English Grammar Rules PDF

MAJOR: ENGLISH FOCUS: STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH LET Competencies:  Demonstrate understanding of grammatical concepts by being able to describe and analyse, meaning, and use of various English language structures BASIC SENTENCE PATTERNS Bel...

MAJOR: ENGLISH FOCUS: STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH LET Competencies:  Demonstrate understanding of grammatical concepts by being able to describe and analyse, meaning, and use of various English language structures BASIC SENTENCE PATTERNS Below are basic patterns around which most English sentences are built. 1. N be Adj where the adjective is a SUBJECT COMPLEMENT, in particular a PREDICATE ADJECTIVE. The adjective refers back to the subject. The copula verbbe means “may be described as.” Roses are sweet. (subject complement = predicate adjective) 2. N be UW (= uninflected word) where the uninflected word is an ADVERBIAL such as here, there, up, down, in, out, inside, upstairs, downstairs, on, off, now, then, yesterday, and tomorrow. Be has the meaning of “be located” or “occur.” The meeting was yesterday. (adverbial) 3. N1 be N1 where the superscript means that the two nouns have the same referent. The second noun following the be verb is also a SUBJECT COMPLEMENT, in particular a PREDICATE NOUN or PREDICATE NOMINATIVE. Her neighbor is my cousin. (subject complement = predicate nominative) 4. N InV (= intransitive verb) where the INTRANSITIVE VERB does not require an object. The verb being self-sufficient can stand alone with its subject. Glasses break. 5. N1 TrV (= transitive V) N2 where N2 does not have the same referent as N1. N2 is called the DIRECT OBJECT of the verb, “the receiver of the action.” The girl buys yellow roses. 6. N1 TrV N2 N3 where the superscripts 1, 2, and 3 indicate that each noun has a different referent. Mother gave a gift to the orphan. (usually reads as Mother gave the orphan a gift.) Two noun objects occur after the verb. Still N2 is the direct object and N3 is the INDIRECT OBJECT. If we omit the last noun, the pattern is identical to that in item 5. Note that the indirect object is preceded by the preposition to (sometimes for or of). If the two objects are inverted, the preposition disappears. He made a toy house forher. He made her a toy house.  The teacher asked a question of her. The teacher asked her a question. 7. }N2 }Adj }Pronoun N1 TrV N2 }Adv (of place), uninflected }Verb, present participle }Verb, past participle There are choices of different forms in sentence final position. These are illustrated as follows: (object complement) The class voted Henry secretary. (adjective) The principal found the gardener efficient. (pronoun) We considered the writer you. (adverb of place) The teacher directed them outside. (present participle) She saw them praying. (past participle) I imagine my father overworked. The most common illustration of this sentence pattern is one with the occurrence of a final N2. NOUNS Nouns can be recognized by means of the following characteristics: 1. They are names of entities -- a person, place, thing, of idea. 2. They have two INFLECTIONS, the PLURAL{-es} and the POSSESSIVE (sometimes called the GENITIVE) {-‘s}. Both inflections have various ALLOMORPHS /əz/ appears after morphs ending in sibilants or affricates / s, z, š, ž, č ǰ / /s/ appears after morphs ending in voiceless consonants / p, t, k, f, Ɵ /, except the sibilants and affricate / s, š, č / /z/ appears after morphs ending in vowels and voiced consonants / b, d, g, v, ð, m, n, ŋ, l, r. y, w /, except the sibilants and the affricate / z, ž, ǰ / 3. They may be marked by noun-forming DERIVATIONAL SUFFIXES added to bases or stems, usually belonging to other parts of speech, e.g.  added to verbs {-age} breakage {-ee} employee  added to adjectives {-ity} facility {-ness} happiness  added to other nouns {-cy} advocacy {-ian} librarian {-ship} friendship 4. They fill certain characteristic positions in relation to other parts of speech in phrases and sentences.  just before a verb Red rosesbloom in my garden.  after determiners such as articles, demonstratives, and possessive adjectives, e.g., the examination, these reviewees, my handouts 5. Unlike other languages, gender is not an important feature of English grammar. Gender is only marked in certain pairs of nouns, e.g., waiter/waitress, host/hostess  6. Certain SUPERFIXES/STRESS PATTERNS occasionally identify nouns from other parts of speech as in: récòrd and rècórd. These two words are morphemically alike; however, we identify the stress pattern / ˊ ˋ / as a noun. 7. Nouns can serve as HEADS in a noun phrase. As heads they may be preceded by one or more single-word modifiers and followed by a phrasal or clausal modifier or both thesmallstudytablein my roomwhich my father bought Functions of Nouns  subject of verbs Several items have ambiguous stems.  direct objects of verbs They administered the test.  indirect objects of verbs The lecturer provided the participants handouts.  subject noun We are LET reviewers. predicates/  predicate nouns  object noun predicates/ The reviewees chose him their representative.  object complements  objects of prepositions in our review class  appositives The LET, a professional examination, is conducted every year.  vocatives/nouns of Anne, how did you find the exam? address Noun Types 1. COMMON NOUNS refer to a kind of person, thing, or idea  COUNT NOUNS which take the plural inflection  MASS/NONCOUNT NOUNS which don’t take the plural inflection 2. PROPER NOUNS are names for unique individuals or places 3. COLLECTIVE NOUNS are able to take either singular or plural verbs forms, depending on the interpretation given to the noun, i.e., whether it is seen as a unit or as a collection of individuals The teamhaswon all its games. The teamhave won awards in their respective events. ARTICLES ARTICLESare a subclass of DETERMINERS, which are noun-marking words. They usually come before the nouns they modify. a/an (indefinite the (definite article) no/zeroarticle articles) Only before singular Before uncountable/mass nouns Identifies certain indefinite (sg) countable nouns (UNs) and countable plural (pl) meanings of nouns (CNs) nouns 1 Before an unidentified Backward reference to a N Refers to all members of a sg CN, one example of already mentioned class its class A dog... and here is the dog øDogs are domestic a chair (furniture) now. animals. 