otherwise known as , is by no means trivial (i.e., one-to-one). Thus, while the adjective 1 (politicians faithful to their word who faithful to Ywhat’), it has only the deep-syntactic actant II - L’s , or , - graphic, form of L.4 the source of many important semantic and syntactic phenomena: grammatical voices, lexical conversion, verbal derivation, etc. 4 The st person singular active masculine, singular, nominative form, etc.  The diathesis, as well as of the surface-syntactic constructions and mor- phological means implementing L’s deep-syntactic actants. 1: X‘who’ Y‘to what’ II —— –oblique-objectival to [woman ] faithful to her principles 1 is not expressible as an actant in syntax (because it becomes the syntactic governor of the adjective) phrase with TO. The illustration in Figure 2.2 will help the reader grasp the Government Figure 2.2 The representations of the phrase [a] woman faithful to her principles at the semantic and deep-syntactic levels 2.2.3. would be as follows: any informa- - uine meanings, syntactic information, communicative information, rhetorical information, etc. axes:  47 they are rather concrete, and numerous (about a million in the language of a modern society; see below, 1.6.2 like a madman), ‘piece’ (a piece of wood), ‘narrow’ (a narrow lane), ‘interest ’ (This interests me.), ‘interest ’ (without interest), ‘die’ (die from a heart attack), etc. They are genu- ine meanings; in language. Thus, the lex- , , , , and. A lexical signi- the Speaker towards the dying person; and, of course, a different register). Idioms are indicated by raised half-brackets: … is also called a , or a. The semanteme is the basic 3.1). abstract; in a given language, they are not numerous (a few hundred, at most) for most derivatemes) or correspond to clusters of meanings (semantically full grammemes, such as PLURAL), while some others represent various types of combinatorial (= cooccurrence) information. Table 2.1 gives some examples 3.2.2) ‘person who does [L]’ [eatL+er] Sp. ‘small and pleasant [L]’ [arbolL+it+o ‘small and pleasant tree’] Grammemes (see 3.2.1) (nominal) PLURAL (chair+s, teeth) INDEFINITE(a chair) PAST [tense] (talk+ed, sang); FUTURE [tense] (will work) ACCUSATIVE [case] (Lat. aquil+am ‘eagle’) Syntactic relations, deep and surface –ATTR –prepositional Communicative values (marked by Jap. -wa or. - - ) syntactic construction: see Ch. 11, 2.2.3, p. 290).  In language means of - ations (such as apophonies), and by syntactic (= non-morphological) means – (= grammatical). The derivatemes and grammemes cited above are (the gram- meme PLURAL in teeth is expressed by the apophony and the grammeme PAST in sang by the apophony , or else by structural words (the article and the auxiliary WILL ). Syntactic relations are expressed by syntactic constructions, and the communicative value example; however, in most languages theme is expressed by word order). resources in order to cause2 the lexeme , or, if the Speaker chooses, by its near-synonyms or ASSIST REMARK. The Speaker’s freedom in choosing linguistic units needs tense must this will be the present, the past or the future is up to the Speaker. For more on this, see 3.2. being freely chosen by the Speaker, they are imposed on him by his language – to express syntactic and morphological dependencies and convey other gram- matical information. Thus, governed prepositions and conjunctions (insist on, dream of, demand that, wonder whether, etc.) express lexical-syntactic signi- - histoire(fem)+s ] intéressantes+e +s ‘interesting [stories]’) it bears – that is, outside the wordform on whose stem it bears – that is,. Thus, the com- bined with the past participle of the lexical verb:  49 (1) a. Lat. Urbs a hostibus +t +urPASS. ~ The city was being attack+ed by the enemies. - an article): (2) a. Swed. stol stol+ØSG+en stol+ar +na b. chair the chair+ØSG the chair+s - semantics; they are indicated in the following table, along with linguistic sub-disciplines that study them. (As we announced in the Preface, morpholog- ical semantics will not be explored in any detail in this book.) Linguistic sub-discipline semantics that studies them Grammatical semantic non-morphological The linguistic expressive means of language are the totality of devices that has at its disposal to express meanings and the structural organization of texts of. There are just four possible types of linguistic expressive means: , , , and (see 3.3 - ing two ways: 1. In a semantic capacity, to express a meaning directly; such a means has its source in the semantic representation (of the corresponding text). 