PSY 253 Notes: Language Acquisition

LANGUAGE LANGUAGE aribitrary system of communication that combines symbols such as words or gestural (sign language) signs, in rule based (doesnt mean we dont violate them frequently but they do exist) ways to create meaning allows for communication of information as well as social and em...

LANGUAGE LANGUAGE aribitrary system of communication that combines symbols such as words or gestural (sign language) signs, in rule based (doesnt mean we dont violate them frequently but they do exist) ways to create meaning allows for communication of information as well as social and emotional functions (aids in memory) human language = (properties) 1. generative - new phrases, new sentences, new meanings, new forms 2. recursvie - it can infinity be nested (“this book is long”, “the girl thinks the book is long”, “the girl thinks the book is long and boring”) 3. uses displacement - talk about something that isn’t right here and right now FEATURES OF LANGUAGE highly practiced and automatic process 4 LEVELS OF ANALYSIS THAT MUST COORDINATE 1. phonemes 2. morphemes 3. syntax 4. extralinguistic information PHONEMES smallest component of language - no language uses all of them 100 total but most use 50, english uses around 45 categories of sounds our vocal apparatus produces probably around 100 total, each language only uses a subset of them 40-45 in english, range from 15-60 worldwide at birth, can distinguish between all human phonemes - by 6 months, start to be pruned down to the ones we are exposed to adults are bad at distinguishing, infants are good MORPHEMES smallest units of meaning in a language convey information about semantics - meaning derived from words and setences can be full words (dog) or modifiers (re) SYNTAX set of rules of a language by which we construct sentences  includes word order, morphological markers, and setence structure real world language rarely follows this completely EXTRALINGUISTIC INFORMATION elements of communication that aren’t part of the content of language but are critical to inrepreting its meaning facial expressions, tone of voice, previous statements by others used to help interpret ambiguous information LANGUAGE DIALECTS variations of the same language used by groups of people from specific geographic areas, social groups, or ethnic backgrounds - MUTUALLY UNDERSTANDABLE (american english vs uk english) use consistent syntax rules, although they may differ from mainstream speech “where you at?” vs “what are you doing?” PHONEMIC RESTORATION top down processing (we are filling in the gaps based on expectations a lot) and context affect what we hear Warren played participants one of these 4 sentences (there was glitch in the tape and all you heard was end of the word ending in eel)(asked what the word was) when we know what the convo is about this is seamless - when we don’t this is hard 1. it was found that the *eel was on the axle 2. it was found that the *eel was on the shoe 3. it was found that the *eel was on the orange 4. it was found that the *eel was on the table COMMON GROUND & AUDIENCE DESIGN acouple things we do to coordinate that conversation COMMON GROUND - knowledge the speaker and listener share and think they share “when is the topic description due” - in class AUDIENCE DESIGN - we tailor our speech for the aduience we are speaking to WHERE + WHY? language requires a long learning period, hefty brain power, and other disadvantages advantages then must be particularly useful - communication of complex ideas - coordinates social interactions - assists in complex activities studying language evolution is complicated - finding out where words actually originated is very difficult phonemes, morphemes, and syntax are not usually related to what they refer to - exceptions of onomatopoeia and sound symbolism LEARNING LANGUAGE LEARNING LANGUAGE children begin to recognize their native language before they are born (in utero) babbling duirng first year allowed babies to develop control over vocal tracts also developing phoneme recognition during this time LEARNING WORDS comprehension precedes production (people are able to understand far more then they are able to produce) (not a good indication of language based on how many words a kid say) recognize words long before being able to say them only have a limited ability to coordiante sounds to produce words recognize their own name by 6 months ish, comprehend other words by 10-12 months begin to produce words around 1 year of age ish, with an exponential rate of increase tend to over- and underextend word meanings over regularizations - children around age 3 extend rules too far (eg “go” - “goed”)(they are learning that adding ed makes it past tense not knowing an irregular verb and how to congegate it) (taking cookie and applying it to anything sweet) (refer only to golden retrivers they grew up with as dog and if they see a golden doodle they dont believe it is a dog) SYNTATIC DEVELOPMENT refers to combing words into phrases start off speaking in the one word stage, move to combining 2 words by 2 years can comprehend basic syntax rules before they can display them SIGN LANGUAGE type of language used by deaf communities that relies on visual communication more then gestures, exhibits all features of spoken language same brain areas are involved developmental stages are the same in spoken and sign languages  Bilingualism The earlier the better Usually have one dominant language, but proficient in both Pass through same stages as monolinguists, although syntax is slowed dominant language (think in dream in) bilingual infants go through same stages as kids with 1 - feels like language development is slower cause they are learning twice the vocab VOCAB DEVELOPMENT SLOWER AT THE START but they catch up only impact is benefical - no downsides to being bilingual. Bilingualism Have heightened metalinguistic insight and tend to perform better on language tasks know more about the structure, better at understanding why the language is the way it is Same brain areas used if second language is learned early, but different areas used if learned later in development if you learn language later its different areas of the brain. problems when people don’t have language at a young age CRITICAL PERIOD : if you dont receive right input development won’t perceive normally went through INTENSIVE therapy (imprinting in ducks) Language Deprivation developed some language but not typical, struggles with syntax, putting things in order and clearly effortful knew a few words but not much Cases like Genie and homesigners show the influence of nature and nurture abused by parents locked in basement found at 13 Not a strict critical period for language development, but a sensitive period Younger you are the better you will learn a new language (less is more theory) they can with effort develop language later but will be very hard = SENSITIVE PERIOD. HOW DO WE LEARN LANGUAGES Theories of Language Acquisition FIRST LANGUAGE AS INFANT Imitation Nativist Social pragmatics General cognitive processing conclusion : we really dont know probably a combination and we also can’t really experiment because its unethical. repitition - reinforced and punished if we produce the right words we get cookie (we get reward) when we produce right string of words we get the right thing Imitation Suggests babies hear language used in systematic ways and learn to use language as adults use it – behaviourist view Doesn’t account for generative nature of language adults dont correct kids speech nearly as much as they would need to learn to speak correctly kids learn to speak correctly even though adults think its funny when they say things wrong (encourage because its funny. Nativist Suggests that children are born with some basic knowledge about how language works preloaded version of software Chomsky’s language acquisition device come pre set to learn things Many claims of this are difficult to falsify no real way to prove its not true still doesn’t say how its just saying we do (no explanation). Social Pragmatics Suggests that specific aspects of the social environment structure language learning we learn by interacting and the structure of their language and how they use it Requires assuming that infants have insight into others’ thoughts. just coming from general cognitive skills General Cognitive Processing Says that ability to learn language results from general skills children apply across a variety of activities But, children learn language better than adults, even though adults are overall better at learning things Specific brain areas are recruited during language but children are better at learning lanugage but we are better at decison making, problem solving, etc. if this was true people at 30 would be better at learning language ignores we have brain regions devoted with language.  