Lingva Latina: A Companion to Familia Romana PDF

LINGVA LATINA A Companion to Familia Romana SECOND EDITION Based on Hans Ørberg’s Latine Disco, with Vocabulary and Grammar Jeanne Marie Neumann LINGVA LATINA A Companion to Familia Romana Second Edition Based on Hans Ørberg’s Latine Disco, with Vocabulary and Grammar LINGVA LATINA A Companion to Familia Romana Second Edition based on Hans Ørberg’s Latine Disco, with Vocabulary and Grammar Jeanne Marie Neumann Davidson College Focus an imprint of Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. Indianapolis/Cambridge Dedication Jon et Conor, filiis iucundissimis medullitusque amatis. A Focus book Focus an imprint of Hackett Publishing Company Copyright © 2016 by Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America 19 18 17 16 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 For further information, please address Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. P.O. Box 44937 Indianapolis, Indiana 46244-0937 www.hackettpublishing.com Cover design by Brian Rak Interior design by Elizabeth L. Wilson Composition by Integrated Composition Systems, Inc. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Neumann, Jeanne Marie, author. | Oerberg, Hans H. (Hans Henning), 1920–2010. Latine disco. | Oerberg, Hans H. (Hans Henning), 1920–2010. Lingua Latina per se illustrata. Pars I, Familia Romana. Title: Lingua latina : a companion to Familia romana : based on Hans Oerberg’s Latine disco, with vocabulary and grammar / Jeanne Marie Neumann. Description: Second edition. | Indianapolis ; Cambridge : Hackett Publishing Company, Inc., 2016. | “A Focus book.” Identifiers: LCCN 2016002499 | ISBN 9781585108091 (pbk.) Subjects: LCSH: Latin language—Grammar. | Latin language—Textbooks. Classification: LCC PA2087.5.N48 2016 | DDC 478.2421—dc23 LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2016002499 Adobe PDF ebook ISBN: 978-1-58510-832-9 Contents Preface vii For the Instructor xi Familia Romana: Suggestions for the Classroom xi Lingua Latina as a Two-Semester Course xi To the Student xv I. Imperium Rōmānum 1 II. Familia Rōmāna 9 III. Puer Improbus 18 IV. Dominus et Servī 27 V. Vīlla et Hortus 35 VI. Via Latīna 42 VII. Puella et Rosa 50 VIII. Taberna Rōmāna 58 IX. Pāstor et Ovēs 69 X. Bēstiae et Hominēs 78 XI. Corpus Hūmānum 89 XII. Mīles Rōmānus 96 XIII. Annus et Mēnsēs 108 XIV. Novus Diēs 120 XV. Magister et Discipulī 128 XVI. Tempestās 138 XVII. Numerī Difficiles 147 XVIII. Litterae Latīnae 155 XIX. Marītus et Uxor 165 v vi Lingva Latina: A Companion to Familia Romana XX. Parentēs 175 XXI. Pugna Discipulōrum 183 XXII. Cave Canem 195 XXIII. Epistula Magistrī 206 XXIV. Puer Aegrōtus 217 XXV. Thēseus et Mīnōtaurus 227 XXVI. Daedalus et Icarus 237 XXVII. Rēs Rūsticae 246 XXVIII. Pericula Maris 258 XXIX. Nāvigāre Necesse Est 268 XXX. Convīvium 279 XXXI. Inter Pōcula 288 XXXII. Classis Rōmāna 296 XXXIII. Exercitus Rōmānus 307 XXXIV. De Arte Poēticā 320 XXXV. Ars Grammatica 330 Grammatica Latina 333 Vocabulary by Chapter 369 Latin–English Vocabulary 383 Grammatical Terms 398 Index 400 Preface Ørberg’s Lingua Latina Per Se Illustrata series, conceived as a completely acquisition‑based approach to learning Latin, offers an unparalleled resource for Latin learning, enabling the motivated student to acquire skill in reading Latin by reading Latin. Lingua Latina guides readers through an expanding world of Latin syntax while they enjoy a delightful story of a Roman family of the early imperial period. The reading mirrors “real” Latin in the way it unfolds the periodic structure and idiomatic features of the language, intro- ducing early critical features: students meet the relative pronoun in Cap. 3, the passive voice in Cap. 6; by the time they get the full verbal paradigm of the present tense in Caps. 15–17, they have mastered the concept and workings of active and passive voice. Length of readings, number of vocabulary words and complexity of sentence structure increase as the chapters build on each other, all in support of a narrative that engages students from middle school through college (and beyond). Lingua Latina Per Se Illustrata offers a smooth and efficient path to acquisition of the language and immerses the student from the first in a true experience of Latin. Instead of reading discrete, even random, sentences chosen to illustrate the grammatical principles under consideration, Lingua Latina offers considerable practice in both grammar and a rich vocabulary in an engaging context of well‑written Latin. The impetus of this book, there- fore, arose not from any flaw in Ørberg’s method, but rather from the differing needs of students and classrooms. Different students learn differently; learning environments also differ: Alii aliis viis Romam perveniunt. At my own institution, students signing up for Latin commit to a two-term introductory experience, followed by a term of reading ancient texts. Reading Familia Romana in a two-semester course in introductory Latin, meeting three times a week for two 13- or 14-week se- mesters, becomes a Herculean task. Lingua Latina, however, and its results proved too good to abandon. There seems to me no better guide than Lingua Latina for students who want to learn Latin through Latin. Students clamored for us to keep the text, but make it suit their needs. We use the Companion to strike a balance between a purely inductive method and the study of gram- vii viii Lingva Latina: A Companion to Familia Romana matical rules and paradigms. But it can also serve as an ancillary guide for the natural (inductive) method of language acquisition. Lingua Latina can be used to teach students Latin as early as age eight, yet the story engages adult readers as well. Although introductory language courses at the college level do not always have the same luxury of gradual acquisition, the Ørberg text can be highly effective for university students. This book, therefore, is designed for different audiences: university students, instructors of home‑scholars, and independent learners whose learning style appreciates such a guide: it is for all students of Ørberg’s Lingua Latina Per Se Illustrata (LLPSI) who want a touchstone to assess their understanding of the text and the language. Home-schooling parents and instructors of students learning outside of the traditional classroom, especially those with little or no Latin training, can use this book as a companion to Lingua Latina for their own preparation. The instructor will be the best judge of where and when it is a useful guide. For the most part, students should gradually learn the whole of Latin grammar by working out grammatical rules from their own observation as they begin to read actual Latin in the text, while their instructors can feel more confident in their grasp of the material and can use the added examples from Familia Romana to review and reinforce concepts or answer questions their charges present. The goal is to confirm the Latin and the structures that are learned in the inductive method, facilitating the process of language acquisition. As is clear from the very useful listserve for LLPSI (https://groups.google.com/forum/#!forum/llpsi), instructors at elementary and high schools lead their charges through the text at the pace appropriate to their students and the learning environment. Explanations of morphology and syntax appear ac- cording to their introduction in the course of the chapter: Section I, II, or III, making the Companion practical regardless of the pace of an individual course. How does this book fit into the Lingua Latīna series? What does it re- place? This book replaces the Latine Disco, the Grammatica Latina, and the Latin–English Vocabulary. It does not replace the Exercitia. What are the primary features of this book? The book provides a running grammatical commentary on the narrative of Lingua Latina. It differs from the Latine Disco in scope and aim. Latine Disco provides clear and concise information that students need in order to acquire an understanding of Latin at their own pace. This book builds from Ørberg’s original Latine Disco; the presentation and formatting have been altered and more explication and ex- amples are offered. To the degree possible, the commentary corresponds to the reading sections within each chapter, enabling students to view just the grammar for each section. Important and challenging structures are illustrated with several examples from the story. As the grammatical concepts build, they are collected and reviewed in periodic recensiones, facilitating an overview of the language and enabling students to know where to look for the places in Preface ix the story where, e.g., they learned about accusative and infinitive construction. Beginning with Res Grammaticae Novae, a synopsis, in categories, of the ma- terial covered in the chapter, further facilitates an overview. The end of each chapter presents vocabulary divided by parts of speech; a full vocabulary can be found at the back of the book. In addition, vocabulary review is enhanced by an appendix listing the vocabulary according to chapter but without meanings; students can quiz themselves on their grasp of vocabulary outside the context of the story. Since Ørberg’s own mastery of the language shows through in his ability to write lucid, idiomatic Latin, student attention, where appropriate, is directed to points of style that highlight the way the language works syntacti- cally or idiomatically. Finally, this edition includes a grammatical index. Changes to the Second Edition In addition to some revisions to the text, this edition includes a section on cultural context tied to the narrative content of the chapter. Jeanne M. Neumann Davidson College Acknowledgments Editio Princeps: Amicis qui me librum hunc scribentem adiuverunt maximas gratias et ago et habeo, praecipue Jarrett Welsh, Keyne Cheshire, Megan Drinkwater, Michael Johnson, Kevin Muse, Gina Soter. Discipulis apud Collegium Davidsoniense linguam Latinam discentibus gratias quoque ago, praecipue William E. Begley et India Watkins. Nam illi et menda typographica notaverunt et consilium quo liber melior et clarior fieret praebuerunt. Editio Altera: In hac editione paranda multi et