2. In a syntactic (= non-semantic) capacity, to mark a syntactic role, without direct correspondence with elements of the semantic representation. Table 2.3 illustrates the four types of linguistic expressive means.  Linguistic in a semantic capacity in a syntactic capacity expressive means Lexical units , , (think that P), , , , etc. (the hypothesis which…), (depend on), (is intelligent), (pay attention), etc. Linear order Marks syntactic constructions: structure; e.g.: This I do not know vs. , etc. I do not know this. Prosody - Marks breath groups, etc. rogation, exclamation; irony, sarcasm; tenderness; emphasis; etc. Marks agreement and government aspect and tense of the verb; the degree of the adjective We have presented the linguistic expressive means in the order that corre- sponds to their importance:. means act upon them, as it were. Linear order comes before prosody because most limited expressive means because it is absent from many languages and (e.g., linear order). We now turn to the formalisms used in the Meaning-Text approach to write of utterances (1.6.1) and that establish correspondences between these representations (1.6.2). At this point, we will present only the formalisms used to construct the basic structures of linguistic representations at the semantic, syntactic and morpho- logical levels, leaving the peripheral structures aside (for the contrast “basic vs. peripheral structure,” see Ch. 1, 2.2.2  , the (deep- and surface-syntactic dependency) , and the (morpho- logical) – are particular types. A graph is a set of points, called , or , linked by lines, called. The nodes represent the elements of a set, and the edges represent the relations between these elements. Generally speaking, the nodes of a graph are not linearly ordered; the physical disposition of the nodes on paper is therefore irrelevant. The graphs considered in linguistics are: 1. , i.e., there is a path – a series of edges – between any two nodes. 2. , i.e., each edge is assigned an arrow, indicating the hierarchy between the two nodes it connects; an edge supplied with an arrow is called an. , i.e., all nodes and all arcs are supplied with labels specifying their From a formal viewpoint, the graph representing a semantic structure is a network: a fully connected, fully directed and fully labeled graph without further constraints. The nodes of a semantic network are labeled with lexical meanings (= semantemes) of a language, and its arcs bear distinctive numbers indicating the relations between a predicative meaning and its arguments. A syntactic structure is formally a tree – that is, a network satisfying the following two conditions: - ernor or no governor at all). 2. There exists one and only one node that receives no arc (= does not have a governor); this node is called the , or the , of the tree. ) with the names of syntactic dependency relations. The nature of these labels depends on which sublevel we are dealing with: at the deep- deep-syntactic relations; at the surface-syntactic sublevel, the respective labels surface-syntactic relations. Finally, the deep-morphological structure is a string – that is, a particular case of a tree such that each of its nodes allows for only one leaving arc – that is, each governor has only one dependent. In other words, there is no branching. In a string, the arcs and their labels, which are always identical, are omitted; the dependency relation that exists between the nodes is in fact the precedence relation, indicated by their linear order. To put it simply, a string is The nodes of a morphological string are labeled with lexemes supplied with representations of all its wordforms.  Figure 2.3 shows the basic structures representing the organization of the sentence I like swimming a lot ‘I very much like swimming’ at the semantic, deep- and surface-syntactic and deep-morphological levels. Figure 2.3 Structures of the sentence I like swimming a lot at different representation levels Ch. 11. Linguistic rules come in several types, of which we will introduce the most common one here: transition linguistic rules. Transition Linguistic Rule A ), expresses this content; the bi-directional double arrow means ‘cor- responds to’, and represents the set of conditions (possibly empty) conditions - tions )’. In this book, the term rule is used strictly in its technical sense, as it was just A lexicalization semantic rule bed- 1 – that is by the lexical sign bed- =. like (I like | swimming a lot), different SemS, which, instead of ‘very’ bearing on ‘like’, has ‘much’ bearing on ‘swim’. Its Figure 2.3.  