damage : difficulty to the content of language interpreting understanding others Breakdown in content of language damage : break to the structure of language right words wrong order congigating words meaningful speech Breakdown in structure of language located in frontal lobe (executive function + inhibition = do and say things socially unacceptable), resulting in people being more aggressive their thoughts make sense to them and often dont understand theres damage to the frontal lobe so you think youre making sense but no one else understands.  Nonhuman Animal Communication most of it is not considered language, not generative, doesn’t use displacement Animal species differ in the complexity and type of communication Scent, visual, vocal Most communication is geared towards mating and aggression Honeybees and vervet monkeys complex system of communication some animals (birds) can mimick speech of humans but doesnt mean they understand. Teaching Human Language Many attempts to teach non-humans our language, with mixed results very capable of mimickery - learning specific symbols, words, etc. Chimpanzees its the more complex stuff Bonobos African grey parrot Humans appear unique in our ability to use language in sophisticated ways people are trying to test. Language and Thought Learning Objectives Define linguistic determinism Define linguistic relativism Compare and contrast linguistic determinism and linguistic relativism Describe the effects of linguistic labelling Describe the requirements for learning to read people used to think all thinking was linguistic because we are talking to ourself a lot (internal dialogue), not many people lack this Linguistic Determinism The view that we represent all thinking linguistically Can thought exist without language? Studies paralyzing vocal cords and using neuroimaging support that it can can we think without language? initially people didnt think so but then studied looked at this and paralyzed peoples vocal chords temporarily. looked at if people think think differently depending on language. now people are on linguistic relativity, we are capable in thinking in ways we don’t have language for. but language shapes a lot of things in english with numbers, a couple =2, a few 4 or 5, etc. many languages is just 1,2, many. Linguistic Relativity A less radical view, where characteristics of language shape our thought processes Studies suggest language shapes some aspects of perception, memory, and thought Difficulty in separating language from cultural differences.  Linguistic Labelling When we linguistically label experiences, images, etc. there is less activation of the amygdala This can be used in a therapeutic setting Way we talk about things effect us If we show people pictures that are identifiably frightening about them, being able to identify that has less of an impact (feel less fear). This is effective in a therapeutic setting. If people talk about something traumatic seems to reduce that feeling of emotion. REDUCES ACTIVATION OF AMYGDALA HOWEVER, judging whether its rational or irrational doesn’t really help (“no reason to be afraid thats irrational” = however that differs from person to person We have more difficulty turning it off (not reading) Reading Like language, reading becomes an Read the colour that something is printed in rather then reading the automatic process word We often can’t turn it off, even if we want to In congruent vs congruent Say aloud the colour of the ink in these examples We can use to test interference. Hard to task, for anyone children or learning new language Learning to Read We must learn four things prior to reading Writing is meaningful Writing moves in a specific direction For English its left to right Recognizing letters of the alphabet Upper case and lower case, recognizing letters, handwriting, ambiguity, printed letters go with certain sounds Printed letters correspond to specific sounds. It’s one thing to be able to figure this out, but we can’t do that for every word as an adult Learning to Read Once those are learned, we must master two more skills to become experts How words look on the page - whole word recognition Sight words How to sound out unfamiliar words - phonetic decomposition Soundwords out unfamiliar Child and adults need this Debate on which to focus on whole word recognition or phonetic decomposition - turns out we need both. LANGUAGE AND AGING Learning Objectives Describe factors which contribute to language changes and stability with age Explain what elderspeak is, give an example, and describe the communication predicament model Describe the effect of bilingualism on cognition in older adults Language and Older Adults Declines Can’t slow comprehension of Maintained or increases Reading rate language regardless of congitive ability, mumbling, ability etc. Hearing and speech ability Semantic memory Speed of processing holding a quick convo, “gist” memory Might have difficulty of answering questions quickly Retrieval Remembering what they wanted to tell you Gestures, body language, Working memory etc. Experience Intergenerational communication Differing topics of interest Differing references Speaking style More off-topic Rambling Increased reminiscing More likely to talk about the past, tell stories when they were  Elderspeak Older adult version of baby talk When people talk to elders like they are incapable Speech patterns targeted at older adults Simplifying speech Condescending or patronizing tone “older adults are Upsetting less capable” May have difficulty with speech but they are not infants because this belief people modify their language and this can become a bit of a cycle Because they are only getting addressed in this language it can reduce their language capacity We do want to make sure we are meeting people at the level they are at They might struggle to deal with multi step direction but Reduction in Modification of you don’t want to talk in baby speech language capacity speaking style  Adults bilingual from early age we see less cognitive decline lower rates of memory loss Bilingualism Beneficial across life span Builds executive function Prevents cognitive decline Speed Reading University The average student reads 200-300 WPM The faster you read above 400 WPM, the more your level of comprehension drops Pretty quickly No point in reading something twice because you were trying to too fast and didn’t comprehend any of it Speed reading courses “work” by making you go faster, but you don’t understand as much. Reasoning, Judgment, & Decision Making Learning Objectives Distinguish between reasoning, judgment, and decision making Explain what studying errors tells us about the normal functioning of our reasoning, judgment, and decision making abilities Differentiate between the normative and descriptive approach List steps involved in making a rational decision Define bounded rationality Differentiate between System I and System II thinking  Both reason and judgement you are given the information needed when in decision making you might not have all the information Fundamental Concepts Reasoning Evaluation of a conclusion based on given information “Is it reasonable to conclude that X is true?” Judgment Arriving at a conclusion using given information “Given that X is true and Y is true, then Z must be true” Decision Making Situations that are risky or uncertain, may have incomplete information Making a choice between options “Given the information I know, and the possible consequences, I should go with Z”  Why we study stuff like optical allusions, consciousness = its Sometimes the errors people make are informative (tell us something) useful to know when things are going wrong tells us more then when things are going right It’s helpful for us to look at patterns when people get something wrong Research Focused on Errors Writes good books for non tech audience, dumbs down but to extent where its still valid A lot of his work focused on errors Informativeness (Kahneman) – errors give us information about how our reasoning, judgment, and decision-making processes work When decisions are correct, it can be difficult to understand why When failures occur, we learn something about how the system works Research Focused