2 Before an unidentified Forward reference to an Distinguishes one class sg CN that is identification soon to be made, from another representative of its often by modifiers following a øMen, not women, are class noun protectors. a dog (a domestic The history of his town animal) 3 Before a predicate N Before superlatives and before Refers to an indefinite after a be verb if no ordinal numbers, except ordinal number but not necessarily  determiner is used numbers used alone (first in her to all members of a class.... is a good neighbor batch) øSeedlings are beginning The best cake I have ever seen to sprout. (many) The first person to fly in space 4 With UNs to mean Content know to both writer and With plural nouns after be. akind of, or withkind reader His brothers are of, or certain Thechapel in the village (only øengineers. a smile one chapel) an insight 5 Before few and little to Identification of a class, With institutions and mean some but not especially in a generalization, practices felt to be unique many followed by a noun, or an øOffices open at 7 o’clock. afew friends adjective øDinner is usually late. alittle salt The youth is the hope of the future. the physically challenged 6 When using a proper Beginning of a phrase containing With set phrases, usually noun to indicate the an appositive pairs characteristics of the Interpret this item, the one with øHeaven and hell person named an illustration She is a Sister Teresa. (a saintly person) 7 To name “a certain With prepositional phrases person whose name is.” At ørest, in ødanger, AMr. Alba came to see on øtime you. 8 With nouns used in headlines in newspapers, captions in books, signs, labels and the like øMURDERER ESCAPES BEWARE OF øDOG 9 For a family name in the With common nouns used as plural terms of address and therefore TheBasas have arrived. capitalized. We are ready to go, øMother. 10 Distinguishes people who have the same name TheJessica Reyes who joined the beauty pageant is notthe Jessica Reyes who is my cousin. 11 When the article is part of a geographical name ThePhilippines TheUnited States TheRed Sea 12 When the article is accepted as part of any kind of proper name ThePhilippine Star The Princess of Negros The Hilton TheUniversity of St. Tomas The United Nations PRONOUNS Most pronouns stand for, refer to, or replaces a noun or a noun phrase within a text; hence, they occupy the same position as a noun or noun phrase does. The word or words that a pronoun stands for are its ANTECEDENT or REFERENCE.  My brother holds dual citizenship. He is not only a Filipino but also a Canadian citizen. I and me stand for the speaker or writer. I am a Filipino, but I am living in Australia now. Pronouns can also be a direct reference to an outside situation (e.g., “What is that?” in response to a sound or noise). Kinds of Pronouns There are many different kinds of pronouns: SUBJECT, OBJECT, POSSESSIVE, REFLEXIVE, DEMONSTRATIVE and others. The forms within each category are distinguished by number (singular/plural), person (first/second/third) gender (masculine/feminine/neuter), and in the case of demonstratives, by number and proximity. Personal and Related Pronouns Person/ Personal Possessive Number Reflexive/ Subject Object Noun Determiner/ Intensive Singular Form Form replacement Adjective +I I me mine my myself + II you you yours your yourself + III Masculine he him his his himself Feminine she her hers her herself Neuter it it - its itself Plural +I we us ours our ourselves + II you you yours your yourselves + III they them theirs their themselves Things to Remember: 1. Animals closely related to people can be referred to by he, him, and his or she, her, and hers. The dog loves his/her/its master. 2. Use it and its to refer to inanimate objects except ships, which are always referred as she. 3. Countries and schools are sometimes referred to by she or her. 4. Traditionally, the pronouns he, him, and his have been used for mixed groups or groups in which the sex is unknown. Many people now object to this use, so they use both the masculine and feminine forms or the plural forms to avoid the problem. Everybody submitted his or her assignment. (awkward) All the students submitted their assignments. (acceptable) 5. If I, me, my or mine or their plural counterparts are part of a pair or a series, put them last. The teacher confiscated his toy and mine, too. Father helped Tony with his project, and he will help my sister and me with ours tomorrow. Reflexive Pronouns 1. Use the reflexive pronoun as the object of the verb form or preposition to refer to the subject of the sentence. The baby is able to feeditself. Luis cut himselfwith a razor blade.  2. The phrase by + self or its emphatic form all by + self means alone or without any help. I crossed the river (all) by myself. Intensive Pronouns The intensive form occurs directly after the word it modifies or at the end of the clause. The mayorherselfdistributed the relief goods. The mayordistributed the relief goods herself. Reciprocal Pronouns 1. The reciprocal pronoun forms are each other and one another. They mean that each part of the subject did the action and also received the action. 2. They must be objects of verb forms or objects of prepositions. 3. Some prefer to use each other for two people or things and one another for more than two. The two finalists congratulated each other for making it to the top. The class members prepared surprise gifts for one another during the Christmas party. Demonstrative Pronouns 1. Demonstrative pronouns occur alone. They do not precede nouns. Thisis my favorite movie. 2. Demonstrative pronouns can show distance or contrast not connected with distance. (distance) This is mine; thatis yours over there. (contrast) Which ones do you prefer, these or those? Indefinite Pronouns Personal none another anyone everyone no one someone other ones anybody everybody nobody somebody others Non- anything everything nothing something another Personal every one none other ones others Use singular verbs with compound pronouns and use singular pronouns to refer to them in formal writing. Formal: Nobody brought his book today. Informal: Nobody brought their books today. Interrogative Pronouns Who, whom, whose, which, and what can begin questions. 1. Use who, whom, whose and which to refer to persons.. 2. Use what and which to refer to things and events. 3. In formal writing, use who for the subject of a clause and whom for the object of the verb or preposition. Relative Pronouns 1. RELATIVE PRONOUNS (sometimes called CLAUSE MARKERS) introduce dependent clauses (also called RELATIVE CLAUSES). 2. Relative pronouns used in adjective clauses are who, whom, whose, which and that.  3. Who, whom, and whose are used for persons while which is used for non- persons. The guestwho came to dinner is the governor. The bookwhich I bought is a best seller. 4. That is a neutral form. It can be marked +humanor–human. In other words, it can be a substitute for both who (+human) or which (-human). The guestwho/that came to dinner is the governor. The bookwhich/that I bought is a best seller. 5. In informal writing, whom is optional; in formal writing, whom must be used (informal)Nora is the girl you saw in the party last night. (formal)Nora is the girl whom you saw in the party last night. 6. That, which and whom are the only relative pronouns that can be left out. The instrumental music (that) I like to hear often is that of Zamfir. The house pests (which) I hate to see are the rodents and the cockroach. 