A morphologization semantic rule ‘more than one’ PLURAL PLURAL (which, on a closer-to-surface level will be expressed by the morpheme {PLURAL}. A linearization syntactic rule L –determinative 2(determ) L2(determ) + … + L be separated by some other lexical elements (this is shown by “…”): the(det) child , a(det) gentle child , these(det) big and promising projects , etc. A Meaning-Text model of a language is a set of , each module being a set of rules operating between representations of utterances at two adjacent levels. In this book we are interested in the rules of the semantic module, or for short, , which operate between semantic and deep-syntactic representations; semantic rules were introduced in Ch. 1, 2.3 and will be dis- cussed in Ch. 12. The concept of linguistic rule calls for two important comments having to do with the generality of rules and their relation to linguistic signs. Generality of linguistic rules - eral. A rule can even be by a single element; all lexical rules and most of the morphological rules are of this type, like the lexicalization and morphologization semantic rules above. On the other hand, a rule can have absolute generality; the linearization syntac- tic rule above is such a rule, because it applies to all nouns and all determiners For instance, the adverb is linearly positioned after the adjective it big enough vs. ; the cor-. Linguistic rules and linguistic signs A linguistic sign (as introduced in Subsection 1.1) can be considered as a par- s, taken examples, are such rules. According to a long-standing tradition, it is customary to speak separately about lexical signs and grammatical rules. This is also a pedagogically handy distinction: it allows us to sketch the general structure of language in a simple and graphic way, keeping apart the lexicon and the grammar. of rules. Simple linguistic signs are of two types: 1. (counting several hundred thousand7) correspond to lexemes and idioms; they constitute the , or the , of language. 2. - ical operations; they belong to ’s. The grammar (i.e., semantic + syntax + morphology + phonology) includes, along with grammatical signs, around one thousand , which manipulate linguistic signs and produce more complex expressions: these rules combine radicals and the latter into sentences (see 2.1). Language Lexicon Grammar – Lexical – Grammatical – Grammatical Rules – Signs – Signs – chair, go, -s, -ed, -er, anti-, re-, Semantic rules limited, (tooth ~ 1’–1 2’ 1’)–I 2’) | around, teeth), 1’) is a verb not in the passive red tape , (spring ~ Syntactic rules pull [ ’s] sprang) modif– +…+ leg , as if (interesting book) –prepos +…+ (for John) Morphological rules {PL} Phonological rules [th] | not and potato] or not stand, potato] The main difference between lexicon and grammar lies in the degree of generality of corresponding descriptions. The lexical stock contains elements 7 This number (about a million) is a rough upper estimate, obtained in the following way. American College Dictionary lexical constituents. Moreover, divisions of lexical items into wordsenses are often too coarse in If we consider French, Le Petit Robert exists in other languages. A lexicographic wordsense corresponds to one lexical sign (a lexeme or that do not lend themselves easily to a generalized description: each of them has to be described separately.) In contrast, the grammar works by generali- grammar, even when they are described individually, show in their behavior a degree of regularity and systematicity that one never sees with lexical units. Of course, this is but an idealization: there are many regularities in the lexical stock and many exceptions to the rules of grammar; however, in order to get a clear picture, it is useful to think of these two aspects of language in this way, i.e., as consisting of a lexicon (= system of individual lexical signs) and a grammar (= system of general grammatical rules). Syntactic notions will be presented in two groups: basic syntactic units (2.1) and major syntactic classes of lexical units, or parts of speech (2.2). We distinguish four basic syntactic units: (1) wordform, the minimal unit manipulated by syntactic rules (and also the maximal unit of morphology); Since all syntactic units are particular cases of utterance, we will start by characterizing this latter concept. An is a linguistic expression that is more or less autono- mous: it can appear between two major pauses, can constitute a pro- sodic unit, and its internal structure is governed by linguistic rules; an utterance is perceived by speakers as “something that exists in the language.” NB: characterization. This cannot be otherwise, given the great generality of the notion of utterance. An utterance can be a wordform, a phrase, a clause, or a sentence. Linguistic expressions smaller than an utterance are parts of wordforms (morphs such re- in retake -ed in answered); they cannot be used alone in ordinary speech, outside of metalinguistic statements. A linguistic sentences forming a paragraph. They, however, are texts in the technical sense used in the MTT; see Ch. 1, 1.  