collegae et discipuli mihi adiumento erant. Multum Jarret Welsh, Keyne Cheshire, William Begley, India Watkins, Dar- ian Totten debeo. Patrick Owen menda typographica benigne notavit et locos minus perspicuos monstravit. For the Instructor Teaching Latin via the method Winston Churchill was subjected to (My Early Life: 1874–1904, p. 10–11) is pretty easy. Take this paradigm. Memorize it. Spit it back. Repeat. Teaching via LLPSI offers more of a challenge and infinitely more rewards for the instructor and (more importantly) for the students. The instructor’s approach to LLPSI will vary according to the age of the students and, critically, the amount of time that one can devote to the project. At the college level (for the approach at Davidson, see below), the pace is brisk, the course an invigorating challenge. But Familia Romana does not have to be digested in a two-term course and taking more time allows the instructor to engage in more activities with the text. No matter the time frame, the active use of Latin with students lies at the foundation of the successful implementation of LLPSI. Using Latin actively in the classroom can be a challenging experience for those of us who have learned Latin as a passive language. Before guiding others through the text, the instructor can learn a great deal about talking about Latin in Latin by becom- ing familiar with the Grammatica Latina sections at the end of each chapter and by studying the selections from Dōnātus’s Ars Minor in the final chapter of Familia Romana. Familia Romana: Suggestions for the Classroom 1. Read Latin aloud. 2. Use questions (in Latin, in English) to determine if students are understanding the text. 3. Encourage students to respond in Latin to questions: Pensum C. Lingua Latina as a Two-Semester Course What follows is a brief explanation of how we have adapted Familia Romana to our introductory sequence at Davidson College. The constraints of two se- mesters propel the course forward quickly, with usually two class days devoted to each chapter. This pace makes “catch-up” cramming difficult, if not impos xi xii Lingva Latina: A Companion to Familia Romana sible. Therefore, the relative weight of each facet of evaluation reflects the phi- losophy of the course: DAILY USE OF A LANGUAGE IS THE ONLY WAY TO MASTERY. Daily work carries the greatest weight in the course (i.e., quizzes, home- work, tests, and class preparation and participation), while the final exam accounts for a much smaller portion of the grade. Students should expect to spend one hour each day working on Latin skills: that means seven hours a week of work outside of class. We encourage students to break up this work into small, frequent encounters with the Latin throughout their day: 20 min- utes three times a day is far more effective than an hour once a day. The pace of the course and presentation of the material both complicate and energize the instructor’s presentation. The text can be used as a basis for asking questions in Latin. When students answer in Latin, they strengthen their grasp of the vocabulary and the syntax, and their ability to stay in the tar- get language. Longer, more difficult sentences can be paraphrased in Latin to facilitate understanding or broken down into smaller components. While the bulk of our classes are conducted in English, moving back and forth frequently between the two languages will help the students’ Latin get strong enough to read the ever lengthening stories and ever more complex sentences. There follow two different sets of instructions for a course that aims to read Familia Romana in two terms of three meetings a week. These are offered as examples of the approaches of two instructors at Davidson and represent the general guidelines offered to students. The approaches are quite different: the first has the students read the chapter before any instruction, either verbal or from the Companion, while the second introduces all major grammatical concepts before the students read the text. There are many roads to Rome and other ways of using the Companion as a pedagogical aid. We offer our experience as examples. The Lingua Latina pages at Hackett Publishing provide a wealth of further materials, including flash cards and audio files. Instructors will find a large circle of support and ideas at the Google Groups (https://groups.google.com/forum/#!forum/llpsi). One Approach Assignment for Day One (the first of two class days spent on a given chapter): Study the marginalia in Familia Romana (marginalia: the material written in the margins of the Lingua Latina text). Read the entire chapter in Latin; each chapter is divided into three sections, marked by Roman numerals in the inside margins of the text. In Cap. II, for example, Section II begins with the words, “Estne Medus filius Iulii?” (p. 14). Each new section practices a different grammatical principle. For the Instructor xiii Try not to translate each sentence into English but to understand the sentences in Latin (a challenge which grows easier with time). If you find a sentence hard, re‑read it. Mark it with a pencil check mark in the margin and return to it after reading the whole assignment (and after you have had a break). Study the Grammatica Latina at the end of each chapter in Familia Romana. Pay attention to the phrasing of the grammatical explanations: this section of the book will teach you how to talk about Latin grammar in Latin. Only then, after reading the chapter, the marginalia, and the Grammatica Latina, review the pages in the Companion. If you cannot grasp the meaning of a vocabulary word from context, look it up in the Latin‑English vocabulary at the end of the chapter or the back of this book. Vocabulary words recur frequently. If you need to look up a word more than once, or find the next day you cannot remember what it means, memorize the word by making a flash card. Carry the flash cards around with you and review frequently. (There are also web‑based flash card systems you can use.) DO NOT WRITE ENGLISH IN YOUR BOOK! Your eye will go to the familiar language, inhibiting your ability to read the Latin. Complete homework as assigned. After the second day: Re-read the entire chapter, paying close attention to the forms and grammatical principles, and making sure you have a firm understanding of both the grammar and meaning of the chapter. At this reading, it should be much easier not to translate in your head from Latin to English. Review the marginalia and the vocabulary. In the margins of each chapter of Familia Romana is a list of new vocabulary. Make sure you understand those words out of context. If you don’t remember, find the word in the text before looking it up. Complete homework as assigned. Look ahead briefly to discover the emphasis of the next chapter. A Second Approach Day 1: Introduce the chapter (vocabulary and all major grammatical concepts) before students see anything. Homework: read Companion and Familia Romana narrative; study for quiz. xiv Lingva Latina: A Companion to Familia Romana Day 2: Quiz on new vocabulary. Questions about the reading? (Have them marked by line number with notes.) Warm‑up with Pensum A. “Conversational” Latin: Ask questions about the reading and their lives. Have students illustrate a scene or act it out. Have them pantomime verbs. Follow with other activities in Latin. Homework: carefully chosen Exercitia. Both approaches are intense, but students enjoy and profit from the course. To the Student You will learn far more Latin more quickly, and in a more interesting way, if you first work with the book and the readings and the (very important) margi- nalia (that is, the words and images in the columns next to the reading), then refer to this book to help you organize what it is you have encountered. By this method, the book helps you confirm what you have already learned. The value of the marginalia and the images in the Familia Romana text cannot be overemphasized! The marginalia mark out new things you will learn, and help you to understand the Latin quickly and visually. The illustra- tions will be valuable clues to what the Latin itself is saying. Try not to translate into English as you read. Instead, keep images in your mind and work as much as you can in Latin. Only by increasing your stamina for reading and thinking within the Latin language will you gain proficiency in understanding. Do not write English in your book! Do not write out translations of the text as you read: make yourself confront the text anew each time you read it. Only then will you become familiar with the language. A note on translations: You will find that translations accompany only a few of the illustrative sentences in this book. These translations demonstrate how a particular construction works in the English language in order to help you understand how Latin works, not to encourage translation into English. Remember, the goal is Latin! The more actively you engage, the more you will learn. Quiz yourself by going back into earlier chapters and randomly picking a word. Do you know what that word means without reading it in context? If not, reread the sur- rounding sentences and see whether context prods your memory. If not, look the word up. Do you recognize its case (if appropriate)? Could you reconstruct the nominative from that case? If the word is a verb, recount to yourself all you know about it (the amount you will know will depend on how far into the course you have proceeded). Try to write short synopses of the reading in Latin. Read out loud. Send a classmate a text or email in Latin! The more you engage different senses, the faster you will learn and the more you will retain. xv xvi Lingva Latina: A Companion to Familia Romana Before you start Orthography Latin was written (orthography) as it sounded. Therefore, the spelling of Latin changed with natural variations of pronunciation that occurred over time and place. So, for example, Cicero would have written equos for “the horse,” while Caesar Augustus would have written ecus; we find this same word in our Latin texts as equus because editors of Latin texts generally adopt the spelling of the first century AD, when variations in orthography had leveled out. We still find