7. Who, whom, and whose can be used in both essential/RESTRICTIVE and nonessential/NON-RESTRICTIVE clauses. The man, who came to dinner, is the mayor. (nonessential/non-restrictive, bounded by commas) The man who came to dinner is the mayor. (essential/restrictive, without commas) 8. That instead of which is used only in essential or restrictive clauses, so do NOT put commas around clauses beginning with that. The poster that won first prize pleased both the judges and the viewers. *The poster, that won first prize, pleased both the judges and the viewers. (*means ungrammatical) 9. Use which in nonessential or nonrestrictive clauses. Separate nonessential clauses from the rest of the sentence by commas. Our car, which has been running for three days, should be brought to the machine shop for check-up. 10. Relative pronouns used in noun clauses are that, what, whatever, whoever, whomever, and whichever. (noun clause as subject) Whatever you offer will be appreciated. (noun clause as direct He will befriend whoever he gets object) acquainted with. 11. Look at the antecedent of who, that or which when used as subject to decide whether the verb following should be singular or plural. The paintingwhichis exhibited is the painter’s masterpiece. Thefarmerswhoown orchards earn much from their harvest. VERBS A verb can be recognized by means of the following characteristics:  Denotes an action (e.g., read) or a state of being (e.g. know). ACTION VERBS are dynamic. STATE OF BEING VERBS (or STATIVE VERBS) include the copula or linking verbs, e.g. the be-verbs, remain, appear, and become.  Has four inflections {-s} of third person singular present tense verbs {-ed} of simple past tense verbs {-en} of the past participle {-ing} of the present participle The third person singular –s has the same allomorphs as the noun plural and the noun possessive. The –ed past tense inflection has three allomorphs: /əd/ after morphs which end in / t / or / d / as in planted, raided /t/ after morphs that end in voiceless sounds except / t / as in  brushed, jumped, walked /d/ after morphs which end in voiced sounds except / d / as in cleaned, grabbed, agreed  Follows a subject noun and may be followed in turn by adjectives }______ eager [to enhance their knowledge]. The reviewees }______ seriously. }______ their handouts.  May fall under one more or more of these types o INTRANSITIVE VERBS which does not take an object (direct) Flowers bloom. o TRANSITIVE VERBS which require an object (direct) Flowers needwater and sunlight. o DITRANSITIVE VERBS which take two objects (direct and indirect) Alexgavehis girlfriend three red roses. o LINKING/COPULA VERBS where what follows the verb relates back to the subject (subject complement -- a predicate noun or a predicate adjective) Roses are lovely Valentine’s Day gifts. Roses are sweet. o COMPLEX TRANSITIVE VERBS where what follows the object (direct) relates to the object They chose Niña, muse of the team. o PREPOSITIONAL VERBS which requires a prepositional phrase to be complete We looked at the pictures taken during our graduation  Have tense and aspect qualities. Tense and aspect have to do with form. TENSE is “the grammatical marking on verbs that usually indicates time reference relative to either the time of speaking or the time at which some other situation was in force” (Jacobs 1995). Time reference has to do with meaning. Events and situations are located in time, perhaps to our speaking about them, perhaps while we are speaking about them, or perhaps at some later time. English has three tenses – present, past, and future. The present and the past tenses have inflectional markings, while the future is marked by the inclusion of the modals will or shall. Simply put, tense is a set of verb forms that indicate a particular point in time or period of time in the past, present, or future. ASPECT isa general name given to verb forms used to signify certain ways in which an event is viewed or experienced. Aspect can view an event as completed whole (simple), or whether or not it has occurred earlier (perfect aspect) or is still in progress (progress). Noel has attended the review classes. (perfect) Now he is studying for the LET exam. (progressive) The tenses in combination with aspects make up the following 12 tense-aspect categories. These make up the traditional 12 tenses. Tense-Aspect Combinations Simple Perfect Progressive Perfect Progressive ø have + -en be + -ing have + -enbe + -ing Present dream/dreams has/have dreamed am/is/are dreaming has/have been dreaming eat/eats has/have eaten am/is/are eating has/have been eating Past dreamed had dreamed was/were dreaming had been dreaming ate had eaten was/were eating had been eating Future will/shall will/shall have will/shall be will/shall have been dream dream dreaming dreaming will/shall eat will/shall have will/shall be eating will/shall have been eaten eating  Sometimes, if we want to draw attention to the time of the action, we use an ADJUNCT OF TIME, which can be an adverb, a noun group, or a prepositional phrase, e.g.: (adverb) She’s coming tomorrow. (noun group) Results of the examination were released last week. (prepositional phrase) He will feel relieved after the exam. VERB TENSES: Their Meanings and Common Uses SIMPLE ASPECT : complete wholes; unchanging 1. SIMPLE PRESENT: the present in general  To talk about our thoughts and feelings at the present moment or about our immediate reactions to something I’m terribly busy. He looks excited.  To talk about a settled state of affairs which includes the present moment He lives in Sagada now. Our teacher is very competent and considerate. We like her very much.  To say something is always or generally true There are 24 hours in a day. The earth revolves around its axis.  To talk about something that a particular person or thing does regularly or habitually. I get up early to take a bath. Every Sunday, I attend church services.  To discuss what happens in a book, play or film In the movie, he plays the character of Juan Tamad. In those early chapters, he keeps himself isolated to other people in the village.  To describe an event such as a sports match or a ceremony at the time it is happening as radio and TV commentators do Doods takes the ball, then passes it quickly to Alfie. Alfie turns, shoots, and scores two points. 2. SIMPLE PAST: Stating a definite time in the past An adjunct of time or other time expression is necessary to specify the particular time in the past we are referring to.  To say that an event occurred or that something was the case at a particular time in the past. The university officials flew into Jakartalast week to sign a memorandum of agreement with a sister school.  To say that a situation existed over a period of time in the past. He lived in his ancestral home in the countryside during his last years.  To talk about an activity that took place regularly or repeatedly in the past, but which no longer occurs We swam in the river a great deal in my childhood. 3.SIMPLE FUTURE: An expression of what we think might happen or what we intendto happen  To say that something is planned to happen, or that we think it is likely to happen in the future What do you think Ella will do to fix it?  To talk about general truths and to say what can be expected to happen if a particular situation arises  An attack of dengue fever can keep a man off work for a few days. He will earn nothing and he have trouble paying his hospital bills. PERFECT ASPECT : prior 1. PRESENT PERFECT: the past in relation to the present We cannot use adjuncts or expressions which place the action at a definite time in the past. But we can use adjuncts of duration, e.g. forever, always. *I have watched it the other day. I ate raw vegetables, which I always avoided, and there was no other choice. To mention something that happened in the past but we do not want to state a specific time. I have read the book several times. 