Wordform A is a segmental sign that is more or less autonomous and not representable in terms of other (previously established) wordforms. NB: nition is inductive:9 it presupposes establishing some obvious, ones. (We’ll see in an instant what “obvious” means here.) Informally, a wordform is a minimal chunk of speech: it cannot be broken up into other chunks of the same type, that is, into other wordforms. At the pauses), in which case we are dealing with an obvious wordform, e.g., book, interesting, read, speaks, little, boys. (2) Or it cannot be used alone but can be separated from an obvious wordform by (at least) another obvious one, e.g., a the are separable in this way: a very interesting book; the most interesting and useful book. The wordforms like these, whose identity is (more or less) “stable” and “permanent,” are called. There is also a different type of wordform, called ; “unsta- ble” and “transient,” speech wordforms are produced dynamically – in actual speech – by some syntactic rules applied to language wordforms. Stock exam- ples are such as Fr. à le ‘to the’ au fusion of the preposition À with the article , and such as Ger. Ich mache das Fenster auf ‘I open the window’, a result of an obligatory separation auf- from the radical mach- of the verb ‘[to] open’ and its positioning at the end of the clause ( alone means ‘make’). lexeme; for instance, the wordforms speak, speaks, spoke, spoken, speaking, (John spoke at the meet- ing.). In contrast, a speech wordform does not belong to a lexeme. A wordform is a simple sign because it does not contain other wordforms is in most cases a non-elementary sign, that is, it can be represented in terms of +s, Rus. + +ix+sja ‘of those 9 An , or , 1, x2, …, xn} in two they constitute the other elements similar to the elements of the base: this is the. The other major elements {x1, x2, …, xn – by formulating the properties ( ) that characterize the elements of who are defending themselves [PL.GEN]’,10 geese = goose- , etc. (An ele- mentary sign – see 3.1.1 – is necessarily simple, while the converse is not true.) REMAR K. , such as Ger. Ost+frankreich France’ or Sprach+geschichte lit. ‘language history’, do not contain Osten, not Ost-, and ‘language’ is Sprache, not Sprach-. Of course, a radical can “physically” coincide with a wordform; e.g., in the book the radical is book- entities are distinct. A is an utterance that consists of syntactically linked word- forms supplied with an appropriate prosody and is perceived by the speakers as a unit of their language, but that does not necessarily con- stitute a complete unit of communication. NB: 1. As a limiting case, a phrase can consist of one wordform. 2. Some phrases can constitute a sentence and thus be a complete unit of communication: John arrived. | It depends. | Wow! | No way. Examples: sequence; a sequence; syntactically linked wordforms; of syntacti- cally linked wordforms; a sequence of syntactically linked wordforms. A phrase of always manifests a particular syntactic construction of (or several syntactic constructions). Stretching the terminology a bit, we also use the term phrase – a convenient abbreviation – for a structural representation of an actual phrase. Thus, for instance, we can speak of the “ + ” phrase, meaning the set of phrases like intelligent child, expensive houses, former minister, blue sky, etc. Clause A is a phrase that contains a with its or is syn- ). A FIN is a form of a verb that obligatorily expresses the – indicative, imperative, subjunctive, etc.; in many languages, it also expresses 10 Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland), who wrote in his travel diary while on a trip to Russia: “[the word] the tense – present, past, future (but this is not obligatory: in Chinese or of a verb are opposed to its. I, you, we, they] sing; [he/she] sings; [I ] am sing- ing; [you] have sung; [we] will sing; Sing!; [if he] had sung; [they] have been sung; [it] was sung; [it] will be sung; etc. sing; [to] have sung; [to] be sung, [to] have been