Liceo_Science_Club (BIOLOGY NOTES).pdf

General Biology 01 GENBIO 01 SY 2024-2025 1ST SY 2024-2025 : 1ST SEMESTER 1ST SEMEST...

General Biology 01 GENBIO 01 SY 2024-2025 1ST SY 2024-2025 : 1ST SEMESTER 1ST SEMESTER Reviewed by: Ms. Myra Magdayao Prepared by: The Liceo Science Club CELL THEORY MICROSCOPE, CELL THEORY AND BASIC CELL TYPES Scientific Theory PREPARED BY: Klarisse Chua NOT A SCIENTIFIC GUESS EXPLANATION OF WHAT HAPPENS MICROSCOPE IN NATURE WELL-SUPPORTED BY Microscopy OBSERVATIONS AND - The science of using microscopes to EXPERIMENTS view and magnify objects or specimens ACCEPTED BY MANY SCIENTISTS that are too small to be seen by the naked eye. DISCOVERY OF MICROSCOPE Hans and Zacharias Janssen (1500s – 1600s) Microscope - First investigator to invent the - The word “microscope” comes from the compound microscope. Latin “microscopium,” which is - The microscope was built by derived from the Greek words Zacharias Janssen, probably with the “mikros,” meaning “small,” and help of his father Hans, in the year “skopein,” meaning “to look at.” 1595. - Microscopes are instruments that are - The Janssen’s Draw tube Microscope used in science laboratories to visualize consists of three draw tubes with lenses very minute objects such as cells, and inserted into the ends of the flanking microorganisms, giving a contrasting tubes. image that is magnified. The beginning of the historical development of cell theory Robert Hooke (1635-1703) - An English scientist whose reputation in the history of biology largely rests on his book Micrographia, published in 1665. - He devised a compound microscope and illumination system which he used in studying thin slices of cork. - He coined the term "cells" describing the boxlike cells of cork which reminded him of the cells of a monastery. Discovery of microorganisms  General Biology 01 GENBIO 01 SY 2024-2025 1ST SY 2024-2025 : 1ST SEMESTER 1ST SEMESTER Reviewed by: Ms. Myra Magdayao Prepared by: The Liceo Science Club Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) - Cells are the basic unit of structure for - a Dutch scientist famous for making all organisms. simple microscopes, which only had a - Cell form by spontaneous generation. single lens each, with high magnification that allowed him to Refutation and Revision Of Tenet 3 observe a wide array of microscopic life. Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902) - He observed freshwater protozoans - German pathologist and politician which he called “animalcules.” states that “Omnis cellula e cellula,” - He also produced the first written which means all cells arise from description of bacteria by observing preexisting cells. plaque scraped from his own teeth. - His statement debunked the Theory of Spontaneous Generation and emphasized that cells arise from another cell. Robert Remak (late 1800s) - Rudolf Virchow popularized the cell theory in an 1855 essay entitled “Cellular Pathology.” - The idea that all cells originate from other cells was first published in 1852 Formulation of Cell Theory by his contemporary and former Matthias Schleiden & Theodor Schwann (1800s) colleague Robert Remak. - Discovery: German botanist Matthias REVISED CELL THEORY Schleiden and German zoologist - All organisms consist of one or more Theodor Schwann separately made cells. observations about the presence of a - Cells are the Basic unit of structure for central structure in plant and animal all organisms. cells, which they named the "nucleus.“ - Cells come from other pre-existing - Tenet: This discovery highlighted the cells. presence of a common component in both plant and animal cells and laid the Supporting Tenet foundation for understanding cellular Walther Flemming (1843-1905) organization. - German anatomist who observed and described the process of cell division, UNIFIED CELL THEORY which he termed "mitosis." He observed Schleiden & Schwann’s Cell Theory (1800s) the orderly distribution of chromosomes - All organisms consist of one or more during cell division, providing evidence cells. for Virchow's tenet.  