LING 335 Midterm Study Guide PDF

Typical L1 acquisition Stages of L1 Acquisition ○ Between 2-5mos vocalizations mostly when lying down ○ As more voluntary vocalization occurs, they develop vocal “games” ○ Manipulate pitch, practice consonantal features like frictions noises, nasal murmurings,...

Typical L1 acquisition Stages of L1 Acquisition ○ Between 2-5mos vocalizations mostly when lying down ○ As more voluntary vocalization occurs, they develop vocal “games” ○ Manipulate pitch, practice consonantal features like frictions noises, nasal murmurings, bilabials ○ First vowels start to appear ○ Play with their articulators, clicking tongue, opening and shutting mouth ○ Deaf babies play these vocal games Babbling 6-8mos. ○ Single consonant-vowel syllable repeated gagagagagaga ○ Onto some combinations in the sequence gagagagaga-mamamama ○ Early in this stage, deaf baby babble vocally ○ Hearing baby can model pitch of vocalization on those of other speakers; high with woman, lower with man ○ Can still recognize language sounds that are not part of his/her language Sophisticated babbling: 8-12 months ○ Deaf children cease vocal babbling ○ Babies start to babble using the sounds of his/her language Yoruba (Nigerian language): most words begin with vowels; baby’s babbling mostly V-C-V English” most words begin with consonants; baby’s babbling mostly C-V-C ○ Sophisticated babbling for hearing babies includes vocally babbling language sounds of the surrounding verbal language One Word Stage: Approx. 1 year old ○ Mostly concrete nouns and verbs (car, eat NOT idea wonder) ○ Naming precedes asking during the one-word stage ○ Can obey simple verbal commands Two Word Stage: Approx. 18 months ○ Possessor-possessed (Mommy’s sock) ○ Actor-action (cat sleeping) ○ Typically, Subject-verb or Verb-object No 3rd, 4th, 5th etc. stages “All Hell’s Breaking Loose” Stage ○ Child has roughly 14, 000 words by age 6 ○ If a child starts to acquire words at 18 months, that is 9words/day to get to 14,000 by 6 yrs. Old ○ Roughly one new word every waking hour Atypical L1 acquisition Lenneberg's Hypothesis: ○ Biological foundation of language. ○ One word stage = standing. ○ Two word stage = walking. ○ 3+ words = jumping. ○ Uniform development as evidence for Innateness Hypothesis. Critical Period for L1 Acquisition: ○ I. Unusual Circumstances: ○ Genie: Discovered at 13, severely deprived, language development stagnated at a 2.5-year-old level.  ○ Isabelle: Discovered at 6, hidden from birth, cognitive skills of a 2-year-old but developed age-appropriate language by 7.5 years. ○ Chelsea: Born hearing impaired, misdiagnosed, improved hearing at 31, significant vocabulary but limited syntax. ○ II. Sign Language Acquisition: ○ Critical periods in development suggest a window of opportunity for language acquisition. Evidence from Atypical L1 Acquisition: ○ Genie: Limited vocabulary, short sentences, little inflection. ○ Isabelle: Hidden from birth, achieved normal language development by 7.5 years. ○ Chelsea: Improved hearing later in life, stunted language capability, syntax similar to a 2.5-year-old. Sign Language L1 acquisition General Points: ○ Most deaf children have hearing parents, leading to a lack of early sign language input. ○ Only about 3-7% of deaf signers have ASL as their L1 (first language). ○ Often no early sign language input but generally not associated with neglect or abuse, unlike Genie cases. Critical Period for Acquisition: ○ Late learners without neglect and abuse offer many test cases. ○ Older deaf children/learners acquiring sign language are less likely to sign like native signers. Critical Ages for Acquisition: ○ Deaf babies babble with their hands at 6-8 months, similar to hearing babies. ○ Deaf children may acquire their first 10 signs before hearing children acquire their first 10 words. ○ Timing and order of one-word, two-word stages, and 3+ word utterances are the same as hearing children. Superficial Differences: ○ Deaf children start to use individual signs around 8 months old. ○ This might be misleading as hearing children also make meaningful gestures at this time. ○ Definite first signs appear around 12 months. Pronoun Reversal: ○ Pronoun reversal occurs in both hearing and signing children. ○ Pronoun reversal is a recognized stage of language acquisition. Word Acquisition Children's Word Acquisition: ○ Difficult to determine a child's perceived meaning of a word. ○ Tend to generalize word meanings based on features. ○ Example: "Clock" = "tick-tock," and generalize "tick-tock" to other objects. ○ Over time, their meaning narrows. Sighted Children: Words and Their Meanings: ○ Many common words have multiple meanings. ○ Few meanings have many words. ○ Homonyms (e.g., bank, tie) are common. ○ Synonyms (e.g., skinny/slim) are rare. Experiments with Words: ○ Introduce unfamiliar words (e.g., "BIFS" for tongs).  ○ Children generalize based on material or object, not synonyms. ○ Experiment: Calling pewter tongs "BIFS" leads the child to get any tongs. Blind Children and Word Acquisition: ○ Similar progression as sighted children. ○ Vocabulary development is similar to sighted children. Color Terms: ○ Sighted children acquire correct color term use late (around 3.5 years). ○ Blind children use color terms without visual basis, correct use decreases around 4.5 years. Perception Words (e.g., LOOK & SEE): ○ Blind children use tactile perception for "seeing." ○ "Look" = touching the object. ○ Different meanings for blind children based on tactile experiences. Production Comprehension: The ability to understand language through listening, reading, or other modalities Competence/Performance;Receptive & Expressive Language Competence: Unconscious knowledge of the rules Performance: Production and comprehension ○ Receptive: comprehension Writtem Aural Visual Spoken Signed ○ Expressive: production Signing Speaking Writing Slurring Spoonerisms Critical Period Hypothesis: The idea that there is a limited time frame for learning a language like a native speaker, which ends around puberty Young children are better at learning a second language than adults It's almost impossible to learn a language like a native speaker after the critical period ends Maturational Hypothesis (window of opportunity): Children go through predictable developmental sequences, and that development is determined by genetics and neuromaturational processes. Deaf Isolates Social Isolation: ○ Fewer social interactions: Avoidance of social situations or reduced engagement in conversations. Loneliness: ○ Can occur in both solitude and in crowds. ○ Increases risk of depression, anxiety, and suicide Health Impacts: ○ Brain Atrophy: Accelerates rate of brain atrophy. ○ Dementia: May contribute to the development of dementia. ○ Difficulty Walking: Impairs balance due to muted auditory signals. Home Sign: Gestural communication systems developed by deaf individuals without access to formal sign language. Characteristics: ○ Unique to each family or individual. ○ Developed in the absence of exposure to a standard sign language. ○ Often used by deaf children with hearing parents. Linguistic Features: ○ Contains basic elements of a language (nouns, verbs, syntax). ○ Uses consistent gestures for specific meanings. ○ May lack the complexity and structure of established sign languages. Development: ○ Emerges from the necessity to communicate. ○ Evolves over time within the home environment. Bound and Free morphemes Morphemes: Smallest units of meaning in a language. Free Morphemes: ○ Can stand alone as words. ○ Examples: "cat," "dog," "run," "happy." Bound Morphemes: ○ Cannot stand alone; must be attached to other morphemes. ○ Examples: Prefixes: "un-" (unhappy), "re-" (rewrite). Suffixes: "-ed" (walked), "-ing" (running), "-s" (cats). Types of Bound Morphemes: ○ Inflectional Morphemes: Modify tense, number, aspect, etc., without changing the word's category (e.g., "-s," "-ed"). ○ Derivational Morphemes: Change the meaning or category of the word (e.g., "un-," "-ness"). Inflectional morphology: Add properties without changing word category. ○ Tense (Past): -ed ○ Person (3rd person singular): -s ○ Number (singular): -ø ○ Plural: -s, -es Derivational morphology: Can change the word category. ○ -ity: passivity ○ -ion: communion ○ Re-: reread ○ Un-: untie ○ -ize: privatize Inflection semantics, category, Inflection Semantics: ○ Refers to the meaning changes brought by inflectional morphemes. ○ Includes modifications like tense, number, gender, case, etc.  ○ Alters the form of words to express different grammatical functions without changing word category. Inflection Categories: ○ Tense: Past, present, future (e.g., walk → walked). ○ Number: Singular, plural (e.g., cat → cats). ○ Person: First, second, third (e.g., I run, you run, he/she runs). ○ Gender: Masculine, feminine, neuter (e.g., actor → actress). ○ Case: Nominative, accusative, genitive, etc. (e.g., I → me, my). ○ Mood: Indicative, subjunctive, imperative (e.g., he runs, if he runs, run!). morphosyntactic rules Morphosyntactic Rules: ○ Definition: Rules that govern the structure of phrases and sentences, combining morphology and syntax. ○ Role: Determine how morphemes are arranged to form meaningful sentences. ○ Inflection Integration: ○ Ensures agreement between subjects and verbs (e.g., he runs, they run). ○ Facilitates proper word order and sentence structure. ○ Examples: ○ Subject-verb agreement: I run, he runs. ○ Pluralization: The dogs bark. ○ Case marking: She saw him (nominative vs. accusative). Lexicon: The complete set of words in a language. Components: ○ Words: Basic units of meaning (nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc.). ○ Morphemes: Smallest units of meaning (roots, prefixes, suffixes). ○ Idioms and Phrases: Fixed expressions with specific meanings. ○ Collocations: Commonly paired words (e.g., "make a decision"). Types: ○ Mental Lexicon: Words stored in an individual's mind. Functions: ○ Facilitates communication. ○ Reflects cultural and social influences. ○ Evolves over time with language use and societal changes. Open class/content morphemes Definition: ○ Also known as lexical morphemes. ○ Carry the core semantic content of a word. Characteristics: ○ Open Class: Continuously evolving with the language, new words can be added. ○ Content Words: Include nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. ○ High semantic value, essential for sentence meaning. Examples: ○ Nouns: "cat," "idea." ○ Verbs: "run," "create." Closed class/function morphemes Characteristics: ○ Closed Class: Rarely adds new words; relatively fixed set. ○ Include conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns, and auxiliary verbs. ○ Provide structural and grammatical relationships in sentences. Examples: ○ Conjunctions: "and," "but." ○ Prepositions: "in," "on." ○ Articles: "the," "a." Syntax Definition: ○ The set of rules that governs the structure of sentences. ○ Determines how words and phrases are arranged to create meaningful sentences Phonology Definition: ○ Study of the sound system of a language. ○ Concerned with the abstract, cognitive aspects of sounds. Key Concepts: ○ Phonemes: Smallest units of sound that can change meaning (e.g., /p/ and /b/ in "pat" vs. "bat"). ○ Allophones: Variants of a phoneme that do not change meaning (e.g., the [t] in "tap" vs. the [t] in "stop"). ○ Minimal Pairs: Pairs of words that differ by only one phoneme, illustrating the phonemic difference (e.g., "bat" vs. "pat"). Phonetics Definition: ○ Study of the physical sounds of human speech. ○ Focuses on the production, transmission, and perception of speech sounds. Key Areas: ○ Articulatory Phonetics: How speech sounds are produced by the movement of the vocal organs. ○ Acoustic Phonetics: Physical properties of speech sounds (e.g., frequency, amplitude). ○ Auditory Phonetics: How speech sounds are perceived by the ear and brain. Speech Sound Categories: ○ Consonants: Produced with some degree of constriction in the vocal tract (e.g., /p/, /t/, /k/). ○ Vowels: Produced with an open vocal tract (e.g., /a/, /e/, /i/). Morphology: Study of the structure of words and the rules for word formation. Semantics Definition: ○ Study of meaning in language. Key Concepts: ○ Literal Meaning: The direct, explicit meaning of words and sentences. ○ Figurative Meaning: The implied or non-literal interpretation (e.g., metaphors, idioms). Components: ○ Words: Individual meanings of lexical items. ○ Phrases and Sentences: How meanings combine and interact.  ○ Context: Influence of the situation, speaker intention, and background knowledge. Types of Meaning: ○ Denotation: The objective, dictionary definition of a word. ○ Connotation: The emotional or cultural associations attached to a word. Pragmatics Definition: ○ Study of how context influences the interpretation of meaning in communication. Key Concepts: ○ Context: Situational factors affecting meaning (e.g., speaker identity, location, time). ○ Speech Acts: Actions performed via speaking (e.g., promising, ordering, apologizing). ○ Implicature: Implied meaning beyond literal words. ○ Deixis: Words relying on context for meaning (e.g., "this," "that," "here," "there"). Types of Context: ○ Physical Context: Environment of communication. ○ Linguistic Context: Previous conversation utterances. ○ Social Context: Relationships and social roles of participants. ○ Cultural Context: Shared knowledge and cultural norms. ASD -DSM-5 diagnosis Social communication and interaction deficits: Persistent deficits across multiple contexts Deficits in social-emotional reciprocity Deficits in nonverbal communication Deficits in developing, maintaining, and understanding relationships Restricted and repetitive behaviors: Presence of restricted or repetitive patterns of behavior Preoccupation with objects or topics of interest Inflexibility Repetitive movements or speech Hyper- or hyporeactivity to sensory stimulation Symptoms must be present in the early developmental period. Three levels of ASD severity: Requiring support Requiring substantial support Requiring very substantial support DSM-II (1968) Defined Autism: As a psychiatric condition. ○ Considered childhood schizophrenia marked by detachment from reality. Bruno Bettelheim: ○ Popularized term "refrigerator mothers." ○ Autism is thought to be caused by cold/unemotional mothers. ○ Mothers faced blame and guilt from the 1950s to 1970s. Bernard Rimland: ○ Psychologist with an autistic son. ○ Published "Infantile Autism: The Syndrome and its Implications for a Neural Theory of Behavior." DSM-III (1980, revised in 1987)  Established Autism: As a separate diagnosis, distinct from schizophrenia. ○ Described as a pervasive developmental disorder. ○ Key Characteristics: 1. Lack of interest in people. 