sung; (participles and gerunds) singing; having sung; being sung, having been sung. NB: - Kell menn+em ‘Is. necessary to.go-I’. vs. Kell menn+iük ‘Is.necessary to.go-they’; É nece- sario ir+mos ‘Is necessary to.go-we’. vs. É necesario ir+em ‘Is necessary to.go-they’. A clause can be a constituent part of a sentence or constitute a (simple) sentence by itself. Examples: when John arrives, …; … that I will be visiting Boston with my kids; John and Mary study at the University of Montreal. | In reality, the three are closely related. NB: ; in our frame- work, this is a contradictio in adjecto to play on computers and playing on computers) are considered here simply to be special types of phrases. Sentence A is a maximal utterance that typically consists of clauses and is a complete unit of communication. (particular to each language): declarative, interrogative and exclamative. - tence consists of just one clause. The sentence you just read constitutes an example of this. (such that they in the technical sense – i.e., - tioning; on vs. as a manner of transmitting information by means of language, see Ch. 10, 3.2.1.5 is, do not consist of clauses: Yes! | How nice! | Down with taxes! | Wham! | Of course. These are , more precisely, (such that they do not , in the technical sense alluded to above, but rather the emotional state of the Speaker, his attitudes, and so on). The sentence is the upper limit for syntactic dependencies between word- forms; wordforms from different sentences can be connected only by ana- phoric links, which are not dependencies. As indicated in the Preface, in this book we will consider semantic phenom- ena up to the level of sentences, to the exclusion of discourse semantics. - ber of , traditionally known as : noun, verb, adjective, adverb, and so on. Members of a given syntactic class share many important syntactic properties, namely the ability to play the same (i.e., a noun without a preposition) can be: the (The baby woke up. | The rain is falling.); the of a transitive verb (in order not to wake up the baby ; liking the rain ); the (the sleep of the baby ; insist on the departure ); etc. - ditioned by its syntactic class. To put it differently, the same (or similar) syntactic rules apply to (almost) all members of the given class, which allows for a compact formulation of rules and important generalizations. from them in the process of the historical development of the language. Some other syntactic classes are closed and rather limited in size they very an open class are most often those that express lexical meanings; they can be as the distinction “ ~.” As can be seen from what immediately follows, each closed syntactic class are a subclass of verbs; pronominal nouns, a subclass of nouns, etc. syntactic classes. OPEN CLASSES ) , , , , …; , , ,… , , , , , OATS , , , , , ,… (A) , (A) , (A) , (A) , …; (A) , (A) , … , FAST , (It was raining hard.), ; , ,… - stitutes a clause): , WOW , ,… OPEN CLASSES ) cop) , cop) aux) , aux) , aux) pron)([Do you agree?] Yes, I do.) I pron, pers) , IT I.1 pron, pers) (It [e.g., the book] is here), IT II (It snows), pron, interr) , pron, neg) , pron) A (ART), (ART); - str); pron, poss) ; pron, interr) , pron, rel) pron, demonstr) , pron, demonstr), ( , pron, interr) , pron) , pron, neg) Special subclasses of adverbs: 6 (right on the border), 2 (travel by train), - 3 (Everything was done according to plan.) I.1 (John and Mary), II.3, 1, IF 1 , ALSO , , In addition to sharing many syntactic properties, members of a major syn- tactic class also share some semantic and (in languages that have morphology) morphological properties. - tactic class membership. It is often said that verbs denote or , that nouns denote and , and adjectives – (these are 1.2 - bers of these syntactic classes, verbs can very well denote properties, there are many nouns denoting actions, many adjectives denoting entities, and so on; cf.: John lacks [property] courage. | This is a crazy race [action]. | vehicular [entity] accident can never denote an (an object, a substance, a person, etc.): verbs only denote. vs. non-perfect), aspect (progressive vs. non-progressive), person and num- signs that make up wordforms (3.1 - wordforms (3.2); and we describe the two basic morphological mechanisms by which the forms of lexemes are constructed and new lexemes are produced: 3.3). An of language is a sign that is not representable in terms of other signs of. house-, write-, -ed, re-, etc. are elementary; in fact, they are , see immediately below. Segmental Sign A – a string of phonemes. a, house-, write-, -ed, re-, etc. are