2. PAST PERFECT: Events before a particular time in the past To talk about a past event or situation that occurred before a particular time in the past By noon, students had gathered at the quadrangle with their placards. 3. FUTURE PERFECT To refer to something that has not happened yet, but will happen before a particular time in the future. By the time he graduates, his parents will already have left for New Zealand PROGRESSIVE ASPECT: incomplete action; changing 1. PRESENT PROGRESSIVE: Accent on the present  To talk about something that is happening at the moment we are speaking I’m already feeling bored and hungry.  To emphasize the present moment or to indicate that a situation is temporary She’s spending the summer in her hometown.  To indicate changes, trends, developments, and progress He’s performance in class is improving.  To talk about a habitual action that takes place regularly, especially one which is new or temporary She’s spending a lot on clothes these days. 2. PAST PROGRESSIVE: accent on the past  To talk about continued states or repeated actions which occurred in the past His body was trembling; his fever was rising.  To contrast a situation with an event which happened just after that situation existed. We use the past continuous to describe the first event and the simple past to describe the event which occurred after it. We were standing at the main gate waiting to welcome the guest speaker. He arrived 20 minutes later. 3. FUTURE PROGRESSIVE  To say something will surely happen because arrangements have been made They will be sending their students regularly to the University for English proficiency enhancement.  To emphasize the duration of a recent event She’s been crying bitterly. PERFECT-PROGRESSIVE ASPECT 1. PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE  To talk about an activity or situation that started at some time in the past, continued, and is still happening now. The economy has been declining in many parts of the world.  2. PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE  To emphasize the recentness and duration of a continuous activity which took place before a particular time in the past. The old woman had been living alone in that dilapidated house.  To say that something was expected, wished for, or intended before a particular time in the past. I had been expecting a phenomenal rise in his political career. 3. FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE  To emphasize the duration to an event at a specific time in the future By January 2011, she will have been serving this university for 38 years. AUXILIARY/HELPING VERBS 1. VERB PHRASE/VERB COMPLEX: consists of an auxiliary + a main verb, e.g., mustwork, have been reading, will be informed. The underlined word or words are the auxiliary or helping verbs. 2. AUXILIARY/HELPING VERBS A. MODAL AUXILIARIES and their related phrasal forms True Modals Phrasal Modals can, could be able to will, shall be going to, be about to must have* to, have got to should, ought to be to, be supposed would (= past habit) used to may, might be allowed to, be permitted to *The verb betakes several forms such as is, are, was, were, and will be.Havetakes the forms has, have, and had  NON-MODAL AUXILIARIES : be, do, and have verbs Of all the auxiliaries, only the non-modals can change form. Distinguishing Characteristics Between True Modals and Phrasal Modals True Modals Phrasal Modals 1 Do not inflect, i.e., the forms Inflect like other ordinary verbs remain unchanged am/is/are/was/were/will be able to canpass pass 2 Lack tense and a resultant lack of Subject-agreement rule applies subject-verb agreement except the form used to We can pass the LET. We are able to pass the LET. He can pass the LET. He is able to pass the LET. 3 Do not require an infinitive marker Requires an infinitive marker toto to precede the main verb precede the main verb must study hard has/have/had to study hard 3. OPERATORS/OPERATOR VERBS  The OPERATOR is a verb that has three main functions: 1) It precedes the negative and combines with it when the negative is contracted to n’t; 2) It is the verb that moves around the subject to the sentence initial position in yes-no questions; and 3) It is also the verb that appears in the tag phrases of interrogative sentences or tag questions. My father will not approve your marriage proposal. My father won’t approve your marriage proposal. Will your father approve my marriage proposal? Willyour father not approve my marriage proposal? Won’t your father approve my marriage proposal? Your father will approve my marriage proposal, won’the?   When a clause contains no verb eligible to be an operator, do is introduced. He attends the graduation ball tonight.  He doesattend the graduation ball tonight.  He doesnot attend the graduation ball tonight.  Does he attend the graduation ball tonight?  He attends the graduation ball tonight, doesn’t he?  If there are two or more auxiliary verbs present in the VERB PHRASE, the first auxiliary serves as the operator. He has been reading the Obama autobiography.  Hehas not been reading the Obama autobiography. *He has been not reading the Obama autobiography.  Has he been reading the Obama autobiography. He has been reading the Obama autobiography, hasn’t he? SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT/CONCORD RULES WHICH OFTEN CAUSE ERRORS 1. Collective nouns may take either a singular or plural verb inflection depending on the meaning.  Conceived of as one entity – takes a singular verb Our school teamhas won its games.  Conceived of as more than one entity or refers to individual membership – takes plural verb Our school teamhave won all their games. 2. Some common and proper nouns ending in –s, including –ics nouns and certain diseases are always conceived as single entity – take a plural verb. The recent newsisexciting. Mathematicsis repelling to many students. Measlesisa contagious disease. The United Statesis still a powerful country. 3. Titles of works even when plural in form are conceived of as single entitles. The Ten Commandmentsis a beautiful movie. The Syntax Filesis good reading for those in linguistics. The song Greenfieldsbringsnostalgia to people of my generation. 4. Nouns occurring in sets of two take the singular when the noun pair is present but take the plural when pair is absent. That pair of Lee jeans is expensive. My glassesaremissing. 5. Fractions and percentages takes a singular verb inflection when modifying a noncount noun and a plural verb when they modify a plural noun. Either a singular or plural verb inflection may be used when they modify a collective noun, depending on the speaker’s meaning. More than half of the cakeis eaten. Twenty percent of the studentsare not joining the field trip. One-fourth of the audienceis/are teachers. 6. A number normally takes the plural. The number takes the singular. A number of parents are coming for the meeting. The number of signatories is substantial to merit approval of the motion. 7. When we use a number and a plural noun to talk about two or more things, we usually use a plural verb. We use a singular verb with ‘one’. Seven daysmake up a week. One solid evidence is enough to prove his dishonesty. 