variation in the treatment of the semi-vowels u/v and i/j, however (on these semi‑vowels, see below under pronunciation). Latin Pronunciation Latin was spoken through many countries over many hundreds of years. When you think how much pronunciation varies in different regions of our own country during our own time, the very thought of how to “correctly” pronounce Latin becomes daunting. We actually know quite a bit about how upper-class educated Romans living in Rome during a relatively short time span spoke Latin because Roman writers themselves have given us various hints. This pronunciation is called the “Restored Pronunciation.” Even though the Restored Pronunciation may be the way Horace recited his Odes, for ex- ample, or Vergil his Aeneid, we should not feel constrained to try to dupli- cate it. In our own language, English, we don’t feel we need to research how Shakespeare might have spoken in order to read Hamlet. Elizabethan actors might be amazed at our renditions, but we aren’t talking to them. Our goal is to be faithful to the principles of the language and to be understood by others. But—you may object that we can’t really appreciate the beauty of a Latin poem unless we hear it as the Romans did. If that were true, we would need more than sounds to appreciate Latin literature—we would need the full spectrum of cultural values that comprise aesthetic appreciation. The other traditional method of pronunciation is called the “Ecclesiastical Pronunciation.” If you listen to Latin liturgical hymns, you will hear the subtle differences: caelum (sky, heaven), for example, is pronounced “kai-lum” in the restored pronunciation but “che-lum” in the ecclesiastical pronunciation. Ecclesiastical Latin retains the mellifluous beauty of Italian. An audio record- ing of Caps. I–XXXI of Familia Romana is available from Hackett Publishing Co. in the Restored Pronunciation; an audio recording of the whole of Familia Romana is available from the same publisher in Ecclesiastical Pronunciation. So, how to pronounce Latin? If we are faithful to a few principles, we can read with confidence and feeling, and understand and be understood by oth- ers. In order to utter Latin well, we must understand the quantities of vowels and syllables, know where to put the accent and how to enunciate. Thus, while the guide below will suggest pronunciations that mirror some of the things we To the Student xvii know about ancient pronunciation, if you pay attention to quantities, accent, and enunciation, you will be understood whether you pronounce c hard (i.e., like “k”) as the Romans did or soft, as Ecclesiastical Latin. But first, let’s look at the alphabet. The Alphabet The Latin alphabet can be most simply divided into vowels and consonants. That broad division has subdivisions as well. The Latin alphabet has twenty- three letters; it lacks the English w; y and z were Greek imports, as were ch, ph, th. Vowels Latin has both single vowels and diphthongs (two vowels that form one sound). Vowels can be either “long” or “short.” A long vowel is pronounced for twice the length of time. Compare the “a” in “father” and the first vowel in “aha.” We hold the “a” sound twice as long in “father.” Long vowels in this book are marked by a bar over the vowel called a “macron” (i.e., ā, ē, ī, ō, ū). The Latin vowels are: a ▷▷ short: a as the first a in “aha”: amat ▷▷ long: ā as in “father”: ālā, pānis e ▷▷ short: e as in “let”: et, bene ▷▷ long: ē as in “prey”: mē i ▷▷ short: i as in “fit”: in, nimis1 ▷▷ long: ī as ee in “feet”: hīc, līberī o ▷▷ short: o as in “hot”: post, modo ▷▷ long: ō as in bone: pōnō u ▷▷ short: u as in “full”: num, sumus ▷▷ long: ū as in “fool”: ūna, tū y (represents the Greek upsilon) ▷▷ short: y as French u in “lune”: Syria ▷▷ long: ȳ as French u in “pur”: Lȳdia 1. The sound as in fit, hit does not occur in the modern Romance languages, suggesting that short i had more of an ee sound, but held for a shorter time. xviii Lingva Latina: A Companion to Familia Romana Diphthongs, being two vowels together, take twice as long to pronounce as single short vowels and so are considered long. They are: ae as ie in “die”: Graecia, laetus, paene oe as oi in “boil”: foedus, poena au as ou in “loud”: aut, nauta eu as e+u combined into one syllable (ĕhoo): Eurōpa, heu, heus, neu, seu. (But the endings ‑us, ‑um, ‑unt form separate syllables after e: de|us, me|us, e|um, e|unt, aure|us.) ui in cui, huic, cuius, huius as u+i combined into one syllable Semi-vowels (glides) Latin has two letters called “glides,” which represent either a vowel or a con- sonant sound depending on the letters around them. These letters are repre- sented in our book as i and u/v: i: The father of our family is Iulius, the same as the English Julius. The “j” and “i” of his name represent the same letter in Latin, which was always represented by i by the Romans. Sound: Before a consonant, i represents the vowel sound “i” and before a vowel, the consonant sound “y.” u/v: The word for slave shows you the other glide in Latin. The word for slave is servus, in the plural, it’s servi. The v and u are actually the same letter and work the same way as “i” and “j.” In some Latin texts, you will find servus written as seruus; this text distinguishes u and v. Sound: Before a consonant, u represents the vowel sound “u” and before a vowel, the consonant sound “w.” Consonants Most consonants are the same as, or very similar to, English. b as in English: bibit, ab bs and bt as ps and pt: absunt, obtulit, urbs c is always hard as in “cat” (= k, without aspiration): canis, centum, circus, nec ▷▷ ch, as k with aspiration: pulcher d as in English: dē, dedit, ad f as in English: forum, flūmen g as in English: “get” (never as in “gem”): gallus, gemma, agit gn as ngn in “willingness”: signum, pugna, magnus h as in English (tending to disappear): hīc, homō, nihil l as in English: lūna, gladius, male, vel To the Student xix m as in English: mē, domus, tam ▷▷ In the unstressed endings ‑am, ‑em, ‑um, it tended to disappear. n as in English: nōn, ūnus; before c, g, q as in “ink”: incola, longus, quīnque Before s, it tended to disappear: mēnsa, īnsula p as in English (without aspiration): pēs, populus, prope ph as English p with aspiration: amphitheātrum (see above under ch) qu as English qu in “quick”: quis, aqua, equus r rolled or trilled: rēs, ōra, arbor, cūr s as in English “gas” (never voiced as in “has”): sē, rōsa, is t as in English (without aspiration): tē, ita, et t is always hard (not like t in nation) th as English t with aspiration: amphitheātrum (see above under ch) v as English w: vōs, vīvus x as in English (= ks): ex, saxum z as English z in “zone”: zōna Thus, very generally, the sound of Latin consonants can be compared to those of English: Like English: d, f, l, m, and n (initial and medial)2 , p, qu, z Like English + variations (see above): bs, bt, gn Always a hard sound: c, g, s, t, x Softer than English: h, final m, n Different: r (trilled) v (like w) Now we return to our guidelines for pronunciation of quantities, accentuation, and enunciation. In Cap. XVIII, your text gives you an excellent lesson in the concepts below, in Latin. 1. Syllables: a. A word has as many syllables as it has vowels and/or diphthongs: i. Est, nōn, sunt ii. Rō ma, Nī lus, quo que iii.Flu vi us, op pi dum, īn su la iv. Brun di si um, Hi spā ni a3 b. Note that in the examples above: i. A consonant goes with the following vowel: Rō ma ii. Two consonants are divided: op pi dum 2. I.e., beginning a word (initial) and in the middle of a word (medial). 3. If a combination of letters could be used to begin a word (like the sp in hi spa ni a), those letters are kept together and go with the following vowel. xx Lingva Latina: A Companion to Familia Romana c. Some consonants stay together: ~ ch, ph, th, qu ~ l or r preceded by b, d, g, p, t, c, and f 2. Vowel quantity: a. A long vowel takes twice the time to pronounce as a short vowel. 3. Syllable quantity: a. A syllable is either: i. open (ends in a vowel) ii. closed (ends in a consonant) b. Long/Heavy syllables: i. Closed syllables ii. Open syllables with long vowel/diphthong c. Short/Light syllables: i. Open syllables with a short vowel 4. Accent: a. The last three syllables of a Latin word determine accent. b. These syllables are called: i. ultima (for syllaba ultima: the last syllable) ii. penult (for syllaba paene ultima: almost the last syllable) iii.antepenult (for ante paene ultimam syllabam: “before the almost the last”) c. The accent, or stress, of a Latin word depends on the length of the second to last, or penultimate, syllable. d. The penult (penultimate) syllable is accented when long/heavy (closed or has long vowel or diphthong). e. Otherwise, the accent moves to the antepenult. f. Examples: Rō΄ma in Itáliā est. Itália in Eurō΄pā est. Grǽcia in Eurō΄pā est. Itália et Grǽcia in Eurō΄pā sunt. Hispā΄nia et Itália et Grǽcia in Eurō΄pā sunt. 5. Enunciation: this last principle sounds easy, but most people who feel nervous about saying a word correctly try to say it as fast as possible. Some tips: ▷▷ Speak slowly and say what you see. ▷▷ Doubled consonants (two consonants in a row) are both pronounced. ▷▷ Long vowels take twice the time to pronounce as short vowels. To the Student xxi Parts of Speech with Examples [The chapter in brackets gives the first introduction of the part of speech.] Noun (substantive) [Cap. I]: 1. names a person, place or thing 2. properties: a. gender: masculine, feminine, or neuter (neither masculine or feminine) b. number: singular or plural c. case: different endings depending on the role of the word in the sentence Exempla Latīna: Rōma fluvius oppidum Adjective [Cap. 1]: 1. qualifies a noun 2. sometimes stands on its own as a substantive 3. has (like nouns) gender, number, and case 4. has (unlike nouns) all three genders (can stand in agreement with any noun) 5. matches (agrees) with its noun in gender, number, and case Exempla Latīna: magnus (fluvius) parva (īnsula) parvum (oppidum) Pronoun [Cap. II]: 1. points to, or stands for, a noun without naming it, e.g., “he,” “whom,” “they” 2. has (like nouns) gender, number, and case Exempla Latīna: quis cuius quae quid Verb [Cap. I]: 1. shows action, state of being 2. properties: a. person: 1st (I/we), 2nd (you), 3rd (he, she, it/they) b. number: singular, plural c. tense: time frame of the verb: xxii Lingva Latina: A Companion to Familia Romana i. present (continuing action in the present)4 ii. imperfect (continuing action in the past) iii. future (projected action) iv. perfect (completed action) v. pluperfect (action completed before another completed action) vi. future perfect (action to be completed before a projected action) d. voice: i. active (subject is the agent of the verb) ii. passive (subject is the recipient of the action of the verb) e. mood: expresses the speaker’s attitude to the verb i. indicative (states a fact, asks a question) ii. infinitive (the unbounded, “to” form of the verb)5 iii. imperative (gives a command) iv. subjunctive (various uses) Exempla Latīna: est, sunt pulsat [Cap. III] cantat [Cap. III] Participle [Cap. XIV]: 1. is a verbal adjective: it shares qualities of verbs and adjectives 2. like a verb, a participle has a. tense (present, past, future) b. voice (active, passive) 3. like an adjective, a participle has a. gender b. number c. case Exempla Latīna: dormiēns (puer) canentem (gallum) stantem (servum) Adverb [Cap. I]: 1. qualifies a a. verb b. adjective c. another adverb 4. The present shows continuing action in the present (I am walking), simple present (I walk), emphatic present (I do walk). 