General Biology 01 GENBIO 01 SY 2024-2025 1ST SY 2024-2025 : 1ST SEMESTER 1ST SEMESTER Reviewed by: Ms. Myra Magdayao Prepared by: The Liceo Science Club - Flemming's work supported the idea that cells arise from pre-existing cells, All cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic, validating the cell theory further. share these four features: - DNA (Chromosomes) Cell theory consolidation - PLASMA MEMBRANE August Weismann (1834-1914) - CYTOPLASM/ CYTOSOL - A German biologist proposed the - RIBOSOMES theory of the germ plasm which stated that hereditary information is contained within the cell's nucleus and is passed down from one generation to the next through the germ cells. - Tenet: Weismann's work contributed to the understanding of cellular inheritance and further strengthened the cell theory. The Modern Cell Theory - All organisms consist of one or more CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION cells. - Cells are the Basic unit of structure for PREPARED BY: Kaye Lorraine Geronimo all organisms. - Cells come from other pre-existing COMMON CELL STRUCTURES IN cells. EUKARYOTIC CELLS - Cells contain hereditary information 1. Nucleus - Present in animal, plant, (DNA). fungus and protist cell. - All cells have the same basic Structure: Large structure enclosed chemical composition. within a double membrane - Energy flow occurs - Contains chromatin, nucleolus and nucleoplasm. Function: Source of RNA, Houses BASIC CELL TYPES the genetic material 2. Endoplasmic Reticulum - Present in an PROKARYOTE animal, plant, fungus and protist cells. - Bacteria Structure: Complex network of - Archaea transport channels. EUKARYOTE Two Types: - Animal Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum - Plant - Extensive interconnected - Fungi membrane network that varies - Protista  General Biology 01 GENBIO 01 SY 2024-2025 1ST SY 2024-2025 : 1ST SEMESTER 1ST SEMESTER Reviewed by: Ms. Myra Magdayao Prepared by: The Liceo Science Club in shape: ribosomes attached on 5. Golgi Apparatus - Present in animal, cytoplasmic surface. plant, fungus and protist cell Functions: Modifies, Structure: series of flattened sacs. transports, and stores proteins Functions - Modifies, packages, stores produced by the attached and transports material out of the cell. ribosomes. - Works with the ribosomes and Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum endoplasmic reticulum. - Extensive interconnected membrane network lacking 6. Lysosome - Present in animal, plant, ribosomes. fungus and protist cell. Functions: Structure: Membrane bound organelle - Synthesizes, transports, containing a variety of enzymes. and stores lipids Function: Recycling center - Metabolizes - Help digest food particles inside carbohydrates, or outside the cell. detoxifies drugs, alcohol and poisons. 7. Mitochondria - Present in animal, - Forms vesicles and plant, fungus and protist cell. peroxisomes. Structure: double membrane - Contains their own DNA 3. Ribosomes - Present in animal, plat, Function: Cellular Respiration fungus, and protist cell. - Produces high energy compound Structures: Small non-membrane ATP bound organelles - Contains two subunits. 8. Chloroplast - Present in plant and - Either free floating or attached protist cell to the endoplasmic reticulum Structure: Double membrane Function: Site of protein synthesis. - Chloroplast contains the green pigment chlorophyll, as well as 4. Vesicle, Vacuole - Present in animal, enzymes and other molecules. plant, fungus and protist cell. Function: Photosynthesis Structure: Surrounded by a thin membrane and filled with fluid and any 9. Centrosome - Present in animal and molecules they take in.- higher fungi. Function: Help in food digestion or Structure: Paired organelles found helping the cell maintain its water together near the nucleus at right angles balance. to each other. - Break up old and damage cell Function: Play a role in cell division structures. - Builds cilia and flagella  General Biology 01 GENBIO 01 SY 2024-2025 1ST SY 2024-2025 : 1ST SEMESTER 1ST SEMESTER Reviewed by: Ms. Myra Magdayao Prepared by: The Liceo Science Club 10. Cytoskeleton - Present in animal, plant, COMMON CELL STRUCTURES IN fungi and protist cells. PROKARYOTIC CELLS Structure: Organized network of protein filaments and hollow tubules, 1. Cytoplasm - internal fluid including microtubules, microfilaments, component of the cell and intermediate filaments Functions: Intracellular structural 2. Nucleoid - region of the support prokaryotic cytoplasm where - Maintain cell shape the DNA is located - Participates in cell division - Facilitates movement. 