2. Severe impairments in communication. 3. Bizarre responses to the environment (all developing in the first 30 months of life). DSM-V (2013) Introduced term ‘autism spectrum disorder (ASD)’ 2 groups of features ○ “Persistent impairment in reciprocal social communication and social interaction” ○ “Restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior” Eliminated Aspergers, PDD-NOS, and classic autism Included a novel diagnosis of social communication disorder Also removed CDD and Rett Syndrome ASD and language use/ASD language related deficits Language and Speech Development in ASD: Highly variable speech development among children with ASD. Common challenges include: ○ Difficulty with nonliteral language (e.g., sarcasm, similes, rhetorical questions, hyperbole, metaphors, irony). ○ General lack of understanding of referential intent. ○ Word learning difficulties, partly due to joint attention issues. Prosody in ASD: Prosody includes stress, pitch, intonation, loudness, pauses, and pace. Three functions of prosody, with limited or missing comprehension and production in individuals with ASD: 1. Grammatical: ○ Marks syntactic information. ○ Helps parse speech (e.g., “This book I really like” where stress on “This book” changes the meaning). 2. Pragmatic: ○ Conveys social information beyond the sentence. ○ Indicates the speaker’s intentions (e.g., “My name is Gregory Ward?” when showing up for an appointment). 3. Affective: ○ Changes in register to convey general feelings and emotions. ○ Combined with facial expressions (e.g., “That can’t be true!”). Hyperlexia Broad Definition: strong decoding skills coupled with notably impaired comprehension. Often seen as a mirror image of dyslexia (weak decoding skills and strong comprehension). Some definitions historically included accompanying atypical neuro or behavioral disorders. Generally includes early acquisition of decoding skills with minimal explicit teaching. Children with hyperlexia show an early and intense interest in words and letters. Exceptional word recognition usually apparent by 5 years old.  Characterized by a child's precocious ability to read without prior training, typically before the age of five. Often accompanied by an obsessive interest in letters and numbers, which develops as an infant. ○ Hyperlexia is most commonly associated with the Autism ○ Spectrum Disorder (ASD), or at least autistic-like features ○ Hyperlexia is often reported as one of the savant abilities in ○ autism Augmentative and Alternative Communication Devices: Low-Tech Devices: Examples: Picture boards, communication books, PECS (Picture Exchange Communication System) Pros: ○ Inexpensive ○ Easy to use ○ No batteries or electricity required ○ Can be customized to individual needs Cons: ○ Limited vocabulary options ○ Less efficient for complex communication ○ Can be bulky and difficult to carry around ○ Reliant on physical handling, which may be challenging for some users High-Tech Devices: Examples: Speech-generating devices, tablets with communication apps, eye-tracking devices Pros: ○ Extensive vocabulary and customization options ○ Can accommodate complex communication needs ○ Often include voice output, making communication more natural ○ Can be portable and adaptable Cons: ○ Expensive ○ Require charging and maintenance ○ May have a learning curve for users ○ Potential technical issues or malfunctions Functions of Prosody 1. Grammatical: Marks syntactic information. Helps the listener parse speech. Example: Stress on different words in “This book I really like” can change the meaning. 2. Pragmatic: Conveys social information beyond the sentence. Indicates the speaker’s intentions. Example: Saying “My name is Gregory Ward?” when showing up for an appointment. 3. Affective: Changes in register to convey general feelings and emotions. Often combined with facial expressions. Example: “That can’t be true!” with an appropriate tone and facial expression. Prosody deficits Difficulty with stress, pitch, intonation, loudness, pauses, and pace. Challenges in using prosody to mark syntactic information. Struggle to convey social information and speaker’s intentions through prosody. Difficulty expressing emotions and feelings with appropriate tone. May lead to monotone or unusual speech patterns. Can affect comprehension and production of language in social interactions. Gricean Maxims 1. Maxim of Quantity: Provide the right amount of information. Not too much, not too little. 2. Maxim of Quality: Be truthful. Do not provide information that is false or unsupported by evidence. 3. Maxim of Relation: Be relevant. Ensure that the information you provide is pertinent to the conversation. 