5. The infinitive, like the supine (not included here), is a verbal noun. To the Student xxiii Exempla Latīna: bene nōn ubi (interrogative adverb) num (interrogative adverb) Preposition [Cap. I]: 1. determines the relationship between two nouns Exempla Latīna: in (Italiā) sine (rōsīs) [Cap. V] cum (Aemiliā) [Cap. V] Conjunction [Cap. I]: 1. joins words, phrases, or clauses Exempla Latīna: sed et Interjection: An exclamation for emphasis [Cap. XXII]: Exemplum Latīnum: heus! Syntactic Terms [Examples are underlined] Subject: the focus of the sentence. To find the subject, ask “who” with the verb. Julia is singing. Who is singing? Julia (subject) Exempla Latīna: Rōma in Italiā est. Iūlia cantat [Cap. III]. Predicate: the verb and its modifier(s). To find the verb in a sentence, look for the word that denotes an action or state of being. Rōma in Italiā est: est is the verb/predicate (state of being) Iūlia cantat: cantat is the action (action) Predicate nominative: a noun used with a copulative (linking) verb to restate the subject. Corsica īnsula est. Tūsculum oppidum Rōmānum est. Predicate adjective: an adjective used with a copulative (linking) verb to qual- ify the subject. Fluvius magnus est. Oppidum parvum est. Transitive verb: a verb which is completed by a direct object. xxiv Lingva Latina: A Companion to Familia Romana Exempla Latīna: Mārcus nōn videt Quīntum [Cap. III]. Mārcus puellam pulsat [Cap. III]. Intransitive verb: a verb that is not completed by a direct object (which is in the accusative case) or that stands alone (e.g., “I stand,” “I sit”). In both ex- amples below, the dative case completes the verb, which is intransitive. Exempla Latīna: Pater dormit [Cap. III]. Pater venit [Cap. III]. Direct object: a word in the accusative case that receives the action of the verb. Exempla Latīna: Mārcus nōn videt Quīntum [Cap. III]. Mārcus puellam pulsat [Cap. III]. Indirect object: a word in the dative case that tells “to or for whom” the action of the verb is performed. Exempla Latīna: Pater fīliō suō magnum mālum dat [Cap. VII]. Dominus servīs māla et pira dat [Cap. VII]. Notā Bene:6 Some verbs which are transitive in English are intransitive in Latin. 6. Notā Bene means “note well” or “take note—this is important!” I. Imperium Rōmānum Rēs Grammaticae Novae 1. Getting Started: The Roman Empire 2. Using This Book a. Pay Attention to Endings b. Be Aware of Latin’s Flexible Word Order c. Concentrate on Meaning and Context d. Be Patient: Keep Reading e. Answers Often Explain Questions f. Look to Context for Word Meaning 3. Morphology a. Nouns: Singular/Plural b. Antonyms c. Adjectives and Substantives d. Interrogatives: num, quid e. Numbers: mīlle 4. Points of Style: Latin Concision Lēctiō Prīma (Section I) Getting Started: The Roman Empire In the first chapter, we take you 2,000 years back into the past, to the time when the Roman Empire was at the height of its power, extending from the Atlantic Ocean to the Caspian Sea and from Scotland to the Sahara. We give you a few geographical facts as background for the sketches from life in ancient Rome that follow. On the map of the Roman Empire facing the first page of the text, you will find all the geographical names occurring in the chapter. After locating the names Rōma, Italia, Eurōpa, Graecia, etc., you will understand what is said about the situation of the city of Rōma in the first sentence: Rōma in Italiā est, and about Italia and Graecia in the next two: Italia in Eurōpā est. Graecia in Eurōpā est. This is said once more in a single sentence: Italia et Graecia in Eurōpā sunt. The meaning of et should be quite clear, but can you tell why it 1 2 Lingva Latina: A Companion to Familia Romana is now sunt instead of est? If not, look in the margin and read the next two sentences as well. Have you discovered when to use est and when sunt? If so, you have learned the first rule of grammar: a singular subject is joined with a singular verb and a plural subject with a plural verb. If you read Lingua Latina, heeding the following suggestions, you’ll learn Latin well and easily. 1. Pay Attention to Endings (e.g., ‑a, ‑ā) Did you also notice the slight difference between Italia and Italiā, and what little word produces the long ‑ā? This difference is pointed out and explained in the first marginal note: Italia in Italiā 2. Be Aware of Latin’s Flexible Word Order (e.g., est, sunt) Another thing worth noticing: here est and sunt come at the end of the sen- tence, but you will see that it is not always so; Rōma est in Italiā is also correct. The word order is less rigid in Latin than in English. 3. Concentrate on Meaning and Context (e.g., the negation nōn) Is it really possible, you may ask, to understand everything by just reading the text? It certainly is, provided that you concentrate on the meaning and content of what you are reading. It is sufficient to know where Aegyptus is, to under- stand the statements Aegyptus in Eurōpā nōn est, Aegyptus in Āfricā est (l.5). There can be no doubt about the meaning of nōn (a so‑called negation). 4. Be Patient: Keep Reading (e.g., quoque and sed) Often a sentence is understood only when seen together with other sentences. In the sentence Hispānia quoque in Eurōpā est (ll.2–3), you will not understand quoque until you read in context: Italia et Graecia in Eurōpā sunt. Hispānia quoque in Eurōpā est. (The two preceding sentences might have been Italia in Eurōpā est or Graecia quoque in Eurōpā est.) If you are still in doubt, just go on reading till the word recurs: Syria nōn est in Eurōpā, sed in Asiā. Arabia quoque in Asiā est (l.7). Now you will certainly understand quoque—and in the mean- time, you have learned the word sed almost without noticing it. 5. Answers Often Explain Questions (e.g., ‑ne…? and ubi…?) In the next paragraph, a number of questions are asked, and each question is followed by an answer. It is often necessary to read the answer before you can I. Imperium Rōmānum 3 be quite sure of the meaning of the question. The first question is Estne Gallia in Eurōpā? The particle ‑ne attached to est marks the sentence as a question (our question mark [?] was unknown to the ancient Romans). The answer is Gallia in Eurōpā est. The next question, Estne Rōma in Galliā? is answered in the negative: Rōma in Galliā nōn est. (Latin has no single word for “yes” or “no.” The sentence—or part of it—must be repeated with or without nōn.) In the question Ubi est Rōma? the word ubi is intelligible only when you get the answer: Rōma est in Italiā. 6. Look to Context for Word Meaning After the short survey of the location of the principal Roman provinces, you are told about various localities: Rhēnus and Nīlus, Corsica and Sardinia, Tūsculum and Brundisium. You will find these names on the map, and the text will tell you what they represent. If you are still in doubt about the meaning of the words fluvius, īnsula, and oppidum, turn back to the picture heading the chapter. Nouns: Singular/Plural Note that these words occur in two different forms: Nīlus alone is called flu- vius, but Nīlus and Rhēnus together are called fluviī. In similar circumstances, you will notice the use of the forms īnsula and īnsulae, as well as oppidum and oppida. In the section Grammatica Latina in Lingua Latina you will learn that the forms fluvius, īnsula, and oppidum are called singulāris, while fluviī, īnsulae, and oppida are called plūrālis—in English singular and plural. Lēctiō Altera (Section II) Antonyms [↔] As you read on, you will see that Nīlus is referred to not only as fluvius, but also as fluvius magnus, unlike Tiberis, which is described as fluvius parvus. In the same way, Sicilia is referred to as īnsula magna as opposed to Melita (the modern Malta), which is called īnsula parva. In the margin, magnus and par- vus are represented as opposites (sign [↔], “the opposite of”); this will help you to understand the meaning of the words, but note that the endings change: fluvius magnus, but fluviī magnī. A further example: Brundisium is called oppi- dum magnum and Tūsculum, oppidum parvum, and when the same words occur in the plural, they are called fluviī magnī, īnsulae magnae, and oppida magna. 