8. When we are talking about an amount of money or time, or a distance, speed, or weight, we usually use a number, a plural noun, and a singular verb. Five hundred dollarsisa lot of money. Three yearsisa long time to wait for a family member from abroad to come home. Eighty kilometers per hour of travelis quite risky on slippery roads. Seventy-five poundsis all she weighs now. 9. Arithmetic operations take the singular because they are perceived as reflecting a single numerical entity on both sides of the equation or equal sign. Two plus twois/equalsfour. 10. The quantifiers a lot (of), lots of, and plenty of take a singular verb if the subject noun is noncount by plural verb if the subject head noun is plural. A lot of sound viewswere advanced during the discussion. A lot of nonsenseis evident from uninterested participants. 11. Traditional grammar states that when used as a subject, none (meaning not one) is always singular regardless of what follows in a prepositional phrase. None of the boysjoinsthe mountaineering group. None of the riceis eaten at all. 12. Traditional grammar maintains that the antecedent of the relative pronoun is the noun before. Alice is one of the graduate students who havefinished her master’s degree in a short period of time. 13. For correlatives either... or and neither... nor, traditional grammar argues for a proximity rule, i.e., subject-verb agreement should occur with the subject noun nearest to the verb. Either my friend or my classmatesareexpected to help me with my project. Neither my classmates nor my friendvolunteers to lend support. 14. A singular noun or pronoun should take a singular verb inflection regardless of what else occurs between the subject and the verb. Jimmy, along with his co-teachers, conducts a cleanliness campaign in the barangay. 15. In questions, subjects don’t always come before verbs. Identify accurately the subject before deciding on the proper verb to use. Does your father usually go jogging? What are the pages our teacher wants us to read? VOICE VOICE pertains to who or what serves as the subject in a clause. In the ACTIVE VOICE, the subject of a clause is most often the agent, or doer, of some action. In the PASSIVE VOICE, the subject of a clause is the receiver or undergoer of the action. The passive “defocuses” the agent. (Shibitani 1985 in Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman 2001) The lifeguard savedthe child. (active) The child was saved [by the lifeguard]. (passive) The passive voice is more limited than the active in that it requires only the transitive verbs – verbs that take direct objects. The passive morphology is be... –en, i.e., a form of the be verb + the past participle. Usually in passive sentences the agent is not mentioned at all, referred to as the AGENTLESS PASSIVE. If the agent is mentioned (= AGENTED PASSIVE), it appears in a prepositional phrase marked by the preposition by. Some passive sentences have no active counterparts. Justin was born in Canada. Advantages of the Active Voice 1. An active clause can give more information in fewer words. 2. An active verb makes writing livelier and more vivid. Uses of the Passive Voice 1. A passive construction emphasizes the result in an impersonal style. This use is sometimes desirable in scientific and technical writing. A new strain of malaria was discovered.  2. A passive verb emphasizes a victim or the result of a disaster. Active: The child broke the antique vase. Passive: The antique vase was broken. 3. Use the passive when the agent or the actor is so unimportant or is obvious that you do not need to mention it. Rica was born in Seychelles. 4. Use a passive verb if you want to hide the name of the person who is responsible for an unpleasant decision or result. An increase in tuition fees was proposed. Forms of the English Passive We usually form simple passives like these: Paper is produced from trees. (simple present) Paper was produced from trees. (simple past) Here are other possible forms: 1. With modals Paper can be produced from trees. 2. With present perfect Paper has been produced from trees. 3. With present progressive Paper is being produced from trees. 4. With past progressive Paper were being produced from trees. 5. With be going to for future Paper is going to be produced from trees. PHRASAL VERBS These are verbs which consist of two or three words. They consist of: 1. a verb followed by an adverb; go up, spill over, and push through 2. a verb followed by a preposition; come upon, reckon with, and bank on 3. a verb followed by an adverb and a preposition break out of, look forward to, and go along with Just like ordinary verbs, phrasal verbs may be used: 1. intransitively Why don’t you speak up? 2. transitively Let’s cut down pollution to conserve our environment./ Let’s cut pollution down to conserve our environment. Note that some phrasal verb may be separable. This is further explained below. 3. both intransitively and transitively A plane took off. She took off her coat because it was warm./ She took her coat off because it was warm. Meaning of Some Phrasal Verbs A two-word verb often has a one-word synonym, which is generally more formal. Here are some examples: Phrasal Verb Synonym Phrasal Verb Synonym call up telephone give in/up surrender keep on continue leave out omit pick out choose put off postpone Separable and Inseparable Verbs  Parts of inseparable phrasal verbs cannot be separated. If there is a direct object, it follows the phrasal verb. Look after your baby brother. *Look your baby brother after. Look after him  On the other hand, the object of separable phrasal verbs is movable. A pronoun object comes between the first and second part. A short noun object can come between the two parts or can follow the second part. Donna turned it on. Donna turned the light on. Donna turned on the light.  Some phrasal verbs can be either separable or inseparable according to their meanings in a certain context. She passed out. (fainted) She passedthe brochuresout. (distributed) The car broke down. (stopped running) The polite broke the door down. (opened by force) Separable Phrasal Verbs with Their Objects Object back it/the car up blow it/the candle out it/the balloon up break them/the statistics down down them/the negotiations off bring it/the change about it/the subject up burn it/the building down them/the papers up clear them/the dishes away it/the misunderstanding up close it/the business down draw it/the agreement up fill it/a form in/out it/the cup up find it/the answer out give it/this old bag way it/eating candy up it/the news out hand it/the work in/out keep them/expenses down it/the radio on leave it/the question out let them/our friends in/out lock them/the prisoners up  look them/our relatives in Manila up make it/the handwriting out it/a story up mix it/food being prepared up them/people up pass it/the responsibility on pay it/the money back them/my enemies back pick it/a new shirt out point it/the problem out ADJECTIVES An adjective – 1. Is a word which describes or denotes the qualities of something 2. Commonly occurs between a determiner and a noun, or after be or other linking verbs or immediately following the intensifier very the _____ baby seems (very) _____ the hungrybaby seems (very) hungry 3. Is associated with certain derivational morphemes {-y} healthy, leafy {-al} racial, normal {-able} understandable, visible {-ed} aged, learned {-ful/-less} hopeful, hopeless {-ish} childish, boyish {-ive} active, native {-ous} famous, marvellous 4. Has inflectional morphemes for comparative and superlative forms pretty prettier prettiest 5. Modifies or complements nouns the honest man (modifier) The man is honest. (complement) 6. Has various types in terms of characteristic positions: ATTRIBUTIVE which precede nouns, and PREDICATIVE which follow linking verbs The diligentstudents pass the toughexam. (attributive) They arehappywith their high scores. (predicative) Other Related Concepts 1. Restrictive/Nonrestrictive adjectives RESTRICTIVEadjectives are necessary for defining which noun is being referred to while NON-RESTRICTIVE adjectives merely add information without being essential for identification. A concrete house. (restrictive) My uncle owns a house, built of concrete materials. (non-restrictive) 2. Polarity POLARITY refers to positive and negative contrasts in a language. Positive polarity Negative polarity big small, little old young long short good bad fast slow Adjectives with positive polarity are UNMARKED FORMS because they are used more frequently in a given language, learned earlier by children, and used in neutral contexts. Adjectives of negative polarity are MARKED. They are less frequently used.  3. GRADABILITY  Adjectives can be placed in continuum of intensity, with the intensity increasing or decreasing depending on the intensifier chosen. [Less intense] [More intense] Somewhat rare, rare, quite rare, very rare, extremely rare  Adjectives that can be compared are also called gradable adjectives. Comparative forms (adjectives marked by -er, more, or less) show differences/contrasts between two things or groups. Superlative forms (marked by –est, most, or least) show differences in three or more things or groups.  Comparison do nor apply to absolutes such as unique, possible, impossible, horizontal, round, square, and fatal. They can co-occur with words like nearly and almost. The accident was fatal. The accident was nearly fatal. The accident was almost fatal.  The as... as construction is used to show that two things or groups are similar. Ella is as tall as her mother. Order of Adjectives in Noun Groups When two or more adjectives are used in a structure, they usually occur in a particular order or sequence as follows: DET opinion size shape condition age color origin NOUN many pretty small round chipped antique blue Chinese vases ADVERBS ADVERBS modify or change the meaning of other words such as verbs, adjectives, another adverb, or even a whole sentence. (verb modifier) The athlete can run fast. (adjective modifier) Sailboats are really beautiful to watch. (adverb modifier). The athlete can run very fast. (sentence modifier) Perhaps, Nena’s family will give a party Adverbs or adverbials vary in form as follows: Adverbial clause: The child cried because he was hungry. Adverbial phrase: Diane sang very sweetly. Prepositional phrase: She sang during our class reunion. Word: We eagerly look forward to your graduation. Adverbs can be readily recognized through certain affixes. For example: 1. Suffix –ly hopefully, popularly 2. Prefix a- aloud, adrift, anew 3. Suffix –wise lengthwise, clockwise 4. Suffix –wards backward(s), forward(s) Kinds of Adverbs 1. Adverbs of frequency: answer the question how often? (always, never, usually, rarely) 2. Adverbs of relative time can be used with all tenses as meaning permits (just, still, already, lately) 3. Adverbs of manner answer the question how? orhow well? (carefully, eagerly, clearly, quickly) 4. Adverbs of place answer the question where? (here, in the city) 5. Adverbs of time answer the question when?  (today, on April 15) 7. adverbs that emphasize only and even Where we put only makes a big change in the meaning of a clause. To illustrate: (no one else) 1. Onlyhe invited Alex to join the team this year. (not ordered) 2. He onlyinvited Alex to join the team this year this year. (no one but Alex) 3. He invited only Alex to join the team this year. (to join, not to do 4. He invited Alex only to join the team this year. anything else) (recently as or 5. He invited Alex to join the team only this year. at no other time) Positions of Adverbials While some adverbials are fixed in their positions in the sentence, others are movable. They can occur sentence initially, medially, or finally. Sentence-initial: Doubtlessly, we must conclude that the findings are correct. Sentence-medial: We, doubtlessly, must conclude that the findings are correct. Sentence-final: We must conclude that the findings are correct, doubtlessly. Order of Adverbials When two or more adverbials co-occur in final position in the same sentence, ordering should be observed. {direction} + position ↔ manner + time ↔ frequency + {purpose} {goal } {reason} He walks homeleisurely at 5:30 PMevery daybecause he wants to feel relaxed. He walks homeleisurelyevery dayat 5:30 PM because he wants to feel relaxed. CONJUNCTIONS Coordination COORDINATION is the process of combining ideas. Two constituents of the same type can be put together to produce another larger constituent of the same type. Traditional grammar calls this process COMPOUNDING. Compound sentence: The boys sangandthe girls danced last night. Compound subject: The teacher andher students will join the parade. Compound verb: The children playandeat during recess. Compound object: We boiled cornandcassava. Conjoining like constituents as shown above is referred to as SIMPLE COORDINATION. Here are other ways of coordinating ideas: 1. ELLIPSIS: Omission or elision of the first verb phrase in the second and adding the word too or either (for UNINVERTED FORMS), and so or neither (for INVERTED FORMS). Affirmative forms My friends like to read storybooks and I, too. (uninverted) A horse runs fast, and so does an ostrich. (inverted) Negative forms Donna can’t climb a tree, and his little brother can’t, either. (uninverted) Ducks can’t fly high, andneither can chickens. (inverted) 2. Use ofPRO-FORM, i.e., the substitution of pronoun for a repeated noun. Luis plays the guitar andhe plays the harp, too. 3. COMPLEX orCORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS like both... and.. My father is both kind andsincere. Forms of Coordinating Conjunctions Other than and, simple coordinating conjunctions include: for, nor, but, or, yet, and so. Note the following examples: milk or chocolate small but/yet terrible He came late, so he missed the fun. (clausal) They accepted the verdict, for they failed to counter the charges against them. (clausal) Other forms of correlative conjunctions are either... or, not only... but also, and neither... nor. These pairs are used together Either Tony orNico will top the test. Anna is neither friendly nor generous. Our teacher is not only competent but also very understanding. Use of Coordinating Conjunctions Below is a straightforward account of the simple conjunctions: Conjunction Meaning Conjunction Meaning for because or one or the other of two alternatives is true and plus yet but at the same time nor conjoins two negative so therefore sentences, both of which are true but shows contrast A deeper and thorough study of each conjunction, however, reveals certain properties beyond the given straightforward account. To illustrate, here are the other meaning and uses of and. 1. As LOGICAL OPERATOR (the truth-conditional meaning) The entire conjoined statement is true so long as each conjunct that makes it up is true. If one conjunct is false, then the statement is false. 