on Errors Normative approach Objectively this decision is the right one to make this is what people should be doing Describes how we should think in a given situation Descriptive approach What kind of errors they make, information they are swayed by Describes how we actually think in a given situation  MAKING DECISION ON WHAT UNI TO GO TO 1. What university should i go to 2. What location, prestige, cost, program available, can i get in, reputation, do they offer further financial assistance 3. Weighting location (or other) on how important it is to you (further is better, close is Rational Decision Making STEPS better) 1. Define the problem WHAT EXACTLY IS THE PROBLEM 2. Identify the criteria necessary to judge the multiple options 3. Weight the criteria (rank them in terms of importance to you 4. Generate alternatives / OPTIONS 5. Rate each alternative on each criterion 6. Compute the optimal decision These errors are not stupid errors Bounded Rationality There are limits to our rationality Time Can’t go through process for every decision you make in a day Energy Prior knowledge Turns out I thought something was most important criteria and turns out to be not the case Consequences Etc. Failures in reasoning, judgment, and decision-making are not “stupid” errors System 1 vs. System 2 Processes System 1 – Heuristic System 2 – Analytical Fast Unconscious Conscious Automatic Controlled Rapid Slow Nonverbal Linked to language Capacity-Free Capacity-Limited Shared with Animals Animals Don’t Have Evolutionarily Old Evolutionarily New Emotional Logical Instinctive Deliberative Reasoning Learning Objectives Differentiate between inductive and deductive reasoning Describe syllogistic reasoning Distinguish between validity & truth in syllogistic reasoning Describe conditional reasoning Describe the effects of affirming and denying the antecedent and consequent in conditional reasoning Explain the effects of bidirectional conditionality, confirmatory bias, myside bias, and belief bias on conditional reasoning Describe errors in deductive and inductive reasoning Types of Reasoning Syllogistic Deductive Reasoning Conditional Inductive Deductive vs. Inductive Reasoning Deductive reasoning – working from general premises to a specific conclusion The buses have a schedule Things that are scheduled run on time Therefore, my bus will be on time Inductive reasoning – working from specific pieces of data or information and working towards a conclusion Every time I have caught the bus in the last two weeks, it has been a few minutes late Therefore, my bus will probably be late today  problems - us humans struggle with validity and truth when structure is valid we read truth Types of Reasoning – Syllogistic Syllogistic reasoning 2 premises and a conclusion If this is true and this is true then this must be true Universal or particular qualifier All, always, must sum, many, often Validity vs. truth Atmospheric effect THIS STRUCTURE IS LOGICALLY VALID (A = TRUE B= TRUE THEN C = TRUE) All students are bright. All bright people complete assigned work on time. Therefore, all students complete assigned work on time Types of Reasoning - Conditional Evaluating if a conclusion is valid If someone likes flowers, then they’re a sensitive person. Ann likes flowers. Therefore, Ann is a sensitive person. If someone likes flowers, then they’re a sensitive person. Ann is a sensitive person. Therefore, Ann likes flowers. Conditional Reasoning – Antecedents & Consequents Condition Statement - If someone likes flowers, then they’re a sensitive person. Antecedent – If someone likes flowers Consequent – then they’re a sensitive person Affirm Deny Antecedent Ann likes flowers. Therefore, Ann does not like flowers. Ann is a sensitive person. Therefore, Ann is not a sensitive person. VALID Consequent Ann is a sensitive person. Ann is not a sensitive person. Therefore, Ann likes flowers. Therefore, Ann does not like NOT VALID flowers. Deductive Reasoning Errors Tendency to interpret condition statement as biconditional – If X, then Y is not the same as if y, then X Watson Selection Task Deductive Reasoning Errors Confirmatory bias – we tend to seek out information that is consistent with our hypotheses Myside bias – we tend to be overly swayed by information that is on “our” side of an argument and discount evidence on the other side Belief bias – knowing the truth can interfere with our ability to assess the validity of an argument All flowers have petals. LOGICAL WOULD BE Daisies have petals. Daisies have petals All have flowers have petals Therefore, all daisies are flowers. Therefore all daisies are flowers Inductive Reasoning Errors Unlike deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning conclusions are less firm Conclusions can be inaccurate Assuming professors won’t give extensions Constraints are needed to prevent unreasonable conclusions Noticing that professors with last names starting with D, F, and J give extensions but professors with A and E don’t Confirmation bias Judgment Learning Objectives Describe how the availability heuristic, illusory correlations, the representativeness heuristic, misperceptions of event clusters, the gambler’s fallacy, anchoring & adjustment, and miscalibration of confidence affect our judgment  Availability Heuristic We estimate the probability of things that come to mind easier as being more frequent than the probability of things that are more difficult to bring to mind Examples: the frequency of names that start with J vs. the frequency of names that end with E, are there more deaths per year attributed to strokes or motor vehicle accidents? It’s by far strokes it just doesn’t hit the news often Things that come to mind faster / easier are judged as more frequent Illusory Correlations Seeing relationships where none exist “Madden Jinx” Appearing on the cover of the video game is thought by some to be related to some event after – serious injury, performance slump, personal problems, etc. Appear on Cover Do not Appear on Cover Incident Distinctive Non-event coincidence No Incident Non-event Non-event Representativeness Heuristic We judge things based on their similarity to a prototype We overestimate the importance of similarity We ignore relevant information like base rates From Tversky & Kahneman (1973): A panel of psychologists have interviewed and administered personality tests to 30 engineers and 70 lawyers, all successful in their fields. Based on this information, thumbnail descriptions for each of these individuals have been written. For each description, please indicate the probability that the person described is an engineer, from 1 to 100. Jack is a 45-year-old man. He is married and has 4 children. He is generally conservative, careful, and ambitious. He shows no interest in political and social issues and spends most of his time on his many hobbies, which include home carpentry, sailing, and mathematical puzzles. Misperceptions of Event Clusters Which of these two sequences is more likely? HTHTTHTHHTHT HHHHHHTTTTTT Both equally improbable - (1/2)12. “Hot Hand” 3 consecutive events of the same type Gambler’s Fallacy Belief that in a run of bad luck, you’re “due” for a change Anchoring & Adjustment When we need to make a judgment about a quantity/price/numbers, we tend to start from some reference point (anchor) and adjust it Can fail to make adequate adjustments Miscalibration of Confidence Metacognitive failure More common in System 1 than System 2 thinking If it takes 5 machines 5 minutes to make 5 widgets, how long would it take machines 100 to make 100 widgets? Decision Making Learning Objectives Describe how we make decisions according to expected utility theory Identify the limitations of expected utility theory Describe how we make decisions according to prospect theory Describe the effects of framing and sunk costs on decision making Describe how what are commonly seen as limitations and biases in decision making can be adaptive Expected Utility Theory When choosing between options, we use two pieces of information: Expected utility of the outcomes Their respective probability Flip a coin; if it turns up heads, you get $40. Roll the dice; if it comes up 4, you get $50. Violations of Expected Utility Preference reversals Lichtenstein & Slovic 80% chance to win $4.00, 20% chance to lose $.50 95% chance to win $3.00, 5% chance to lose $2.00 99% chance to win $4.00, 1% chance to lose $1.00 10% chance to win $40.00, 90% chance to lose $1.00 50% chance to win $6.50, 50% chance to lose $1.00 33% chance to win $16.00, 67% chance to lose $2.00 Lack of total information Prospect Theory Kahneman & Tversky Value decisions based on gain vs. loss from our current position Gains and losses are valued differently  Framing Decisions are affected by how scenarios are presented Tversky & Kahneman 1981: Imagine that the United States is preparing for the outbreak of an unusual Asian disease, which is expected to kill 600 people. Two alternative programs for combating the disease have been proposed. Assume that the exact scientific estimate of the consequences of the program is as follows: If program A is adopted, 200 people will be saved. If program B is adopted, there is a 1/3 probability that 600 people will be saved, and a 2/3 probability that no one will be saved. If program C is adopted, 400 people will die. If program D is adopted, there is a 1/3 probability that nobody will die, and a 2/3 probability that 600 people will die.  