4 Lingva Latina: A Companion to Familia Romana Adjectives and Substantives A word that shows this variation between the endings ‑us, ‑a, ‑um in the singu- lar and ‑ī, ‑ae, ‑a in the plural is called an adjective (Latin adiectīvum, “added word”) because it is added to a noun (substantive), which it qualifies. Other nouns occurring in this chapter are: prōvincia littera imperium vocābulum numerus Adjectives occurring in this chapter are: magnus, ‑a, ‑um Rōmānus, ‑a, ‑um parvus, ‑a, ‑um Latīnus, ‑a, ‑um Graecus, ‑a, ‑um prīmus, ‑a, ‑um Plural adjectives found in this chapter are: multī, ‑ae, ‑a paucī, ‑ae, ‑a Note: The endings of the adjectives depend on the nouns that they qualify; so it is prōvincia magna but imperium magnum. More Interrogatives: num, quid The question Num Crēta oppidum est? (l.49) must, of course, be answered in the negative: Crēta oppidum nōn est. Num is an interrogative (i.e., asking) par- ticle, like ‑ne, but a question beginning with num implies a negative answer. The next question is Quid est Crēta? Here, again, only the answer, Crēta īnsula est, makes the meaning of the question quite plain. Compare: Estne Crēta oppidum? Is Crete a town? (I really don’t know, so I’m asking.) Num Crēta oppidum est? Crete isn’t a town, is it? (I suspect Crete is not a town and expect you to answer “no.”) Remember the other interrogatives in this chapter: Quid est Crēta? What is Crete? Ubi est Crēta? Where is Crete? More about Endings We have seen that, after in, the final vowel is ‑ā and not ‑a. Remember that the macron over the ā means the vowel is long (see pronunciation guide). We now see that in also makes ‑um change to ‑ō: in imperiō Rōmānō (l.58) in capitulō prīmō (l.73) in vocābulō (l.72) You will learn more about these forms in ‑ā and ‑ō in Cap. V. I. Imperium Rōmānum 5 Lēctiō Tertia (Section III) Mīlle Mīlle, the word for “a thousand,” is an indeclinable adjective; indeclinable means its endings never change. So: mīlle numerī mīlle vocābula mīlle litterae Points of Style: Latin Concision Latin is a concise language. It can often express in a few words what requires several words in other languages. One of the reasons is that Latin has fewer particles (small, uninflected words) than most modern languages; Latin also has nothing corresponding to the English articles “a” and “the,” as in “a river,” “the river,” etc. Recēnsiō (Review) Remember: 1. Pay attention to endings. 2. Be aware of Latin’s flexible word order. 3. Concentrate on meaning and context. 4. Be patient: keep reading. 5. Answers often explain questions. 6. Look to context for word meaning. Important terms: Enclitic: word that is appended to another word (‑ne, ‑que) Particle: small uninflected word Indeclinable: word whose endings do not change (mīlle) Studia Rōmāna The map in the beginning of this chapter shows the Roman Empire (Imperium Rōmānum) at its height in the second century AD, the time in which our nar- rative takes place. This is the time of the Pax Rōmāna, the Roman peace (which lasted from the end of the first century BC through the second century AD, from the time of the emperor Augustus through Marcus Aurelius). Rome had begun almost a millennium before our story, in 753 BC, as a hamlet on the hills around the swamp that would eventually become the Roman Forum. It began as a tiny kingdom (753–510 BC), then a republic run by the aristocracy (510–27 BC), and finally an empire which lasted in the west until the fifth cen- tury AD and in the east—in Constantinople—until the fifteenth century. 6 Lingva Latina: A Companion to Familia Romana In addition to learning the words for town (oppidum) and island (īnsula), you learn the word for river (fluvius) and the names of a few (Nīlus, Rhēnus, Dānuvius, Tiberis). Rivers are very important—for drinking water, for agricul- ture, for travel, for transport of goods, and as territorial boundaries. So impor- tant were rivers that river gods are often shown holding a cornucopia (cornū cōpiae, the horn of plenty), emphasizing their gift to agricultural fertility. Latin poets sometimes identify a group living in an area with the river that supplies them water: “the chilly brook Digentia that the folk of Mandela drink” (Quīntus Horātius Flaccus, 65–8 BC, Epist. 1.18.105); “those who drink the Tiber and the Fabaris” (Vergil, 70–19 BC, Aen. 7.715). The Romans helped along natural resources with the building of aqueducts. Appius Claudius Crassus directed that the first one, the Aqua Appia, be built in the fourth century BC (he is also to be credited with the construction of the Via Appia, the major roadway that led from Rome; see Cap. VI). By the time of our narrative, there were ten.1 Aq- ueducts fed fountains throughout a town lucky enough to be connected to an aqueduct. The structure of the house (see Cap. V) helped with water collection: rain water could come in through an opening in the roof of the ātrium, fall into a pool and be collected in a cistern for later use. The image of the tablet inscribed with numerals (numerī) and letters (lit- terae) that heads Section III in your text represents an important vehicle for writing. It is called a tabella (Cap. XXI) and consists of a wooden board with a raised border, with wax (cēra) in the middle. The pointed stick you see to the right of the tabella is called a stilus. It had a pointed end (for writing on the wax) and a broad, tapered surface on the other with which one could smooth out the wax (hence erasing the writing). There were different varieties of these tablets, including ones small enough to be held in the hand (called pugillārēs from pugnus, “fist”). In the margins on page 107 (Cap. XIV), you can see a tablet that folded and tied closed (just like pugillārēs), as well as a stilus and a rēgula (ruler). In Cap. II, there is a picture of an ancient book (liber antīquus) in the form of a scroll, as well as a pāgina, a written page (and the page itself!). You will learn more about writing in Cap. XVIII. Vocābula Disposita/Ōrdināta Nōmina (Nouns)2 capitulum, ‑ī chapter exemplum, ‑ī example, model fluvius, ‑ī river grammatica, ‑ae grammar 1. Frontinus (first century BC) 1.4: Nunc autem in urbem īnfluunt aqua Appia, Aniō Vetus, Mārcia, Tepula, Iūlia, Virgō, Alsietīna quae eadem vocatur Augusta, Claudia, Aniō Novus. The Aqua Alexan drina was completed in the early third century AD. 2. Ignore for now the letters that come after each vocabulary entry; they are there for your later reference and their significance will be clear in the next chapter. I. Imperium Rōmānum 7 imperium, ‑ī command, empire īnsula, ‑ae island littera, ‑ae letter numerus, ‑ī number ōceanus, ‑ī ocean oppidum, ‑ī town pēnsum, ‑ī task prōvincia, ‑ae province syllaba, ‑ae syllable vocābulum, ‑ī word Verba (Verbs) est he/she/it is sunt they are Adiectīva (Adjectives) Graecus, ‑a, ‑um Greek Latīnus, ‑a, ‑um Latin magnus, ‑a, ‑um big, large, great multī, ‑ae, ‑a (pl.) many, a great many parvus, ‑a, ‑um little, small paucī, ‑ae, ‑a (pl.) few, a few plūrālis (numerus) plural (plūrālis and singulāris are adjectives of the 3rd declension; you will learn about these in Cap. XII) prīmus, ‑a, ‑um first Rōmānus, ‑a, ‑um Roman, of Rome secundus, ‑a, ‑um second, favorable singulāris (numerus) singular tertius, ‑a, ‑um third Numerī (Numbers) ūnus one, only duo two trēs three sex six mīlle one thousand Adverbia (Adverbs) nōn not Praepositiōnēs (Prepositions) in (prp. + abl.) in, on, at (prp. + acc.) into, to, against Coniūnctiōnēs (Conjunctions) et and, also sed but quoque also, too 8 Lingva Latina: A Companion to Familia Romana Vocābula Interrogātīva (Interrogative words) ‑ne? enclitic added to the emphatic word at the beginning of a question the answer to which may be either “yes” or “no.” It can be used in both direct and indirect questions (Cap. XIX). num? if, whether; expects a “no” answer quid? n. (see quis) what, anything; adv. why ubi? interrog. adv. where II. Familia Rōmāna Rēs Grammaticae Novae 1. Gender: Masculine, Feminine, Neuter 2. Nouns: a. Ending in ‑us b. Ending in ‑a c. Ending in ‑um d. Ending in ‑er e. Genitive 3. Adjectives: a. cēterī, ae, a b. Possessive c. Numbers 4. Pronouns: quis, quae, quid 5. Adverbs: Interrogative quot 6. Conjunctions 7. Ecce 8. Points of Style: Enumerations The Roman Family We now introduce you to the people whose daily lives we will follow in the rest of the text. The picture shows them dressed in their best clothes, except for the four who are relegated to the margin—clearly, they are not on the same level as the rest of the family. Be sure to remember their names, for you will soon become so well acquainted with these persons that you will almost feel like a friend visiting a real Roman family 2,000 years ago. And the remarkable thing about it is that you can understand their language! You will find more about the Roman family in the Studia Rōmāna section at the end of the chapter. 9 10 Lingva Latina: A Companion to Familia Romana Lēctiō Prīma (Section I) Gender: Masculine, Feminine, Neuter Note that the names of these people end in either ‑us (masculine) or ‑a (femi- nine); none of them end in ‑um (neuter). You will see that the ending ‑us is characteristic of male persons: Iūlius Dāvus Mārcus Mēdus Quīntus and ‑a of female persons: Aemilia Syra Iūlia Dēlia This principle also applies to nouns that denote persons. Nouns referring to males generally end in ‑us: fīlius servus dominus A smaller number of masculine nouns end in ‑r instead of ‑us: vir puer Nouns denoting females end mostly in ‑a: fēmina domina puella ancilla fīlia No persons are denoted by words ending in ‑um. Latin groups nouns by gender, not “sex.” The word gender comes from the Latin genus, which means group or category. The three genders, or categories, are: neuter (Latin neutrum, “neither,” i.e., neither masculine nor feminine) oppidum imperium vocābulum masculine (Latin masculīnum, from mas, “male”) fluvius titulus numerus liber feminine (Latin fēminīnum, from fēmina) īnsula prōvincia littera familia Genders (in Latin) masculine (m.): ‑us, ‑er, ‑ir feminine (f.): ‑a neuter (n.): ‑um II. Familia Rōmāna 11 Nouns: Genitive Case (cāsus genetīvus) The word familia refers to the whole household, including all the slaves, servī and ancillae, who belong to the head of the family as his property. Iūlius is the father, pater, of Mārcus, Quīntus, and Iūlia, and the master, dominus, of Mēdus, Dāvus, Syra, Dēlia, etc. To express these relationships, we need the genitive (Latin genetīvus), a form of the noun ending in: Singular: ‑ī (m./n.) and ‑ae (f.) Iūlius est pater Mārcī et Quīntī et Iūliae. Titulus capitulī secundī est “Familia Rōmāna.” (ll.87–88) Plural: ‑ōrum (m./n.) and ‑ārum (f.) Iūlius est dominus multōrum servōrum et multārum ancillārum. In Graeciā et in Italiā magnus numerus oppidōrum est. (l.56) To express the idea of the genitive, English uses the word “of ” or an apos- trophe: māter Iūliae = “Julia’s mother” or “the mother of