2. As MARKERof many meanings Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (2001) citing Posner (1980) provides these illustrations:  (and there...) Annie is in the kitchen, and she is making doughnuts.  (and during this time...) Annie fell into a deep sleep, and her facial color returned.  (and coming from it...) The window was open, and there was a draft.  (and after that...) Peter married Annie, and she had a baby.  (and thereby...) Paul pounded on the stone, and he shattered it.  (If you give me your picture, I’ll give you mine.) Give me your picture, andI’ll give you mine. 3. As INFERENTIAL CONNECTIVE A reader/listener can draw an inferential connection from sentences like Susan jumped and hurt her ankle. The use of and invites the listener/reader to seek some other implicit relevant connection between stated conjuncts. 4. As MARKER OF SPEAKER CONTINUATION In conversational discourse, sometimes a speaker uses and to signal that the utterance to follow is in some way connected with what has come before. This particular use of and goes beyond the usual content conjunctive use; rather it places and into the category of discourse markers like oh and well. Subordination SUBORDINATION means putting less important ideas in less important grammatical structures like dependent clauses. One means of subordination is SENTENCE COMBININGorREDUCING. Sentence combining Melissa topped the test. Melissa was late by twenty minutes.  Although late by twenty minutes, Melissa topped the test. dependent clause independent clause Reducing  Although late, Melissa topped the test dependent clause independent clause Subordinating Conjunctions Subordinating conjunctions do the job of connecting dependent clauses to independent clauses. Shown below are different types. Type Conjunction Type Conjunction time when, before, after, conditional if, unless since, while, until, as purpose in order to, so that reason because, since, as result so that concessive although, though, while, despite place where, wherever manner as, like Time Her father died when she was young. Conditional IfI could afford it, I would buy a car. Purpose They had to extend the session in order to discuss all concerns raised. Reason I couldn’t ignore him because he was my childhood playmate Result She reviewed very hard so that she would pass the LET. Concessive While I did well in class, I was a poor performer at club activities. Place Wherever I stayed, I found troublesome neighbors. Manner Is she often rude and cross likeshe’s been this past week? Relative Clauses Another form of subordination involves the EMBEDDING of one clause within another. For example: The lady came into the room. The lady was small and slender.  The lady [the lady came into the room] was small and slender. The lady who came into the room was small and slender. The most common relative pronouns which mark relative clauses are: that, which, who, whom, and whose. Their uses are presented earlier in the section on pronouns PREPOSITIONS Prepositions are notoriously difficult for ESL learners for several reasons. 1. Several English prepositions are realized as a single form in the learner’s first language. Pumunta kami sapalengke. (We went to the market). Lumangoy kami sailog. (We swam in the river.) Sakalyeanggulo. (The commotion occurred on the street.) Antayinmoakosakanto. (Meet me at the street corner.)  2. The English preposition is not necessarily realized by a single word. There are complex forms like because of and in spite of or coalesced forms like into and onto. 3. Certain prepositions co-occur with verbs, adjectives, and nouns to form clusters. to substitute for to be afraid of infavorof awareness of 4. English prepositions are polysemous. They bear varied meanings. (space) Throw the at the wall. (time) It rains at night. (degree) Water freezes at 00 C. (idiomatic) She’s good at dancing. Meanings of Prepositions 1. Many prepositions prototypically deal with locating objects in space involving two or more entities. One entity is for foregrounding, while the other serves as background. The former is the figure and the latter is the landmark. In Throw the ballat the wall. figure landmark 2. Note the following figure at on in ↕ ↕ ↕ by through with about under over from off out of Adapted - Dirven 1993  At, on, and in are the basic and most general place prepositions. At denotes place as a point of reference, on denotes physical contact between the figure and landmark, and in denotes the enclosure of the trajector in the landmark. They met at the main gate. Put the box on the table. The ball is in the box.  From, off, and out of are source prepositions involving the notion of separation from place.From denotes separation from a point of orientation, off denotes separation from contact with line or surface, and out of, separation from inside a landmark. We walked from the gate to the waiting shed. The box fell off the table. Take the ball out of the box.  By and with are proximity prepositions, which locate the figure in relation to a point of orientation marked by the preposition at. By denotes the idea of “connection” while with denotes both a point of orientation and the idea of connection. In its spatial sense, with can occur only with animate nouns as landmark. He stood by me in all throughout the campaign. He rides withme to our place of work.  Through and about require the landmark to the seen as a surface or a volume and are positioned in the diagram above next to in. Through structures space as a tunnel or channel. About denotes spatial movement in any direction. Move the other side of the mountain through the tunnel. He walked briskly about the yard for his morning exercise.   Under and over are vertical space preposition. Under denotes a figure at a lower point than the landmark. Over denotes a figure that is at a higher point than the landmark. Don’t keep your shoes under the table. We watched the game over the fence. Selected Meanings and Uses of Common Prepositions 1. at (exact) We left at2:00 pm. 2. about (approximate) We left about 2:00 pm. 3. against (contact) to lean against the wall 4. around (approximate) around 2:00 5. by (nearness) bed by the window (no later than) by 2:00 6. from (source) paper is made from wood 7. of (before) a quarterof ten 8. on (contact) on the wall (day, date) on Sunday, on November 8th (communication) onradio, TV (concerning) a round-table discussion on language policy 9. over (spanning time) over the weekend (communication) over the radio, TV 10. through (penetrate) through the forest (endurance) through thick and thin 11. to (until) work from 8 to 5 (before) a quarter to 11:00 (degree) He is honest tosuch extent. 12. under (less than) in under an hour (condition) under stress 13. with (together) He grew smarter with the years. (equal standing or ability) rank with the best (manner) delivered his speech with ease Variations in Use of Prepositions 1. spatial proximity a house near/by the lake 2. time/degree approximation cost about/around Php1,500.00 3. telling time a quarter of/to ten a quarter after/past ten 4. location along something the houses on/along the river linear 5. in a time period It occurred in/during 1901. 