segmental; the signs house, houses, brick houses, beautiful brick houses are also segmental (they (as in spit ~ spat, sing ~ sang of the type [the] oil ~ [to] oil, [the] sand ~ [to] sand, etc. Morph A is an elementary segmental sign. Morphs constitute the vast majority of elementary signs of a language. (The remaining are non-segmental elementary signs: , , morphological.) A morph can either be a simple, i.e., non-derived and non-compound , also called (house-, write-), or an (re-, -ed). As already mentioned (1.4 , such as PLURAL, DEFINITE, ACCUSA- TIVE, INDICATIVE, FUTURE conditional or imperative; if in the indicative, it has to be either in the present, the past or the future; moreover, it is either perfective or non-perfective and either progressive or non-progressive. A Latin noun needs to be put into an appropriate case: nominative, accusative, dative, and so on. Mutually opposed grammemes are united into : the grammemes PLURAL(N) and SINGULAR(N) form the category of PRESENT, PAST and FUTURE constitute the category of in that language; Latin cases form the category of ; and so forth.11 Two types of grammemes are distinguished: 1. , also called , correspond to seman- noun, the grammemes of voice, mood, perfectivity, aspect and tense for the verb, and the grammemes of degree of comparison for the adjective. For more on deep grammemes, see Ch. 11, 2.3. 2. , alias , - tions; they are induced by syntactic phenomena of and. Typical syntactic grammemes are those of adjectival agreement with the noun 11 grammeme: DUAL; cf. ‘one book’ ~ ‘two books’ ~ kutub ‘more than two books’).  etc.), and verbal agreement in person and number with the subject. Grammemes are normally expressed within a wordform (Ch. 2, 2.1.2), that (meaningful alternations: substitutions of type -oo -ee as in goose ~ geese or -i- -a- as in sing ~ sang); in this case we speak of , or expression. Grammemes can also be expressed by separate wordforms, this type of expression being called , or ; for instance, auxiliary verbs in compound tenses express the grammemes of voice, mood, perfectivity, aspect and tense analytically (while the lexical meaning of the , are neither obligatory (unlike grammemes, they do not necessarily form categories) nor necessarily regular; however, they resemble grammemes in that they are expressed by the same semantemes, for instance: read+er from readL, teach+er from teachL, particip+ant from participateL, etc. to] oil Z from [the] oil (He was oiling the machin- ery.), [to] hammer Z from [the] hammer , [to] bomb Z from [the] bomb , etc. ‘relative [to L]’ (that is, an adjectivalization of the noun L: space ~ spat+ial) or ‘action [L]’ (that is, a nominalization of the verb L: move ~ move+ment). A is a set of rules which, using some morphological expressive means, construct wordforms of language. As we said above, there are two basic morphological mechanisms: and. produces wordforms belonging to the same lexeme L, namely - ‘intelligent’: intelligent+Ø +Ø intelligent+Ø +s intelligent+e +Ø intelligent+e +s intelligent - fully mechanism. Example AMICUS ‘male friend’ SINGULAR PLURAL NOMINATIVE amic+us amic+i GENITIVE amic+i amic+orum DATIVE amic+o amic+is ACCUSTIVE amic+um amic+os ABLATIVE amic+o amic+is VOCATIVE amic+e amic+i Word formation produces new lexemes out of the existing lexemes of a language. There are two major word formation types: , which adds a morphological means expressing a derivateme to the of a lexeme to produce a belonging to another lexeme. , which puts together the stems of two lexemes to produce a , also belonging to another lexeme. be is, semantically compositional and formally regular), or (no longer irregular). Only synchronic word formation is a morphological mechanism, which has a constructive role in language. The exclusive task of diachronic word formation is to characterize lexemes stored in the dictionary of. Examples of word formation Synchronic derivation ~ ‘that is against philosophy’, ~ ~ ‘that can be defended’, ~ ‘that can be excused’; (by conversion) OIL ~ OIL ‘to apply oil (to some- thing)’, ~ ‘to apply a hammer (to something)’. : (formally regular) RE , CON , DE , but there is no radical *tain; (formally irregular) ~ TION vs. ~ TH vs. ~ CE , or ~ NESS vs. ~ CE.  Synchronic compounding: Ger. ‘winter’ and ‘time’ ~ - ‘winter.time’, ‘study ’ and ‘time’ ~ - ‘study.time’, ‘war’ and ‘time’ ~ ‘war.time’. : Ger. lit. ‘high.time’ = ‘wedding’, lit. ‘time.word’ = ‘verb’. involved in the operation of semantic level of representation); see Ch. 12, 1.1. Michaelson 2017. Sentence: Quirk et al