Julia.” genitive: “of,” “‑’s” m./n. f. sing. ‑ī ‑ae pl. ‑ōrum ‑ārum In addition to the category of gender, nouns fall into categories according to their endings. These categories are called declensions (dēclīnātiōnēs), according to the ending of the genitive. Nouns whose genitive ends in ‑ae belong to the 1st declension; those whose genitive ends in ‑ī belong to the 2nd declension. Conjunctions: Coniūnctiōnēs Particles like et and sed are called conjunctions (Latin coniūnctiōnēs, from con‑iungere, “join together”) because they join words and sentences. Instead of et, you often find the conjunction ‑que attached after the second word. ‑que is called an enclitic because it “leans on” (from the Greek ἐγκλίνω) the word in front of it and cannot stand on its own. The mark “‑” in front of it signals an enclitic. Both et and ‑que mean “and”: Dēlia Mēdusque = Dēlia et Mēdus. (l.9) fīliī fīliaeque = fīliī et fīliae. (l.22) Conjunctions sed …‑que = et… 12 Lingva Latina: A Companion to Familia Romana Interrogatives: Quis, Quae, Quid Among the new words in Cap. II are the interrogative words quis and quae, which are used to ask questions about persons (English “who”): Quis est Mārcus? masculine quis (plural quī) Quae est Iūlia? feminine quae (plural quae)1 In Cap. I, you met the neuter interrogative quid (English “what”): Quid est Creta? neuter singular. The genitive of the interrogative for all genders is cuius (English “whose”): Cuius servus est Dāvus? Dāvus servus Iūliī est. (l.35) m. f. n. nom. quis? quae? quid? gen. cuius? Quot Most words in Latin change endings; for example, fīlius (one son) and fīliī (more than one son). Some words, however, never change form. They are called indeclinable: they always look the same. Quot (“how many”) is an inde- clinable interrogative adverb that asks questions about number: Quot līberī sunt in familiā? In familiā Iūliī sunt trēs līberī. Quot fīliī et quot fīliae? Duo fīliī et ūna fīlia. Quot servī…?…centum servī. (ll.37–39) quot? 1, 2, 3… Numerī Like mīlle (Cap. I) and most numerals, centum (100, l.39) is invariable: it does not change its ending (or “decline,” the usual term for a change of a noun or adjective’s ending). The numbers one (ūnus), two (duo), and three (trēs), how- ever, do decline, they change endings: ūnus has the familiar endings ‑us, ‑a, ‑um the feminine of duo is duae (duae fīliae) and the neuter duo the neuter of trēs is tria (tria oppida); trēs refers to both masculine and feminine nouns. m. f. n. ūnus ūna ūnum duo duae duo trēs trēs tria 1. Latin, in fact, tended to use quis for both masculine and feminine nominative singular. II. Familia Rōmāna 13 Lēctiō Altera (Section II) Genitive (continued) The number can also be indicated by the noun numerus combined with the genitive plural: Numerus līberōrum est trēs. (ll.43–44) Numerus servōrum est centum. (l.43) As centum must be said to be a magnus numerus, the following sentences are easily understood: Numerus servōrum est magnus. In familiā magnus numerus servōrum est. It appears that magnus numerus servōrum is equivalent to multī servī. In the same way, parvus numerus līberōrum has the same meaning as paucī līberī. You will also find the expressions magnus numerus oppidōrum and fluviōrum meaning multa oppida and multī fluviī. magnus numerus…ōrum = multī…ī/multa…a magnus numerus…ārum = multae…ae Adjective: Cēterī, ‑ae, ‑a The Romans knew only the northern part of the continent of Africa, where there is only one big river, the Nile: In Āfricā ūnus fluvius magnus est: Nīlus. (l.58) It goes on: Cēterī fluviī Āfricae parvī sunt. (l.59) The adjective cēterī, ‑ae, ‑a, “the others,” recurs several times; thus, the enu- meration of the first three of the thirty-five capitula is concluded with cētera: In Linguā Latinā sunt multae pāginae et multa capitula: capitulum prīmum, secundum, tertium, cētera. (l.86) The sentence might have read et cētera, the Latin expression which gives us the abbreviation “etc.” cēterī, ‑ae, ‑a Points of Style: Enumerations The following rules apply to enumerations in Latin: 1. et put between all items: Mārcus et Quīntus et Iūlia 2. no conjunction used at all: Mārcus, Quīntus, Iūlia 14 Lingva Latina: A Companion to Familia Romana 3. ‑que added to the last item: Mārcus, Quīntus Iūliaque That is: 1. a et b et c 2. a, b, c 3. a, b, c‑que Lēctiō Tertia (Section III) Adjectives: Possessive The conversation at the end of the chapter (ll.65–79) shows that instead of the genitive, the adjectives meus, ‑a, ‑um and tuus, ‑a, ‑um are used to refer to what belongs to the person speaking or the person spoken to (like English “my” and “your”). The adjective always has the same gender (m., f., or n.), number (sing. or pl.), and case (e.g., nominative, genitive) as the noun it modifies. So, Julius says, “Dēlia est ancilla mea” (l.71). Mea is an adjective agreeing with ancilla, so it is feminine nominative singular. meus, ‑a, ‑um tuus, ‑a, ‑um Ecce On page 16, you come across the word ecce (illustrated with an arrow in the margin). It is used when you point to or call attention to something; in this case, it is pointing to the two books. Nouns Ending in ‑er: puer, puerī, liber, librī Notice the form of an ancient book: a scroll with the text written in columns. The Latin word for such a scroll is liber. Liber, like puer (also in this chapter), ends in ‑er instead of in ‑us. Notice that some nouns (like puer) keep an e throughout, while others (like liber) have e only in the nominative (and voca- tive, the form used when directly addressing someone).2 The plural of liber is librī, while the plural of puer is puerī. These nouns are always masculine. Notā Bene: Look to the genitive to determine what happens to the e: puer, puerī (there will be an e throughout) liber, librī (the e is found only in the nominative) nominative genitive liber librī puer puerī 2. Vocative, Cap. IV. II. Familia Rōmāna 15 Recēnsiō: Grammatical Terms Decline: Nouns, adjectives, and pronouns change endings, depending on their use in the sentence; that is, they are said to decline. Declensions: Nouns, adjectives, and pronouns are grouped according to their characteristic vowel into families, called declensions. The vowel ‑a characterizes the first declension (e.g., puella, domina), while ‑o/u marks the second declension (e.g., servus, imperium). Enclitic: An enclitic is a word that cannot stand on its own; it attaches itself to the word it follows. Gender: Nouns, adjectives, and pronouns fall into three categories called genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter. Indeclinable: A word is called indeclinable if it never changes endings. Studia Rōmāna One of the first things you will notice about the pictures of the Roman family is their clothing. Clothing was an important marker of status in the ancient world. The basic unit of clothing for everyone was the tunic (tunica, Cap. XIV). The tunic was worn in various lengths and was usually belted at the waist. For men, it reached the knees or mid-calf. Soldiers wore them above the knee. Julius is shown wearing a toga (Cap. XIV) over his tunic. The toga was made of white wool and was expensive. It was a highly symbolic garment for special occasions that marked a man as a Roman citizen. A man who was running for office would send his toga to the cleaner to have it whitened. A shining white toga is called toga candida, and a man running for office was a candidātus: our “candidate.” The right arm is left unencumbered, but the left arm is impeded by the way the toga is worn (which you can see clearly in the image of Corne- lius in the margin on p. 15). Both Marcus and Quintus wear a toga with a purple stripe (the toga prae- texta, or bordered toga), the normal ceremonial dress of free‑born male chil- dren (and also of magistrates!) until around the age of fifteen or sixteen, when they assumed the toga virīlis (the toga of manhood, from vir) like their father. Young girls also wore the toga praetexta when they were dressed formally, al- though Julia is shown here with a plain toga over her long tunic. Over her tunic, Aemilia wears the palla, a long, wide, and cloak‑like gar- ment. The tunic of both girls and adult women reached to the foot. Over her tunic but under the palla, Aemilia is probably wearing a stola, a long, sleeveless garment that signifies her status as a mātrōna, a married woman. Clothing was made of wool at home by the māterfamilias and her ancillae. In Livy, (59 BC–AD 17) we find Lucretia, a paragon of Roman womanhood, in the atrium spinning wool with her ancillae by lamplight).3 Suetonius’s (c. AD 75–160) biography of the emperor Augustus tells us that the women in 3. Ab urbe conditā, 1.57. Lūcrētiam…nocte sērā dēditam lānae inter lūcūbrantēs ancillās in mediō aedium sedentem inveniunt. 