Type of Frame Gain Frame Loss Frame Choice Made Risky.28.78 Nonrisky.72.22 Sunk Costs We tend to follow through if we’ve already dedicated significant time/energy/resources into something, even if costs don’t outweigh benefits Going to an event even though you don’t feel like it anymore, because you bought a ticket Staying with a partner you don’t really enjoy spending time with Decision Making is Adaptive All of these heuristics, biases, fallacies, etc. make it look like decision making is biased and terrible They help us make decisions that are “good enough” most of the time, in a way that reduces resources used Combination of resources and environmental demands  Psyc 253 Week 10 – Childhood and Adolescent Development Childhood Cognitive Development 2 Learning Objectives Define and give examples of critical periods vs. sensitive periods Describe the difference between quantitative and qualitative changes in cognition Define and give examples of schemas, assimilation, and accommodation Describe each of Piaget’s stages Critique Piaget’s theory of development Define zone of proximal development Describe cognitive development from an information processing approach Define theory of mind and describe how it is assessed Describe the cognitive and brain changes that happen during adolescence 3 Cognitive Development Development of thinking across the lifespan Problem solving Reasoning Conceptualizing and categorizing Remembering Planning Object perception Language Critical Periods vs. Sensitive Periods Critical period – period of time in which you must receive certain inputs in order for development to proceed normally Imprinting in ducks Maybe language acquisition Sensitive period – a period in which we can most rapidly acquire a skill or characteristic 1st year – development of secure attachment bond Stages or Continuum? Quantitative changes – gradual change in the amount of something Qualitative changes – stepwise changes in how we think/process information Piaget We don't just get better or faster at thinking as we age - the way in which we think changes Schemas - an internal framework that guides our thoughts and actions Assimilation - new experiences are added to existing schemas Accommodation - schemas are changed by new experiences This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC  Piaget’s Stages Sensorimotor (birth to age 2) Understands and explores world through sensory and motor experiences Object permanence develops - the understanding that objects continue to exist when out of sight Symbolic thought emerges Preoperational (age 2-7) Symbolic thinking established Words and images to represent objects Pretend play This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA Egocentrism - Difficulty understanding the world through another person's perspective Does not understand conservation - principle that basic characteristics of objects stay the same even when outward form changes Centration - Child only focuses on one aspect of a situation (e.g., water level) and ignores other aspects Piaget’s Stages, Continued Concrete Operational (age 7-12) Logical thinking about concrete events. Have difficulty with hypotheticals or abstract reasoning Conservation - Understand that basic characteristics of objects stay the same even when outward form changes Serial Ordering - Able to easily arrange objects along a continuum (e.g., smallest to biggest) Formal Operational (age 12+) Logical, abstract, and flexible thinking Forms hypotheses & tests systematically Criticisms of Piaget's Stages Children generally reach these milestones before Piaget thought they did Development does not proceed in clear stages and is more complex than Piaget thought Children may be at the preoperational stage in some ways, and concrete operational in others Culture influences cognitive development Vygotsky’s Social Context Theory There is often a gap between what children can do independently and what they can do with guidance from others Zone of proximal development - difference between what a child can do independently and what they can do with guidance of adults or more advanced peers Information Processing Approaches Cognitive development is a continuous, gradual process (rather than stages) Information search strategies - Older children are more systematic and methodical in visual search tasks Processing speed - Older children process information faster, with rapid increases from 8-12 years old Attention span & inhibition - Older children have longer attention spans and are better at inhibiting irrelevant or distracting information and incorrect responses Working memory - Older children can store more information in working memory than younger children, and are better with visuospatial information than younger children Long-term memory - Older children are more likely to use strategies to remember things Theory of Mind Theory of mind is the ability to understand and infer other people's mental states By 4 years old, most children can infer mental states, though it is effortful Lying and deception require theory of mind - you must be aware that the other person doesn't know what you know Adolescent Development Adolescent egocentrism - self-absorbed, unrealistic view of your own uniqueness and importance. Associated with risky behaviours Personal fable - overestimation of the uniqueness of feelings, thoughts, and experience Imaginary audience - heightened sensitivity to social judgment and evaluation, feeling that you're always being watched Adolescent Development Abstract reasoning abilities increase throughout adolescence Information processing speed increases throughout adolescence By middle adolescence, information processing speed and working memory are near adult capacity. By late adolescence, ability to suppress task-irrelevant responses near adult levels. Adolescent Brain Development Myelination of neurons in the prefrontal cortex continues throughout adolescence Synaptic pruning in prefrontal cortex throughout adolescence Prefrontal cortex does not finish developing until mid-20s Impulse control Executive functions Decision making Working memory Development of Memory in Children 18 Learning Objectives Describe the four principles of memory development Identify the regions thought to be involved in the development of declarative memory Describe the changes in declarative, verbatim, gist, and implicit memory throughout childhood 19 Principles of Memory Development Older infants encode information faster than younger ones 6 month old infants need about twice as much exposure to to-be-imitated actions as 12-18 month olds Older infants remember information for longer retention intervals than younger ones 18 month olds show retention in conjugate reinforcement tasks for 12 weeks, 6 month olds for 2 Older infants use more varied retrieval cues than younger infants Memory is used in a more flexible way Forgotten memories can reappear when a reminder is given 20 Cognitive Neuroscience Declarative memory develops rapidly over the first 2 years Some due to increasing cognitive abilities Language, attention, knowledge Some due to brain changes Implicit memory Striatum, cerebellum, brainstem Mature early in life Declarative memory Hippocampus, parahippocampal cortex formed before birth Dentate gyrus and pre-frontal cortex continue to develop 21 Developmental Changes Declarative memory Basic Capacity Progressive improvement year-by-year in working memory components Content Knowledge Memory is generally better when learner can relate new information to stored knowledge Memory Strategies As we get older, we use more effective strategies Metamemory Knowledge about