4. Maxim of Manner: Be clear and orderly. Avoid ambiguity and obscurity. Literal and Nonliteral Language/Standard Pragmatic View: evidence for and against Rejecting the Standard Pragmatic View: Numerous experiments and studies show non-literal meanings are computed as fast as literal meanings. "Open the Window" Experiment: Participants read: "I would like you to open the window" or "Can you open the window?" Standard Pragmatic View: Literal meanings are computed before non-literal, so judgment times should be shorter for the first statement. Results: Judgment times were the same, indicating literal and non-literal expressions were computed at the same speed. "Indecision is a whirlpool" Experiment: Participants respond to target words related to the novel metaphoric expression "Indecision is a whirlpool." Standard Pragmatic View: Target words like "water" (related to the literal meaning of a whirlpool) should be responded to faster than non-literal target words like "confusion" (related to the deeper meaning of the statement). Results: Subjects responded to non-literal target words like "confusion" at the same speed as literal target words like "water." Good Metaphorical Meaning: When the metaphorical meaning of a statement is strong and easy to understand, it's difficult for readers to deem it "untrue" in favor of the literal meaning. Example: "Keith is an adult who acts immaturely: Keith is a baby." ○ Participants had a hard time identifying the statement as technically false.  ○ People automatically computed the non-literal meaning, again rejecting the processing assumptions of the Standard Pragmatic View. Standard Pragmatic View's Assumptions: Non-literal meanings are only computed after literal meanings. Non-literal meanings are optional, considered only when the literal meaning is not available. These assumptions are not supported by the evidence. The Recognition Problem Lexical semantics vs Propositional (compositional) semantics Standards of Comparison: Mental Age (MA): Level of function on cognitive/intellectual tasks. ○ Assumption: Nonverbal cognition is approximately equal to language performance. ○ If performance is lower than MA, this indicates a language impairment. ○ Language impairment is defined as the gap between MA and Language Age (LA). Issues with MA: Some children have more developed language skills than cognitive skills (e.g., children with Williams Syndrome, Turner Syndrome). If a child has an intellectual disability (ID) with no gap between MA and LA, the language deficit might not be recognized, leading to a lack of services. Questions arise on how to define intelligence and whether there are different types of intelligence. Possible advantage: If a child has above-average cognitive skills (high MA) but a lower LA, their language impairment might be identified. Comparing Chronological Age (CA) with LA: Language impairment can be identified as a significant difference from what is expected for children of the same CA. Issues with CA vs. LA comparison: A child with advanced MA (gifted) but language skills at the level of their CA might not be identified with a language impairment. Identifying more children with language impairments based on CA-LA comparisons could lead to a drastic increase in cases, misallocating resources. Delays in language development have different implications depending on the child's age (e.g., a one-year delay at age 10 vs. a one-year delay at age 3). Slow Expressive Language Development (SELD): At age 3, about 20-75% of 2-year-olds with SELD progress to the typical range for expressive language. At age 5, they may test in the typical range but are often at the lower end of typical. Their performance at age 5 is significantly lower than their peers who did not have SELD. SLI Disorder Specific Language Impairment (SLI) Disorder: Significant language ability limitation. No other evident cognitive, neurological, or auditory impairment.  A type of dysphasia: impairment in the production of speech resulting from brain disease or damage. ○ Disordered language in expressive and/or receptive language. Expressive Language: ○ Includes writing, speech, and sign. Receptive Language: ○ Includes comprehension of written, spoken, or signed language. SLI Delay SLI Delay (Developmentally Dysphasic): Marked and persistent difficulty using and understanding closed class bound morphemes. In particular, difficulty with morphosyntactic bound morphemes. Language slow to emerge – Late talker (though not all late talkers have SLI & not all SLI are late talkers). Order of acquisition corresponds to a typical child – no sequential disruption, but on a different timetable. Sense that the child will 'catch up.' Morphosyntax/morphosyntactic operations Learning Models Associative and Concatenative Processes in Affix attachment