16 Lingva Latina: A Companion to Familia Romana his household learned to spin and weave, despite the family’s great wealth and power (Aug. 64). The republican period epitaph of a woman named Claudia records, among her accomplishments as the māterfamilias, “She looked after the house; she did the wool‑working” (domum servāvit. Lānam fēcit). Children also wore protective amulets around their necks. Boys wore the bulla (which was round) and girls the lūnula (“little moon” and moon shaped). When boys assumed the toga virīlis, they dedicated the bulla to the household gods known as the Larēs. Before their marriage, girls also dedicated the toga praetexta, their toys, and the lūnula to the Larēs. The Larēs represented the spirits of deified dead ancestors; you will learn more about them in Cap. IV. Footwear included soleae (sandals) and calceī (shoes); soleae covered only part of the foot, and were worn indoors and at meals, while the calceus (Cap. XIV, p. 106) covered the whole foot and was a sturdier shoe. We see the slaves, both men and women, wearing short, belted tunics. Vocābula Disposita/Ōrdināta Nōmina 1st declension ancilla, ‑ae female slave, servant domina, ‑ae mistress familia, ‑ae domestic staff, family fēmina, ‑ae woman fīlia, ‑ae daughter pāgina, ‑ae page puella, ‑ae girl 2nd declension dominus, ‑ī master fēminīnum, ‑ī (genus) feminine fīlius, ‑ī son genetīvus, ‑ī (cāsus) genitive liber, ‑brī book līberī, ‑ōrum children masculīnum, ‑ī (genus) masculine neutrum (genus) neuter puer, ‑erī boy servus, ‑ī slave, servant titulus, ‑ī title vir, ‑ī man, husband 3rd declension (you will learn more about these nouns in Cap. IX) māter ( f.) mother pater (m.) father II. Familia Rōmāna 17 Adiectīva 1st/2nd declension (‑us, ‑a, ‑um) antīquus, ‑a, ‑um old, ancient, former centum (invariable) a hundred cēterī, ‑ae, ‑a (pl.) the other(s), the rest duo, duae, duo two meus, ‑a, ‑um my, mine novus, ‑a, ‑um new tuus, ‑a, ‑um your, yours 3rd declension (you will learn more about these adjectives in Cap. XII) trēs, tria three Prōnōmina quis? quae? quid? who, what quī? (m. pl.) what, which cuius? (gen. sing.) whose Adverbia quot? (indecl.) how many, (as many) as Coniūnctiōnēs ‑que and enclitic added to the second word of a pair of words in order to link them together III. Puer Improbus Rēs Grammaticae Novae 1. Verbs a. The Latin Verb b. Transitive/Intransitive c. Implied Subject 2. Nouns Subject/Object 3. Pronouns a. Personal Pronouns: Accusative Case b. Relative and Interrogative Pronouns 4. Adverbs: Interrogatives cūr, quia 5. Conjunctions: Negatives 6. Points of Style: Writing Relative Sentences Sibling Quarrel Now that you have been introduced to the family, you are going to watch some of their doings. We begin with the children—they are portrayed here as being much the same in ancient times as they are today. So, we are not surprised to learn that Julius and Aemilia’s children cannot always get on together. Here, little Julia is the first to suffer, because her singing annoys her big brother. Peace is not restored until Mother and Father step in. The chapter is divided up into three scenes (scaena prīma, secunda, tertia). Lēctiō Prīma (Section I) The Latin Verb Several of the new words in this chapter are verbs. A verb (Latin verbum) is a word that expresses an action or a state: that someone does something or that something exists or takes place. The first Latin verb you come across is can- tat in the opening sentence: Iūlia cantat. Other verbs are pulsat, plōrat, rīdet, videt, vocat, venit, etc. They all end in ‑t—like est, which is also a verb—and mostly come at the end of the sentence. 18 III. Puer Improbus 19 Verbs ‑at cantat, pulsat, plōrat ‑et rīdet, videt, respondet ‑it venit, audit, dormit Like nouns, verbs are grouped into categories, called conjugations (coniugātiōnēs); verbs in the 1st conjugation have stems ending in ‑ā, in the 2nd in ‑ē, in the 4th in ‑ī. In Cap. IV you will learn some verbs from the 3rd conjugation, which also have a 3rd person singular ending in ‑it; in that conju- gation, some verbs have a stem ending in ‑ĭ and others ending in a consonant. Nouns: Subject/Object The first of the two words in the sentence Iūlia cantat denotes the person who performs the action. Other sentences of the same kind are: Iūlia plōrat. (l.9) Aemilia venit. (l.21) Mārcus rīdet. (l.10) Pater dormit. (l.37) But it is not always as simple as this. Take, for instance, the sentence that is illustrated by the little drawing in the margin: Mārcus Iūliam pulsat (l.8). Here, we are told not only who performs the action, but also at whom the action is aimed. The same pattern is seen in the following sentences, also illustrated by pictures: Quīntus Mārcum videt. (l.11) Mārcus Quīntum pulsat. (l.14) Quīntus Mārcum pulsat. (l.13) Iūlia Aemiliam vocat. (l.19) Subject: The person who performs the action is called the subject of the verb. The subject has the ending ‑us, ‑a (or ‑um for neuter nouns); these forms are called nominative (Latin nōminātīvus). Object: The person toward whom (or the object toward which) the action is directed, the object, takes the ending ‑um or ‑am. The forms ‑um and ‑am are called accusative (Latin accūsātīvus). In other words: Iūlia is changed to Iūliam when we are told that Marcus hits her, just as Mārcus becomes Mārcum when he is the victim. In similar circumstances, puella changes to puellam, and puer to puerum, and qualifying adjectives get the same ending: Mārcus parvam puellam pulsat. (l.59) Iūlius puerum improbum verberat. (l.64) subject object verb Mārcus Iūliam pulsat m. f. nominative: ‑us ‑a accusative: ‑um -am 20 Lingva Latina: A Companion to Familia Romana Both the nominative (subject) and the accusative (object) are called cases: cāsus nōminātīvus and cāsus accūsātīvus. Verbs: Transitive/Intransitive Verbs like pulsat, videt, vocat, which can be used with an object in the accusa- tive, are called transitive. Verbs without an object—e.g., plōrat, dormit—are intransitive verbs. Iūlia plōrat (intransitive: no object) et Aemiliam vocat (transitive: accusative object). (l.9) Mārcus nōn videt Quīntum (transitive). (l.11) In the following sentence, the first verb (pulsat) is transitive and the second (ridet) intransitive: Mārcus puellam pulsat—et rīdet! (l.12) Notā Bene: You need to pay attention to whether a word is transitive in Latin—which will not always be the same as its English equivalent! Lēctiō Altera (Section II) Personal Pronouns: Accusative Case Instead of accusative nouns in ‑am and ‑um, you sometimes find the words eam and eum, e.g.: Iūlia plōrat quia Mārcus eam pulsat. (ll.27–28) Cūr Iūlius Quīntum nōn audit? Iūlius eum nōn audit, quia dormit. (ll.42–43) On page 20, you will notice the marginal note “eam: Iūliam” means that here, eam stands for Iūliam. A word of this kind, which takes the place of a name or noun, is called a pronoun (Latin prōnōmen, from prō “instead of” and nōmen “name” or “noun”). Corresponding to eum (him) and eam (her), the pronoun mē is used when a person is speaking about himself or herself, and tē is used about the person spoken to (in English, “me” and “you”): Aemilia: “Quis mē vocat?” Quīntus: “Iūlia tē vocat.” (ll.24–25) m. f. acc. eum eam mē tē III. Puer Improbus 21 Implied Subject In English, we use the pronouns “he” and “she”: Where is Julius? Why doesn’t he come? But in Latin, these pronouns are not needed. When the context shows who the subject is, it need not be repeated (or replaced by a pronoun): “Ubi est Iūlius? Cūr nōn venit?” (ll.35–36) Similarly: Iūlius eum nōn audit, quia dormit. (l.43) “Cūr māter Mārcum verberat?” “Mārcum verberat, quia puer improbus est.” (ll.58–59) Adverbs: Interrogatives cūr and quia The interrogative adverb cūr (“why?”) is used to ask about the cause (Latin causa). A question introduced by cūr calls for an answer with the causal con- junction quia (“because”): Cūr Iūlia plōrat? Iūlia plōrat, quia Mārcus eam pulsat. (ll.26–28) Cūr Mārcus Iūliam pulsat? Quia Iūlia cantat. (ll.30–31) question: cūr…? answer: …quia… Conjunctions: Negative The conjunctions et and sed are not usually combined with a negation; instead of et nōn and sed nōn, the conjunction neque (ne‑que) is used, i.e., ‑que attached to the original negation nē (= nōn): Iūlius dormit neque Quīntum audit. In English, “and not” Iūlius venit, neque Aemilia eum videt. In English, “but not” ne‑que = et nōn (sed nōn) Lēctiō Tertia (Section III) Pronouns: Relative and Interrogative In the sentence Puer quī parvam puellam pulsat improbus est (l.63), quī refers to puer and is called a relative pronoun. The relative pronoun connects (“relates”) a subordinate clause to a main clause. The relative pronoun refers to a word in the main clause called an antecedent. The pronoun will agree with its anteced- ent in gender and number, but its case will be determined by the subordinate clause. In the preceding example, quī is masculine singular to agree with its antecedent puer and nominative because it is the subject of pulsat in its own clause. 22 Lingva Latina: A Companion to Familia Romana More examples: Puer quī rīdet est Mārcus. (l.70) Puella quae plōrat est Jūlia. (l.71) As a relative pronoun quem is used in the masculine and quam in the femi- nine when it represents the verb’s object in its own clause: Puer quem Aemilia verberat est Mārcus. (ll.75–76) Puella quam Mārcus pulsat est Iūlia. (ll.72–73) The examples show that quī and quem (m.) refer to a masculine noun, and quae and quam (f.) to a feminine noun. In Cap. IV (l.75) you will meet quod, which refers to a neuter noun: baculum, quod in mēnsā est At the end of the chapter (p. 23), you find sentences with both the inter- rogative and the relative pronoun, e.g.:1 Quis est puer quī rīdet? Who (interrogative) is the boy who (relative) is laughing? (l.69) In the feminine, the two pronouns are identical: Quae est puella quae Who (interrogative) is the girl who plōrat? (relative) is crying? (l.70) The interrogative pronoun quis is quem in the accusative: Quem vocat Quīntus? Quīntus Iūlium vocat. (l.77) Points of Style: Writing Relative Sentences Consider these sentences (from Cap. II) Iūlius est vir Rōmānus. Iūlius est pater Mārcī. These two independent sentences have equal value. Their common lexical link is Iūlius. Substituting the relative for one Iūlius, we can make two different complex sentences: Iūlius, quī est vir Rōmānus, est pater Mārcī. Iūlius, quī est pater Mārcī, est vir Rōmānus. In the first sentence, Julius’s being a Roman man is made subordinate to his being the father of Marcus, while in the second, his being Marcus’s father is the subordinate, or dependent, idea. (from Cap. III) Iūlius eum audit. Iam nōn dormit pater. (l.48) Pater, quī eum audit, iam nōn dormit. Father, who hears him, is no longer sleeping. Iūlius, quī iam nōn dormit, eum audit. Julius, who is no longer sleeping, hears him. 1. See the explanation (p. xv) of when—and why—sentences will be translated. III. Puer Improbus 23 Since pater and Iūlius both refer to the same person, we can substitute a relative pronoun for one of the occurrences. The meaning of the sentence changes a bit, depending on how the clauses are combined. The first one suggests (as did the original two independent clauses) that Julius is no longer sleeping because he hears Marcus wailing and that wakes him up. The second implies that he hears Marcus because he is no longer sleeping. relative pronoun: connects a clause puer quī… puella quae… m. f. n. nom. quī quae quod acc. quem quam quod interrogative pronoun: asks a question nom. quis acc. quem Recēnsiō: Qu‑ words quis? quae? quid? who, what? (interrogative pronoun) quī, quae who (interrogative pronoun, plural) quia because (conjunction) quot how many? (interrogative adverb) New