3. Plasmids - autonomous circular DNA molecules that may be 11. Cytoplasm - Present in animal, plant transferred between bacteria fungi and protist cells. Structure: Contents of cell between the 4. Ribosomes - complexes of plasma membrane and nuclear envelope. RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) and - Composed of cytosol and protein that are responsible for organelles. polypeptide synthesis Functions: Responsible for many cellular processes. 5. Cell Membrane - Semi-permeable (can penetrate 12. Plasma Membrane - Present in animal, to the cell membrane) and plant, fungi and protist cells. selective barrier surrounding the Structure: Phospholipid bilayer cell containing cholesterol and proteins and some carbohydrates. 6. Cell Wall - rigid outer covering Forms a selectively permeable made of peptidoglycan; membrane. maintains the shape and Functions: Physical barrier prevents lysis - Regulates the movement of materials 7. Slime Capsule - a thick - Cell communication polysaccharide layer used for protection against desiccation 13. Cell Wall - Present in plant, fungi and (drying out) and phagocytosis protist cells. Structure: Extra structure surrounding 8. Flagella - long, slender the plasma membrane in plants. projections containing a motor Function: Maintain the rigid structure protein that enables movement - Protection  General Biology 01 GENBIO 01 SY 2024-2025 1ST SY 2024-2025 : 1ST SEMESTER 1ST SEMESTER Reviewed by: Ms. Myra Magdayao Prepared by: The Liceo Science Club 9. Pili - hair-like extensions that 1. Provides support and structure - all enable adherence to surfaces or the organisms are made up of cells. mediate bacterial conjugation They form the structural basis of all the organisms. The cell wall and the cell membrane are the main components that function to provide support and structure to the organism. CELL MODIFICATION 2. Facilitates Growth Mitosis - In the 1. Cilia - tiny hair-like appendages present process of mitosis, the parent cell on the eukaryotic cell surface that divides into the daughter cells. Thus, the provides a means of locomotion to cells multiply and facilitate the growth different protozoans and animals. in an organism. 2. Flagella - Lash or hair-like structure 3. Allows transport of substances - present on the cell body that is important Various nutrients are imported by the for different physiological functions of cells to carry out various chemical the cell. processes going on inside the cells. 3. Microvilli - Small finger-like 4. Energy Production - Cells require projections found on cells within the energy to carry out various chemical body that help the cells to get nutrition. processes. This energy is produced by the cells through a process called 4. Shape and Size of the Cells photosynthesis in plants and respiration in animals. 5. Root Hairs - Long tubular-shaped outgrowths from root epidermal cells. 5. Aids in Reproduction - A cell aids in - Increase the root surface area reproduction through the process called and effectively increase the root meiosis. Meiosis causes the daughter diameter, root hairs are cells to be genetically different from the generally thought to aid plants parent cells. in nutrient acquisition, anchorage, and microbe interactions. TRANSPORT MECHANISM: SIMPLE AND FACILITATED DIFFUSION 6. Cell to Cell junctions PREPARED BY: Athena Beatrice M. Uy and Klarisse Chua SELECTIVE PERMEABILITY CELL’S BASIC FUNCTIONS  General Biology 01 GENBIO 01 SY 2024-2025 1ST SY 2024-2025 : 1ST SEMESTER 1ST SEMESTER Reviewed by: Ms. Myra Magdayao Prepared by: The Liceo Science Club Plasma membranes are selectively permeable (or CELL MEMBRANE semi-permeable), meaning that only certain molecules can pass through them. Cell Membrane TRANSPORT MECHANISM - Protects the cell from its surroundings. - Separates the interior of the cell from - In biology, transport refers to the act or the outside environment. the process by which a molecule or ion - Consists of a lipid bilayer that is is moved across the cell membrane. semipermeable. Allowing certain substances to pass through while - The movement of molecules across the blocking others. cell membrane. - Composed of a phospholipid bilayer, cholesterol, and proteins. TYPE OF CELLULAR TRANSPORT MECHANISM - Membranes that surround the Active Transport and Passive Transport - nucleus, mitochondria and Golgi Body are known as are the two main biological transport processes nuclear membranes, that play crucial roles in supplying nutrients, mitochondrial membrane and oxygen, water