your own memory and how it works Improves as we develop Preschoolers overestimate memory span by 5 items, 9 year olds by 1 item 22 Developmental Changes Verbatim and Gist Memory Both improve throughout childhood Older children are more prone to errors in the DRM paradigm due to using gist processing 23 Developmental Changes Implicit Memory Generally, no significant differences across childhood into adulthood Implicit memory requires more basic-level processes Working memory capacity, content knowledge, memory strategies, metamemory less important in implicit memory 24 Infantile Amnesia and the Reminiscence bump 25 Learning Objectives Define infantile amnesia and the case study of Emily. What does her case tell us about infantile amnesia? Describe the Simcock & Hayne study and what it tells us about autobiographical memory Describe the 3 accounts for infantile amnesia discussed Describe cross-cultural diferences in infantile amnesia and autobiographical memory Describe the reminiscence bump Describe Willander & Larson's study and what it tells us about the reminiscence bump 26 Your Earliest Memory… Describe your earliest memory, in as much detail as possible 27 Infantile Amnesia Tendency for people to have few autobiographical memories from below the age of five 28 Emily Case study 21-36 months old Many memories were from the day before, but some were 6 months old Evidence that (at least some) 2 year olds can remember specific events 29 Simcock and Hayne 30  Mobile Conjugate Reinforcement Paradigm Step 1 – Baseline – mobile Step 2 – Learning – attached to mobile Step 3 – Test – not attached to mobile 31 Mobile Conjugate Reinforcement Paradigm 1.4 1.2 1 Retention 0.8 Baseline 0.6 2 months old 3 months old 0.4 0.2 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Retention Interval (Days) 32 Mobile Conjugate Reinforcement Paradigm Reminders Memory returning to original level after 2 week delay, significant amount after 1 month 33 Training Testing Result 34 Deferred Imitation http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NbXHyIlsG0M Step 1 – Show baby novel action Step 2 – After delay, place object in front of baby and record response 35 Deferred Imitation Condition Experimenter Demo Imitation 24 Hour Delay Control Test Baseline 36 Deferred Imitation 80 Target Behaviour (Percentage) 70 60 50 40 14 months old 30 24 months old 20 10 0 Imitation Control Condition 37 Accounting for Infantile Amnesia Freud Repression Why can we not remember positive and neutral events from early childhood? 38 Accounting for Infantile Amnesia Cognitive Self We can only form autobiographical memories after we have developed a sense of self Events then have personal significance Develops around the end of the second year 39 Accounting for Infantile Amnesia Social Cultural Theory Language and culture play key roles in developing autobiographical memory Language is used to express memories Interactions with adults Elaborative reminiscing style 40 41 Reminiscence Bump Tendency in participants over 40 to show a high rate of recollecting personal experiences from their late teens and early 20s 42 Accounting for the Reminiscence Bump Why might we remember more events from our late teens and early 20s? Life narrative 43 Exception to the Reminiscence Bump Cued by smell Willander & Larson 65-80 year olds Word, smell, or picture Peak for memories evoked by smell at 6-10 years old 44  Psyc 253 Week 11 – Aging and Older Adulthood Normal, Healthy Aging - Attention 2 Learning Objectives Describe conditions under which older adults show a deficit in selective attention Describe conditions under which older adults show similar performance as younger adults and conditions under which older adults show a deficit Describe the effects of multitasking and prior experience on performance in older adults 3 Left Visual Field Declines Younger adults show leftward bias Older adults show a decline in left visual field performance Fall risk 4 Top Down vs. Bottom Up Attention Bottom-up processing appears to decline Top-down processing appears to be maintained 5 Challenges General slowing of processing vs. attention 6 Divided Attention and Aging Similar performance on some tasks Detecting multiple targets in a display Comparing targets General decline When using multiple types of targets (e.g., numbers and letters) Increasing number of tracked items Longer task duration Attending to multiple auditory inputs Multimodal tasks 7 Multitasking Very attentionally demanding Some declines, dependent on the combination of tasks 8 Walking and Talking Decline in posture and gait when performing cognitive tasks Slower to cross street when talking on phone 9 Previous Experience When task is related to prior experience (e.g., occupation), multi- tasking losses aren’t observed 10 Attention as a Limited Resource Talking Driving Attention Planning 11 Attention as a Limited Resource Planning Talking Attention Driving 12 Attention as a Limited Resource Driving Attention Talking Planning 13 Attention as a Limited Resource Older adults show greatest deficit when: Load is high Distractors are more similar Planning Talking Tasks are speeded Attention Driving 14 Normal, Healthy Aging - Memory 15 Learning Objectives Describe the effect of aging on STM, WM, episodic memory, semantic memory, and implicit memory Describe the factors that determine the decline in episodic memory Describe the effectiveness of training programs for memory, according to Ball et al. 16 Short Term Memory Verbal and visual memory span decline with age Not dramatic Digit span mean 6.6 for younger adults, 5.8 for older adults Corsi block span 5.1 for younger adults, 4.7 for older adults 17 Working Memory Tends to decline slowly with age Could reflect an inability to shut out competing information 18 Episodic Memory Remembering a new name – first name Remembering a new name – last name Performance on episodic Remembering a belonging memory tasks declines with age Remembering an appointment Rivermead Behavioural Memory Picture recognition Test Newspaper story – immediate and delayed recall Face recognition Remembering a new route – immediate recall Remembering a new route – delayed recall Orientation Date 19 Determinants of Decline in Episodic Memory Decline in episodic memory capacity/quality Processing capacity Processing tends to be slower in older adults Environmental support during retrieval Free recall most affected 20 Remembering vs. Knowing Remembering – recollects original learning incident and its context Knowing – feeling of familiarity Older adults are better at recognizing an item than remembering context 21 Semantic Memory Semantic memory is maintained as we age At least as measured by vocabulary Use of language can be constrained in older adults Tend to use less ambiguous sentence construction 22 Implicit Memory Effect of aging is mixed Moderate decline on priming tasks that require producing a response Minor or no decline in identification tasks Motor learning Unclear whether rate of learning is affected 23 Improving Memory 24 Improving Memory Ball et al. Memory training Verbal reasoning training Speed training (visual search and divided attention) Control Three experimental groups improved No evidence that the gains can be transferred to other tasks 25 Alzheimer’s, Dementia, and Mild Cognitive Impairment 26 Learning Objectives Define mild cognitive impairment Identify the prevalence of MCI Describe the developmental trajectory of MCI Identify and describe the two subtypes of MCI Define dementia Describe the early and late clinical symptoms of Alzheimer's Disease Describe the brain changes associated with Alzheimer's Disease Describe vascular dementia and how it differs from Alzheimer's Disease Describe the types of frontotemporal dementia Differentiate between Alzheimer's Disease and frontotemporal dementia 27 Mild Cognitive Impairment Cognitive changes that are noticeable, but don’t interfere with life/independence “the worried well” 10-20% of those >65 Some progress to dementias 1-2% w/o 6-15% with Approximately 7x more likely Diagnosis needs to rule out other possible causes, e.g., medical conditions, medications 28 Subtypes Amnestic MCI Primarily affects memory Nonamnestic MCI Thinking skills, ability to make decisions, judgements, etc. 29 Signs to Watch For Memory Forgetting things more often Forgetting important events Repeating the same question or story over and over again. Attention Losing your train of thought or the thread of conversations, books or movies Lack of focus during conversations and activities