Grammatical Terms Case: The ending of a noun or adjective changes depending on the word’s function; each of these alterations is called a “case” (Latin cāsus). Subject: The person (or thing) that performs the action of the verb is called the subject, represented in Latin by the nominative case. Object: The person (or thing) that completes the meaning of the verb is called the direct object, represented in Latin by the accusative case. Conjugation: The ending of a verb’s stem (‑ā, ‑ē, ‑ī, ‑ĭ, or consonant) determines the group (conjugation) to which it belongs. Transitive: A verb is transitive if an accusative direct object completes its meaning. Intransitive: A verb is intransitive if its meaning is complete without an accusative direct object. Implied Subject: If the subject is not directly stated, but needs to be supplied from the ending of the verb, it is called an implied subject. Pronoun: A pronoun takes the place of a noun. Lexical Entry: The way a word is presented in a lexicon (dictionary), for 24 Lingva Latina: A Companion to Familia Romana example mamma, ‑ae, f. The vocabulary entry for verbs and some other words will change in the first part of this book as you learn more morphology (forms of words). For now, verbs are listed as 3rd person singular. Cap. X adds the present infinitive. The actual lexical entry for verbs begins with the 1st person singular, which you will first meet in Cap. XV. Studia Rōmāna In the second scene, we see Julius sleeping on a lectus, a Roman bed. While it looks pretty uncomfortable, such sleeping couches were common in the ancient world (other images on pp. 74, 78, 187). By our standards, Roman furniture could be sparse. The three most common pieces were the table (mēnsa), chair (sella), and couch (lectus). Storage places in the form of cupboards (armārium) and chests (arca) were also important. Containers for books (scrolls) went by various names: the capsa (also in diminutive form: capsula) was a cylinder that can often be seen at the foot of a statue of one who wants to mark himself as learned. The scrīnium was a portable chest for holding books and papers. The cista (also in diminutive form: cistula) was a woven basket used for holding various things, including books; a particular usage for the cista was to hold the sacred implements at a religious festival. Oil lamps (lucernae) were ubiquitous. They could be carried in the hand and placed on a lamp-stand (lychnūchus, λυχνοῦχος). Furniture—especially tables, of which the Romans were particularly fond—could be a sign of wealth. The beginning of Cap. IV (p. 26) shows Julius sitting at a table that rests on ornately carved legs. Pliny the Elder (first century AD) writes about the Roman mania for tables (mēnsārum insānia) made of citrus (cedar) wood (arbor cītrī, Historia Nātūrālis, 13.29); elsewhere, he writes of table legs being made of ivory (12.3). You will see at the end of our story that Julius can afford to adorn his dining room with expensive linens for the dining couches (Cap. XXX). Romans sometimes brought their own napkin (mappa) or hand towel (mantēle) to dinner parties. Catullus (first century BC) com- plained in the first century BC that someone stole a napkin from him while dining out, which was both expensive and a gift from a friend (Poem 12). The complaint continues to the time period of our narrative. Martial (first century AD) writes about a recent diner, “No one had brought his napkin (mappa) since thefts were feared: Hermogenes stole the cloth (mantēle) from the table” (Book 12.28: attulerat mappam nēmō, dum fūrta timentur: / mantēle ā mēnsā surpuit Hermogenes). Julius sits on a low stool (p. 22: scamnum), but the Romans had a variety of chairs (sellae)—including the high-backed chairs that we see in Cap. XIV (p. 110). III. Puer Improbus 25 In the third scene, as father punishes his son, the sound is represented by tuxtax (ll.64, 65), a word meant to imitate the sound of being beaten. Corporal punishment for children was common. Some other colorful Latin expressions: bombax: an exclamation of surprise babae: an exclamation of joy and amazement In the next chapter, you’ll meet some other Latin exclamations: fū: an exclamation of dislike or aversion st: “shhhhh…” Vocābula Disposita/Ōrdināta Nōmina 1st mamma, ‑ae mommy persōna, ‑ae character, person scaena, ‑ae scene, stage 2nd accūsātīvus, ‑ī (cāsus) accusative nōminātīvus, ‑ī (cāsus) nominative verbum, ‑ī word, verb Verba ‑at (1) cantat sing interrogat ask, question plōrat cry pulsat strike, hit, knock (at) verberat beat, flog vocat call, invite ‑et (2) respondet answer rīdet laugh, make fun of videt see ‑it (4) audit hear, listen dormit sleep venit come Adiectīva 1st/2nd (‑us, ‑a, ‑um) improbus, ‑a, ‑um bad, wicked īrātus, ‑a, ‑um angry laetus, ‑a, ‑um glad, happy probus, ‑a, ‑um good, honest, proper 26 Lingva Latina: A Companion to Familia Romana Prōnōmina eam her eum him mē me quae ( f.) who, which, she who quam (acc. sing. f.) whom, which, she whom quem (acc. sing. m.) whom, which, he whom quī (m.) who, which, he who tē you Adverbia cūr? why? iam now, already hīc here Coniūnctiōnēs neque and not, but not, nor, neither quia because Alia (Cētera) ō! oh! IV. Dominus et Servī Rēs Grammaticae Novae 1. Verbs a. Conjugations: coniugātiōnēs b. Mood: i. modus indicātīvus ii. modus imperātīvus 2. Nouns: Vocative Case: cāsus vocātīvus 3. Adjectives a. Numbers: numerī b. Possessives: eius/suus, meus/tuus 4. Pronouns: Nominative, Genitive Case We now leave the children for a while and turn to the grown-ups. There is a worried look on Julius’s face; it turns out that a sum of money is missing. Who is the thief? The problem is not solved until the end of the chapter, of course— and by then, the culprit has already decamped! Later (in Caps. VI and VIII), you will find out where he is hiding and what he does with the money. But right now, you must set to work to discover who the thief is. Lēctiō Prīma (Section I) Verbs: Conjugations The stem of a Latin verb ends in one of the long vowels ‑ā, ‑ē, ‑ī, or in a con- sonant. The verbs are therefore divided into four classes, called conjugations (coniugātiōnēs): 1st conjugation: ā‑verbs, with stems ending in ‑ā: vocā‑, cantā‑, pulsā‑. 2nd conjugation: ē‑verbs, with stems ending in ‑ē: tacē‑, vidē‑, habē‑. 3rd conjugation: consonant‑verbs, with stems ending in a consonant: pōn‑, sūm‑, discēd‑. 4th conjugation: ī‑verbs, with stems ending in ‑ī: venī‑, audī‑, dormī‑. 27 28 Lingva Latina: A Companion to Familia Romana To these stems the different verbal endings are added (a vertical stroke [|] is here used to mark the division between stem and ending). When ‑t is added: the last vowel of the stem becomes short: voca|t, vide|t, veni|t in the consonant‑verbs a short ‑i‑ is inserted before the ‑t: pōn|it, sūm|it, discēd|it. Conjugations ā‑stems vocā‑ ē‑stems vidē‑ consonant‑stems pōn‑ ī‑stems venī‑ This verbal form is called the indicative (Latin indicātīvus, “stating,” “indicat- ing”). The indicative makes a statement or asks a question. Verbs: Moods: Modī So far all of our reading has consisted of sentences that make statements or ask questions. In this chapter, you learn how to give commands. These dif- ferent forms of the verb are called moods (modus). As you saw in the previ- ous section, statements and questions fall into the category of the indicative mood (modus indicātīvus). Commands in Latin are expressed by the impera- tive mood (modus imperātīvus). Imperative: Modus Imperātīvus The form of the verb used to give orders is called the imperative (Latin imperātīvus, from imperat, “he, she, it orders”). When giving an order to one person, the Latin imperative consists of the shortest form of the verb called the stem, without any ending, e.g., vocā! tacē! venī!, or a short ‑e is added when the stem ends in a consonant, as in pōne! (the stem is pōn‑). Examples: Dāvum vocā! (l.24) Tacē, serve! (l.37) Venī! (l.27) Sacculum tuum in mēnsā pōne! (l.60) Imperative vocā! vidē! venī! pōne! In the following examples, the first verb is an imperative (gives an order), the second, indicative (makes a statement or asks a question). IV. Dominus et Servī 29 vocā: call! voca|t he, she, it calls vidē: see! vide|t he, she, it sees pōn|e: put! pōn|it he, she, it puts audī: listen! audi|t he, she, it listens Pronouns: Genitive (cāsus genetīvus) The genitive of is (which you will learn in Section II) is eius (cf. English “his, her”): In sacculō eius (: Iūliī) est pecūnia. (l.1) Possessives: meus, ‑a, ‑um/tuus, ‑a, ‑um The adjectives meus, ‑a, ‑um (my), tuus, ‑a, ‑um (yours) and suus, ‑a, ‑um (his own, her own, its own) are called possessive adjectives. The possessive adjec- tive serves to replace the genitive (for all three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter). Possessives: eius/suus English has one set of possessives for the 3rd person: his, her, its. Latin has two: the genitive pronoun eius the possessive adjective suus, -a, -um Compare the following two sentences: Dāvus sacculum eius sūmit. Davus takes his (someone else’s) bag. Dāvus sacculum suum sūmit. Davus takes his own bag. (l.74) Both eius and suus, ‑a, ‑um mean his, her, its, but they are not interchangeable. To understand the difference, compare the two examples (ll.61–62): Dāvus sacculum suum in mēnsā pōnit. Iam sacculus eius in mēnsā est. In the first sentence—Dāvus sacculum suum in mēnsā pōnit—the subject is Davus and the money also belongs to Davus; therefore “his” (or “his own”) is expressed by the adjective suum. When the “his” (or “hers” or “its”) refers back to the subject of the sentence, Latin uses the possessive adjective suus, ‑a, ‑um. In English, the word “own” is sometimes added to make the meaning plain: “his/her own.” In the second sentence—Iam sacculus eius in mēnsā est—the subject is sac- culus, and “his” is expressed by the genitive of the pronoun: eius. Look at another example: Iūlius pecūniam suam sūmit. Julius takes his (own) money. 30 Lingva Latina: A Companion to Familia Romana Note that “his own” is feminine, because it modifies pecūniam, even though it is translated “his” and refers to Julius. An adjective always has the same gen- der, number, and case as the noun it

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