and other essential molecules to membrane of the Golgi body, the cells along with the elimination of waste respectively. products. In essence, active and passive transport work for the same goals/ purposes, but Plasma membrane with different movements. – is the more appropriate term for the membrane that encloses the content of a cell. It is a Dynamic Equilibrium- selective barrier that is thin and strong. All molecules become uniformly distributed membranes in a cell form a membrane system that is interchangeable. Concentration Gradient- unequal distribution of molecules - Our present knowledge in the cell membrane structure was built up FACILITATED DIFFUSION - experimentally. In 1972, Singer and Molecules move from an area of higher Nicholson proposed a fluid mosaic concentration to an area of lower concentration, model of the cell structure. They facilitated by transport proteins embedded in the discovered the fact that the plasma cell membrane. membrane is not a static structure but actually a dynamic one. 1. Membrane proteins  General Biology 01 GENBIO 01 SY 2024-2025 1ST SY 2024-2025 : 1ST SEMESTER 1ST SEMESTER Reviewed by: Ms. Myra Magdayao Prepared by: The Liceo Science Club - Membrane proteins form the ‘mosaic’ its components such as phospholipids by part of the fluid mosaic model. reducing and membrane proteins can Membrane proteins consist of globular move laterally or sideways throughout proteins and are classified into phospholipid movement but at low peripheral proteins and integral proteins. temperatures the membrane. - These, together with other - Mosaic. The membrane is described as components of the plasma mosaic because it is made up of many membrane such as different kinds of macromolecules, such glycoproteins, glycolipids as integral proteins, peripheral proteins, membrane composed of glycoproteins, phospholipids, cholesterol, can move laterally glycolipids, cholesterol, and in some and intermix freely a fluid cases, lipoproteins bilayer of phospholipids in a sea of phospholipid molecules. 2. Membrane carbohydrates and other Endomembrane System: lipids - A dynamic relationship exists between the different parts of the cellular - The plasma membrane also contains membrane system glycoproteins and glycolipids on its outer surface. These are known as (a) A membrane molecule originating in the membrane carbohydrates which form nuclear envelope can consecutively appear in the the minor constituents of the plasma rough ER, the smooth ER, the Golgi body, membrane. lysosomes, vacuoles, secretory or other vesicles and the plasma membrane. - Glycoproteins are formed when peripheral proteins on the outer (b) From the plasma membrane, it might migrate phospholipid layer combine with short, back to the Golgi body or some other organelles branched sugar chains called through pinocytic and phagocytic vesicles. oligosaccharides. These carbohydrate groups usually extend from the cell (c) All these interrelated membranes constitute surface like antennae. the endomembrane system. 3. Fluid Mosaic Model FEATURES AND FUNCTIONS OF CELL - Fluid. The reason why this model of the MEMBRANE plasma membrane is called the ‘fluid mosaic model’ is now obvious. The plasma membrane is moderate FUNCTIONS: temperatures described as fluid because  General Biology 01 GENBIO 01 SY 2024-2025 1ST SY 2024-2025 : 1ST SEMESTER 1ST SEMESTER Reviewed by: Ms. Myra Magdayao Prepared by: The Liceo Science Club Physical Barrier - Make the membrane less fluid - Protects all the components of the cell at high temperatures but more fluid at lower temperature. Selective permeability - Stabilizes the interactions - only certain molecules can pass through the between the phospholipids and cell membrane. keeps the membrane intact. 