http://www.gerontology.vt.edu/docs/Gerontology_MCI_final.pdf 30 http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/mild-cognitive-impairment/basics/symptoms/con-20026392 Signs to Watch For Executive Function Increasingly overwhelmed by making decisions, planning steps to accomplish a task or interpreting instructions Trouble finding your way around familiar environments Become more impulsive or show increasingly poor judgment Lack of initiative in beginning or completing activities Trouble managing number-related tasks such as bill paying Inability to follow multi-step directions 31 Often Found with MCI Depression Irritability/Aggression Anxiety Apathy 32 Dementia General term Loss of memory and other mental abilities Interferes with daily life ~7.1% of people over 65 Doubles every 5 years ~1% of 65-69 year olds ~25% of 85+ year olds 33 ‘suddenly’ = vascular not all dementia involves memory Dementia can also be sudden change in personality or behaviour = taking risks they wouldnt have, cursing out of the blue Cortical Vascular Subcortical Alzheimer’s Frontotemporal Parkinson’s Huntington’s Disease FTD bvFTD PPA movement disorders Alzheimer’s Disease 60-80% of case of dementia Progressive Early clinical symptoms Difficulty remembering names and recent events Apathy and depression Later symptoms Impaired judgment Disorientation, confusion, behaviour changes Difficulty speaking, walking, and swallowing 35 Brain Changes in Alzheimer’s Disease 36 Plaques and Tangles Tangles Proteins which are necessary for axon growth aren’t properly regulated Form tangles within neurons Leads to cell death Plaques Clusters of protein fragments Build up between cells 37 Vascular Dementia Second most common cause of dementia (20-30%) Caused by brain injuries, often following stroke Symptoms can vary based on where brain injuries occur Brain changes Imaging detects blood vessel problems 38 Vascular Dementia Symptoms Post-Stroke Confusion Disorientation Trouble speaking or understanding speech Vision loss 39 Vascular Dementia Symptoms Impaired judgment Decline in sustained attention Inability to plan steps to complete tasks, make decisions, develop plans Restlessness/agitation, unsteady walking Memory loss may or may not be present, often develops later 40 Risk Factors for Vascular Dementia Age History of heart disease Diabetes Smoking Weight 41 Distinguishing between VD and AD Progression - VD can have sudden onset or progress in stages, AD is slowly progressive Memory loss - More prominent in early Alzheimer’s History of heart disease - More common in VD Executive function - Impaired more and earlier in VD than AD Neuroimaging - Damage to blood vessels vs. normal OR hippocampal atrophy 42 Frontotemporal Dementia Range of different disorders Behaviour and speech are affected most Disinhibition, impulsivity, perseveration, social withdrawal 43 Subtypes of FTD Behavioural Variant Frontotemporal Dementia (bvFTD) Changes in personality and behaviour May initially be mistaken for depression Symptoms Disinhibition Loss of sympathy/empathy Planning and organization errors Impaired judgment Repetitive and/or compulsive behaviour Binge eating Eventually, might see memory changes 44 Subtypes of FTD Primary Progressive Aphasia (PPA) Affects language skills initially Semantic dementia “thingy” “you know” Progressive nonfluent aphasia Difficulty with speaking fluently Reading and writing often intact far longer than speech Behaviour often affected with progression 45 Subtypes of FTD FTD movement disorders Involuntary, automatic muscle function affected Can look like Parkinson’s disease Falls in early stages Poor response to Levodopa Symmetry of motor signs Rapid progression Lack of tremor 46 Childhood Cognitive Development 2 Learning Objectives Define and give examples of critical periods vs. sensitive periods Describe the difference between quantitative and qualitative changes in cognition Define and give examples of schemas, assimilation, and accommodation Describe each of Piaget’s stages Critique Piaget’s theory of development Define zone of proximal development Describe cognitive development from an information processing approach Define theory of mind and describe how it is assessed Describe the cognitive and brain changes that happen during adolescence 3 Cognitive Development Development of thinking across the lifespan Problem solving Reasoning Conceptualizing and categorizing Remembering Planning Object perception Language Critical Periods vs. Sensitive Periods Critical period – period of time in which you must receive certain inputs in order for development to proceed normally Imprinting in ducks Maybe language acquisition Sensitive period – a period in which we can most rapidly acquire a skill or characteristic 1st year – development of secure attachment bond Stages or Continuum? Quantitative changes – gradual change in the amount of something Qualitative changes – stepwise changes in how we think/process information Piaget We don't just get better or faster at thinking as we age - the way in which we think changes Schemas - an internal framework that guides our thoughts and actions Assimilation - new experiences are added to existing schemas Accommodation - schemas are changed by new experiences This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC  Piaget’s Stages Sensorimotor (birth to age 2) Understands and explores world through sensory and motor experiences Object permanence develops - the understanding that objects continue to exist when out of sight Symbolic thought emerges Preoperational (age 2-7) Symbolic thinking established Words and images to represent objects Pretend play This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA Egocentrism - Difficulty understanding the world through another person's perspective Does not understand conservation - principle that basic characteristics of objects stay the same even when outward form changes Centration - Child only focuses on one aspect of a situation (e.g., water level) and ignores other aspects Piaget’s Stages, Continued Concrete Operational (age 7-12) Logical thinking about concrete events. Have difficulty with hypotheticals or abstract reasoning Conservation - Understand that basic characteristics of objects stay the same even when outward form changes Serial Ordering - Able to easily arrange objects along a continuum (e.g., smallest to biggest) Formal Operational (age 12+) Logical, abstract, and flexible thinking Forms hypotheses & tests systematically Criticisms of Piaget's Stages Children generally reach these milestones before Piaget thought they did Development does not proceed in clear stages and is more complex than Piaget thought Children may be at the preoperational stage in some ways, and concrete operational in others Culture influences cognitive development Vygotsky’s Social Context Theory There is often a gap between what children can do independently and what they can do with guidance from others Zone of proximal development - difference between what a child can do independently and what they can do with guidance of adults or more advanced peers Information Processing Approaches Cognitive development is a continuous, gradual process (rather than stages) Information search strategies - Older children are more systematic and methodical in visual search tasks Processing speed - Older children process information faster, with rapid increases from 8-12 years old Attention span & inhibition - Older children have longer attention spans and are better at inhibiting irrelevant or distracting information and incorrect responses Working memory - Older children can store more information in working memory than younger children, and are better with visuospatial information than younger children Long-term memory - Older children are more likely to use strategies to remember things Theory of Mind Theory of mind is the ability to understand and infer other people's mental states By 4 years old, most children can infer mental states, though it is effortful Lying and deception require theory of mind - you must be aware that the other person doesn't know what you know Adolescent Development Adolescent egocentrism - self-absorbed, unrealistic view of your own uniqueness and importance. Associated with risky behaviours Personal fable - overestimation of the uniqueness of feelings, thoughts, and experience Imaginary audience - heightened sensitivity to social judgment and evaluation, feeling that you're always being watched Adolescent Development Abstract reasoning abilities increase throughout adolescence