Associative Processes: Definition: Creating new words by linking a base word with an affix based on meaning or function. Examples: ○ Using derivational morphemes to form new words (e.g., "happy" + "ness" = "happiness"). ○ Associating affixes with words to change word class or meaning (e.g., "act" + "ion" = "action"). Concatenative Processes: Definition: Sequentially adding affixes to a base word to build new forms. Examples: ○ Adding inflectional morphemes to indicate tense, number, or case (e.g., "run" + "s" = "runs"). ○ Using prefixes or suffixes to create complex word forms (e.g., "un" + "do" = "undo"). Challenges in Speech and Language Disorders: Associative Processes: ○ Difficulty linking meaning and affixes correctly. ○ Struggles with word formation and derivation. Concatenative Processes: ○ Errors in sequencing affixes. ○ Issues with inflectional consistency (e.g., tense or plural forms). SLI delay or disorder SLI Developmental: Denotes deviation from typical language development. Typical L1 (first language) does not emerge. Typical sequence of acquisition is disrupted. Minimal development of complex sentences with many clauses.  ○ Example: "I think that you know that he believes the money is his." No development (use and/or comprehension) of closed class items. Particularly difficult with morphosyntactic bound morphemes. Adult SLI appears to be congenital. Williams Syndrome/Turners Syndrome Turner’s Syndrome: Results from damage to or absence of one X chromosome in females. Physical Features: Short stature, heart defects, drooping eyelids. Intellectual Disability (ID): Generalized neurodevelopmental disorder with significantly impaired intellectual and adaptive functioning. Language Ability: Generally intact despite other impairments. Hyperlexia Studies: ○ Variability among individuals with Turner’s Syndrome (TS) in reading skills. ○ Strength in lexical reading systems, assessed by reading irregular words. ○ Alphabetical or phonological reading skills, assessed by reading long unfamiliar regular words. ○ Indicates that hyperlexia need not co-occur with comprehension difficulties. ○ Represents a hyper-development of a specific reading skill in TS. Williams Syndrome: Results from the spontaneous deletion of 26-28 genes on chromosome #7. Physical Features: Distinctive ‘elf-like’ facial appearance, heart defects, other organ abnormalities. Intellectual Disability (ID): Mild to moderate, requiring special education placement as children. Academic Skills: Typically acquire only rudimentary skills in reading, writing, and math. Spatial Understanding: Severe deficits. Hyperlexia and Williams Syndrome: ○ Relative strengths in concrete vocabulary and phonological processing (language skills related to single-word reading). ○ Relative weaknesses in relational concepts, receptive grammar, verbal working memory, comprehension monitoring, and discourse. Auditory Processing Disorder/Language Processing Disorder APD vs. LPD: Auditory Processing Disorder (APD): Definition: Neurological disorder affecting the brain’s processing of sound information. Challenges: ○ Difficulty processing sounds, especially in noisy environments. ○ Presents in early childhood. ○ Normal hearing but difficulty processing sounds in the brain. Symptoms: ○ Difficulty following directions. ○ Inability to hear differences between similar sounds. ○ Delayed response times. ○ Sensitivity to noisy environments. Prevalence: ○ Common among older adults and neurotypical people (approx. 3%).  ○ Up to 75% of individuals with ASD suffer from some form of auditory processing deficits. Language Processing Disorder (LPD): Definition: Difficulty understanding spoken/written language, expressing verbally, and using appropriate grammar. Characteristics: ○ Also known as a “language-based learning disability.” ○ Difficulties in both expressive and receptive language. Challenges: ○ More challenging in noisy settings, requiring concentration on the speaker. ○ Processing sound in noisy environments becomes more difficult with age. Aphasia- Fluent/Nonfluent Fluent Aphasia (Wernicke's Aphasia): Characteristics: ○ Fluent speech with normal rate and prosody. ○ Sentences may lack meaning or include nonsensical words (jargon). ○ Difficulty understanding spoken and written language. ○ Often unaware of their communication difficulties. Communication: ○ Long, complex sentences without meaningful content. ○ Frequent use of filler words or invented words. Nonfluent Aphasia (Broca's Aphasia): Characteristics: ○ Slow, halting speech with effortful production. ○ Short, grammatically incomplete sentences. ○ Better comprehension compared to speech production. ○ Often aware of their communication difficulties. Communication: ○ Difficulty forming complete sentences. ○ Use of key content words (nouns, verbs) while omitting smaller words (e.g., "is," "the").