3.) Proteins Cell Signaling - membrane has receptors that allow it to 2 Types of Proteins: carry out tasks when molecules such as hormones bind to those receptors. Integral proteins: are nestled into the phospholipid bilayer and stick out on Endocytosis and Exocytosis either end. Helps in transporting larger molecules like glucose across the Endocytosis membrane. - cells that can take in large molecules or Peripheral proteins: doesn’t extend even bacteria from the extracellular fluid. across the membrane. Can be attached to the ends of integral proteins and help Exocytosis with transport and communication. - when the cell releases these materials such as waste products or signaling molecules, such as waste products or signaling molecules. FEATURES TRANSPORT MECHANISM: OSMOSIS AND ACTIVE TRANSPORT 1.) Phospholipid Bilayer Has two important parts: the PREPARED BY: Klarisse Chua Hydrophilic head and Hydrophobic tails PASSIVE ACTIVE: In this transport, substances simply move from Hydrophilic head: is a an area of higher concentration to an area of phosphate molecule that is lower concentration, which does not require attracted to water. the input of energy. Hydrophobic tails: are made up of fatty acids( chains of carbon NON-POLAR: atoms ) that aren’t compatible or In this bond, there are no positive or negative repel water. poles formed in the molecule. Any charges are distributed evenly across the molecule. This 2.) Cholesterol molecules usually enter the cell membrane through simple diffusion.  General Biology 01 GENBIO 01 SY 2024-2025 1ST SY 2024-2025 : 1ST SEMESTER 1ST SEMESTER Reviewed by: Ms. Myra Magdayao Prepared by: The Liceo Science Club SIMPLE FACILITATED: A type of diffusion where molecules move from REVERSE OSMOSIS an area of higher concentration to an area of - a means of pulling clean water out of lower concentration, facilitated by transport polluted water or salt water by pushing proteins embedded in the cell membrane. water through a membrane under pressure. Osmolarity: Describes the total concentration of solutes in a Example: solution. Contaminated water is filtered under pressure. Tonicity The ability of an extracellular solution to make CLINICAL RELEVANCE OF OSMOSIS water move into or out of a cell by osmosis. 1. Dehydration OSMOSIS Causes: Excessive fluid loss due to factors like 1. Hypotonic- (hypo = less than normal) diarrhea, vomiting, excessive sweating, or cell swells or bursts open. inadequate fluid intake. (CYTOLYSIS/ OSMOTIC LYSIS) Effects: Cells become dehydrated, leading to decreased blood volume, hypotension, and organ 2. Isotonic- (iso = equal or the same as dysfunction. normal) cell remains the same size. 2. Congestive Heart Failure 3. Hypertonic- (hyper = greater than normal) cell shrinks or shrivels. Causes: A condition where the heart is unable to (PLASMOLYSIS) pump blood effectively. Effects: This can lead to fluid buildup in the OSMOSIS IN OUR LIVES body, causing edema (swelling) and disrupting Importance in biological systems: osmotic balance. Maintaining cell shape Regulating water balance in organisms 3. Cystic Fibrosis OSMOSIS IN OUR LIVES Causes: A genetic disorder that affects the lungs, Everyday examples: pancreas, liver, and other organs. Soaking dried fruits Effects: In the lungs, cystic fibrosis can lead to IV fluids in hospitals mucus buildup and inflammation, which can Water purification through reverse disrupt osmotic balance in lung cells. osmosis  General Biology 01 GENBIO 01 SY 2024-2025 1ST SY 2024-2025 : 1ST SEMESTER 1ST SEMESTER Reviewed by: Ms. Myra Magdayao Prepared by: The Liceo Science Club ACTIVE TRANSPORT Cells that perform a lot of active transport are EXOCYTOSIS likely to have many mitochondria to provide the energy for the process. MOVING MOLECULES/MATERIALS OUT OF THE CELL BY VESICLES THAT FUSES Primary Active Transport- directly uses a WITH THE CELL MEMBRANE. source of chemical energy (e.g., ATP) to move molecules across a membrane against their ENDOCYTOSIS gradient. Two types of ENDOCYTOSIS Example: Sodium-Potassium Pump- 3 Na+ pumped out for a. PHAGOCYTOSIS every 2 K+ pumped in. - The process by which solid substances are ingested (usually to be transported to Secondary Active Transport- uses an the lysosome) electrochemical gradient – generated by primary - ENGULFING LARGE PARTICLES active transport – as an energy source to move SUCH AS FOOD, BACTERIA, ETC. molecules against their gradient, and thus does (CELL EATING) not directly require a chemical source of energy such as ATP. B. PINOCYTOSIS - The process by which liquids / dissolved Two types of cotransporters: substances are ingested (allows faster entry than via protein channels) a. Symporter- when molecules move in the - BULK INTAKE OF FLUID. (CELL same direction. DRINKING) b. Antiporter- when molecules move in opposite directions. EXAMPLES FOR EACH COTRANSPORTERS a. Symporter- Glucose uptake in the kidneys as its movement is coupled to the parallel transport of sodium. b. Antiporter- sodium-potassium pump as sodium and potassium are pumped in opposite directions.