Information processing speed increases throughout adolescence By middle adolescence, information processing speed and working memory are near adult capacity. By late adolescence, ability to suppress task-irrelevant responses near adult levels. Adolescent Brain Development Myelination of neurons in the prefrontal cortex continues throughout adolescence Synaptic pruning in prefrontal cortex throughout adolescence Prefrontal cortex does not finish developing until mid-20s Impulse control Executive functions Decision making Working memory Development of Memory in Children 18 Learning Objectives Describe the four principles of memory development Identify the regions thought to be involved in the development of declarative memory Describe the changes in declarative, verbatim, gist, and implicit memory throughout childhood 19 Principles of Memory Development Older infants encode information faster than younger ones 6 month old infants need about twice as much exposure to to-be-imitated actions as 12-18 month olds Older infants remember information for longer retention intervals than younger ones 18 month olds show retention in conjugate reinforcement tasks for 12 weeks, 6 month olds for 2 Older infants use more varied retrieval cues than younger infants Memory is used in a more flexible way Forgotten memories can reappear when a reminder is given 20 Cognitive Neuroscience Declarative memory develops rapidly over the first 2 years Some due to increasing cognitive abilities Language, attention, knowledge Some due to brain changes Implicit memory Striatum, cerebellum, brainstem Mature early in life Declarative memory Hippocampus, parahippocampal cortex formed before birth Dentate gyrus and pre-frontal cortex continue to develop 21 Developmental Changes Declarative memory Basic Capacity Progressive improvement year-by-year in working memory components Content Knowledge Memory is generally better when learner can relate new information to stored knowledge Memory Strategies As we get older, we use more effective strategies Metamemory Knowledge about your own memory and how it works Improves as we develop Preschoolers overestimate memory span by 5 items, 9 year olds by 1 item 22 Developmental Changes Verbatim and Gist Memory Both improve throughout childhood Older children are more prone to errors in the DRM paradigm due to using gist processing 23 Developmental Changes Implicit Memory Generally, no significant differences across childhood into adulthood Implicit memory requires more basic-level processes Working memory capacity, content knowledge, memory strategies, metamemory less important in implicit memory 24 Infantile Amnesia and the Reminiscence bump 25 Learning Objectives Define infantile amnesia and the case study of Emily. What does her case tell us about infantile amnesia? Describe the Simcock & Hayne study and what it tells us about autobiographical memory Describe the 3 accounts for infantile amnesia discussed Describe cross-cultural diferences in infantile amnesia and autobiographical memory Describe the reminiscence bump Describe Willander & Larson's study and what it tells us about the reminiscence bump 26 Your Earliest Memory… Describe your earliest memory, in as much detail as possible 27 Infantile Amnesia Tendency for people to have few autobiographical memories from below the age of five 28 Emily Case study 21-36 months old Many memories were from the day before, but some were 6 months old Evidence that (at least some) 2 year olds can remember specific events 29 Simcock and Hayne 30  Mobile Conjugate Reinforcement Paradigm Step 1 – Baseline – mobile Step 2 – Learning – attached to mobile Step 3 – Test – not attached to mobile 31 Mobile Conjugate Reinforcement Paradigm 1.4 1.2 1 Retention 0.8 Baseline 0.6 2 months old 3 months old 0.4 0.2 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Retention Interval (Days) 32 Mobile Conjugate Reinforcement Paradigm Reminders Memory returning to original level after 2 week delay, significant amount after 1 month 33 Training Testing Result 34 Deferred Imitation http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NbXHyIlsG0M Step 1 – Show baby novel action Step 2 – After delay, place object in front of baby and record response 35 Deferred Imitation Condition Experimenter Demo Imitation 24 Hour Delay Control Test Baseline 36 Deferred Imitation 80 Target Behaviour (Percentage) 70 60 50 40 14 months old 30 24 months old 20 10 0 Imitation Control Condition 37 Accounting for Infantile Amnesia Freud Repression Why can we not remember positive and neutral events from early childhood? 38 Accounting for Infantile Amnesia Cognitive Self We can only form autobiographical memories after we have developed a sense of self Events then have personal significance Develops around the end of the second year 39 Accounting for Infantile Amnesia Social Cultural Theory Language and culture play key roles in developing autobiographical memory Language is used to express memories Interactions with adults Elaborative reminiscing style 40 41 Reminiscence Bump Tendency in participants over 40 to show a high rate of recollecting personal experiences from their late teens and early 20s 42 Accounting for the Reminiscence Bump Why might we remember more events from our late teens and early 20s? Life narrative 43 Exception to the Reminiscence Bump Cued by smell Willander & Larson 65-80 year olds Word, smell, or picture Peak for memories evoked by smell at 6-10 years old 44  Psyc 253 Week 12 – Eyewitness Memory  Eyewitness Identification we as humans are not good at this 2 Learning Objectives Describe the pattern of facial recognition vs. identification over time Describe the Young, Hay, & Ellis study. What does it tell us about eyewitness identification? Describe the effect of a change in appearance and the effect of viewing angle Define the cross-race effect and the two hypotheses that attempt to explain why it happens Describe the other-age effect 3 Eyewitness Testimony Eyewitness testimony is often thought to be reliable and accurate Judges asked to agree/disagree with statements Only 55% correct Minimized factors that caused eyewitness testimony to be inaccurate Only 23% agreed with “only in exceptional circumstances should a defendant be convicted of a crime solely on the basis of eyewitness testimony” 4 Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony “Eyewitness misidentification is the single greatest cause of wrongful convictions nationwide, playing a role in nearly 75% of convictions overturned through DNA testing.” The Innocence Project 5 How Well do We Remember Faces? Bruce et al. When face present, selected 65% of the time correctly When not present, selected a different face 35% of the time still picking people just incorrectly 6 Facial Recognition 80 Bahrick 70 How well do college 60 Percent correct teachers remember their 50 students? 40 Recognition 30 Identification 20 10 0 11 days 1 year 4 years 8 years Time Since End of Semester 7 Facial Recognition Errors Young, Hay, & Ellis 22 subjects tracked errors recognizing and identifying people for 8 weeks 1008 errors, nearly 6 per day per subject 14% Failure to 22% recognize Mistaking one for another Recognize but 37% fail to identify 27% Failing to recall name 8 Effect of Disguise/Changing Appearance Subjects learned names and faces Try to identify people in disguise 9  studies were done in a private US institution all white all wealthy background show people photos of people black and white on different back grounds (alleys vs The Cross-Race Effect wealth) participants are only better at identifying white people when in the wealthy contex suggesting its an ingroup vs. outgroup issue We are better at recognizing people who are members of the same race 2 hypotheses Expertise Ingroup vs. outgroup 10  father they are from our age the worse we are at guessing The Other-Age Effect Young Subject Old Subject Estimate age of models in 8 photos 7 6 Most accurate for models closer Mean Errors 5 to your age 4 3 2 1 0 Young Model Old Model 11 Factors that Influence Eyewitness Identification Was it day or night? colours shadows attention to detail Were you a short or long distance away? What was your viewing angle? How long did the event last? Did you know you were witnessing a crime? nonviolent Did the culprit wear a disguise? Factors that Influence Eyewitness Testimony 13 Learning Objectives Describe how schemas influence what we remember Describe the Loftus and Palmer study Identify how retroactive and proactive interference can disrupt eyewitness memory Define source misatrribution and identify when it is likely to occur Describe the general pattern of eyewitness memory in young children and the elderly Describe the weapon-focus effect and the proposed explanations for it Describe the Pickel study and what it tells us about the cause of the weapon-focus effect 14 Remembering What you Expect to See schemas Tuckey and Brewer Simulated bank robbery Some ambiguous information Generally interpreted in line with schemas 15  3 Mean number of responses to 2.5 ambiguous stimuli 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 Correct Schema Correct Schema responses intrusions responses intrusions Ambiguous Unambiguous Condition Condition 16 Leading Questions Loftus & Palmer Word Speed Estimate Watch a movie depicting a Contacted 31.8 mph car accident Hit 34 mph “About how fast were the Bumped 38.1 mph cars going when they _____ each other?“ Collided 39.3 mph Smashed 40.8 17 Interference Retroactive interference – disruption of memory by the learning of new information Leading questions Seeing a news report Proactive interference – disruption of memory by previous information Prior experience with similar events 18 Source-Monitoring We decide on the source of a memory based on the information it contains Source misattribution is likely when memories from one source are similar to memories from another source Better practices Include source monitoring instructions (e.g., “did this information come from witnessing the event or something you learned after the fact?”) Chronological order 19  What Can be Biased? Peripheral around the scene details Central details the actual incident generally easier to bias peripheral details then central details 20  Individual Differences Young children are generally less accurate big problem for reoccuring events children experiencing abuse less of a narrative structure 21 Eyewitness Memory in Older Adults Stereotypes Judges and lawyers – older adults are good witnesses because they are honest no validity to that Jurors Older adults are bad witnesses because they are forgetful not as forgetful as people think Rely heavily on confidence and recall of detail no correlation between confidence and accuracy 22 Eyewitness Memory in Older Adults Older adults are not generally less accurate than younger adults, at least for central details harder time with peripheral details 23  Eyewitness Memory in Older Adults More likely to choose someone in a lineup Instructions emphasize that the person may not be there, that you must be absolutely sure before you pick Sequential rather than simultaneous line ups show one at a time effect is stronly in older adults 24  Eyewitness Memory in Older Adults More vulnerable to misinformation harder time with interference and source monitoring, more vulnerable for misinformation 25  Eyewitness Confidence Jurors are influenced by how confident a witness is 80% of eyewitness experts agree that confidence is not a good predictor of accuracy confidence = poor marker of accuracy research backs up on this 26 Eyewitness Confidence Perfect and Hollins Video of a girl who was kidnapped Recognition test for information in video and general knowledge Confidence didn’t predict accuracy for questions about video 27 Improving Questioning Cognitive interview Incorporates basic memory principles Encoding specificity and mood-dependent memory Partial retrieval Many retrieval pathways Part-set cuing and vulnerability to suggestion Can result in as much as 50% more accurate information without an increase in inaccurate information 28  our memory for a violent event is stronger then non violent but for CENTRAL DETAILS - we zoom in on what is happening Anxiety and Violence In an extremely emotional event: 82% of defense lawyers argue recognition would be impaired 32% of prosecution attorneys argued recognition would be impaired General finding Memory for a violent event is stronger than a non-violent event Reduced memory for peripheral details 29 Weapon-Focus Effect Loftus Weapon condition – 33% identify perpetrator No Weapon condition – 49% identify perpetrator Subsequent studies revealed that subjects look more at a weapon than at an identically positioned non-weapon 30 Weapon-Focus Effect Explanations 1. Weapons pose a threat 2. Unexpected or unusual in context Pickel Low threat, expected Low threat, unexpected High threat, expected High threat, unexpected 31 Pickel’s Results 32 Improving Eyewitness Testimony 33 Learning Objectives Describe the relative judgment principle and the 3 criteria for good lineups Describe what a blank lineup is, how it differs from a perpetrator absent lineup, and what it can be used for 34  Mugshots Can be biased If a witness incorrectly identifies someone innocent, later ability to identify the actual perpetrator is impaired Familiarity leads us to pick someone we’ve seen before 35 Mugshots 36 Lineups Relative judgment principle Percent of identification of lineup members 1-6 1 2 3 4 5 6 No choice Target 3% 13% 54% 3% 3% 3% 21% present Target 6% 38% ___ 12% 7% 5% 32% removed 37 Lineups – Criteria Lineup fillers should closely resemble the suspect and fit basic description the witness gave With proper fillers, identification of guilty suspects roughly the same, but identification of innocent suspects decreases 38 Lineups – Criteria Lineup instructions Instructions should include a statement to the effect of “the perpetrator might not be present” 100 Percent choosing innocent suspect 80 60 40 20 0 May be absent No instruction instruction 39 Lineups – Criteria Simultaneous vs. Sequential More likely to make errors with simultaneous lineups 80 70 60 50 Percent 40 30 Present 20 Absent 10 0 Decision Decision Decision Decision Correct incorrect correct incorrect Simultaneous Sequential 40 Use of Blank Lineups person is not here just showing what will happen so they understand the instructions Differ from target-absent lineups “Lure” or control lineup Can reduce false identifications particularly in groups that might be vulnerable to not understand the instructions 41 what happens when we hear something Earwitness Memory 42 Learning Objectives Identify difficulties with voice identification really hard as peoples voices vary and change over time Describe how accurate voice identification is Explain the facial overshadowing effect 43 Difficulties with Voice Identification Variation in voices over time/situations Deliberately disguised voices Stress Time delay 44 investigators encouraged to ask Was the person identified a stranger to [name of witness]? If the person was a stranger, how did [he/she] come to be familiar with the voice identified? [recite evidence] I warn you that mistakes can easily be made even in identifying the voice of a friend or member of the family. Identifying the voice of a stranger is even more difficult. What opportunity did [name of witness] have to hear the voice of the person? How attentive was the person in hearing the voice. Was [he/she] able to give it full and undivided attention or was the person distracted at the time? How clearly could the person hear the voice and how was the sound conveyed to the witness. Was there any chance that the voice was distorted in some way? Was there anything about the voice which would have impressed itself upon the witness? In other words, was there anything distinctive about the voice which was similar or different to that of the accused? Was there any special reason for remembering the voice that was heard? Does [name of witness] come from the same racial background as the person identified? That is also something you can bear in mind. It may be more difficult for a member of one race to identify the voice of an individual of another racial group. How long did the witness have to keep the characteristics of the voice in [his/her] mind before identifying that voice as that of the accused? 45 http://www.judcom.nsw.gov.au/publications/benchbks/criminal/identification_evidence-voice.html Voice Identification Ohman Unfamiliar voice for 40 seconds 2 week delay Target present and target absent lineup Very few conditions led to performance above chance 46 Pitch Identification slightly higher or lower voice then average then we say “it was so high” or “it was so low” Tends to be exaggerated 47  Face Overshadowing Effect Recognition of voices is impaired when face was present at encoding our best chance is if we have never seen their face if we saw any part of their face our chance of identifying by their voice goes way down because its over shadowed by their face 48 Concealed Faces Heath & Moore 49