6. temporal termination studied from 8 until/till/to 5 7. location lower than something below/beneath/under/underneath the bed 8. location higher than something above/over the piano 9. location in/at the rear of behind/in back of the cabinet something 10. location adjacent next to/beside the cave NEGATION In English, negation affects words, phrases, and sentences. Forms to Express Negation The following forms mark negation in English (Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman, 2001.): Affix-Negation No-Negation Not-Negation a- (atypical) no (no plans) not, n’t dis- (dishonest) nothing (I cannot/can’t) play the in/im/ir/il- nobody piano.) (inadequate/impossible/ no one never (not + ever) irrelevant/illegal) nowhere (My aunt hasnever left our non- (non-formal) town.) un- (uncomfortable) neither (not + either) -less (useless) nor (and + not) -free (fat-free) Neither his brothernor his sister helps support him in his studies. Negation at the lexical or word level can simply use the negative affix. For example: untidy untidily impossible impossible inadequate inadequately illegally illegally dishonest dishonestly atypical atypically Determining which affix to use is not always predictable. However, the choice of im-, in-, il- or ir- is PHONOLOGICALLY CONDITIONED by the consonant which follows it, i.e., im- is used if the following consonant is bilabial (b, p, m), il- goes with a stem beginning with l, and ir- with a stem beginning with r. The prefix in- is the most common. Nothing, nobody, and no one are indefinite pronouns while nowhere is an adverb. Other negative items include never (negative adverb of frequency), nor (negative coordinating conjunction, and neither... nor (negative correlative conjunction. The basketball players neveradmitted their mistake. The pre-schoolers can neither read nor write, nor can they comprehend do mathematical computations yet. At the phrase level, no can function as a negative determiner in a noun phrase. No agreement has been reached yet. No may also be followed by a gerund as in no reading, no parking, or no littering. Not is used before infinitive verbs to make the phrase negative. She reminded her friendsnotto forget their bathing suits. At the sentence level, not or its contraction n’t is the main NEGATOR. This applies to different sentence types. (statement) Mgrs. Palma is not/isn’t our teacher. (question Are you not/Aren’t we meeting today? (command) Do not/Don’t laugh. (exclamation) Was itnot/Wasn’t it exciting! No and not are negative substitutes. No can be a negative substitute for a whole sentence while not for a subordinate clause. A: Is she coming with us? B: No. She’ll do library work for an hour. A: Is Pepito interested in the post? B: I’m afraidnot. He’d rather be a plain member. Are you joining us on Friday? If not, please let me know by tomorrow. Placement of not 1. Not usually follows the be-verb, whether functions as a main verb (copula) or an auxiliary/helping verb. (main) Surprisingly today, the birds are not noisy. (auxiliary verb) I’m wondering why they are not chirping. 2. Other thanbe, not follows the auxiliary verb if one is present or the first auxiliary (modal, phrasal modal, or have) if there are two or more.  I cannot swim well. The principal mustnot have been joking when he said that. We havenotbeenanalyzingthe data since we received them. 3. With other main verbs, a do-verb is introduced before negation can take place. The child swims in the pool. The child doesswim in the pool. The child doesnot swim in the pool. YES/NO QUESTIONS Inverted and Uninverted Yes/No Questions YES/NO QUESTIONS are often defined as questions for which either “yes” or “no” is the expected answer. They are produced with a rising intonation. Yes/no questions are formed by inverting the subject and the operator. Lucy is your cousin. IsLucy your cóusin? She can speak fluently. Can she speak flúently? Shehasbeen a consistent debater. Hasshe been a consistent debáter? She loves (= does love) to read opinion columns. Does she love to read opínion columns? Yes/no questions may have a statement word order, i.e., the word order is uninverted. This sentence, however, is likewise said with a rising intonation. Lucy is your 3cousin3↑ 2 She can speak 3fluently3↑ 2 Answers to Yes/No Questions Yes/no questions usually take short answers using the operator. The operator is underlined below. 1. Is your sister fond of sweets? Yes, she is. No, she isn’t. *Yes, she’s. 2. Can you speak Chinese? Yes, I can. {No, I can’t. 3. Are we supposed to attend? Yes, we are. No, we aren’t 4. Have they eaten? Yes, they have. No, they haven’t 5. Does the baby walk? Yes, it does. No, it doesn’t. If the sentence contains more than one auxiliary verb, the short answer may also contain an auxiliary verb in addition to the operator. Will they have joined? Yes, they will have. No, they won’t have. If the second or third auxiliary is a be form, it is usually omitted. Will she be able to pass? Yes, she will. No, she won’t. Negative Yes/No Questions Semantic problems may arise for many ESL learners who react to a negative yes/no question in a literal manner in their language. This means that they agree or disagree with the form of the yes/no question, thus causing miscommunication.  Don’t you feel sorry? Yes (I don’t feel sorry). No (I feel sorry). Among native speakers of English, the expected response is: Don’t you feel sorry? Yes, (I feel sorry). No, I don’t feel sorry}. Focused Yes/No Questions While neutral yes/no questions, as in the preceding cases, query on the whole state, activity or event, this query can be more focused sometimes. Does Álex plan a foreign trip with Melly? (or did someone else?) Does Alex plán a foreign trip with Melly? (or did he only suggest?) Does Alex plan a foreign tríp with Melly? (or is it something else?) Does Alex plan a foreign trip with Mélly? (or is it with someone else?) The focused sentence element gets the primary stress as shown above. Some Versus Any in Questions Some and any can both occur with different question types depending on the meaning.  In open or unmarked questions, any is used in questions as well as in negatives. (question) Is there any sugar? (negative) There isn’t any sugar.  However, some is used in questions that expect a positive response, e.g., an offer: Would you like some cold drink? (encourages a “yes” answer)  Here are questions to consider: Is there some relief? (expects a “yes” answer) Is there any relief? (neutral question/no special meaning involved) Isn’t there some relief? (Surely there is.) Isn’t there any relief? (hopeful that there would be) Is there no relief? (hopeful that there would be) Other Functions of Yes/No Questions 1. Direct request: Can I borrow your notes on phonology? 2. Less direct request: Could I borrow your notes on phonology? 3. Polite request: I wonder if I could borrow your notes on phonology. 4. Offers or invitations: Would you like to have a cup of coffee? 5. Commands Would you please pay attention? 6. Reprimands Don’t you have enough sense to do such a thing? 7. Complaints Have you ever tried using this gadget at all? WH-QUESTIONS WH-QUESTIONSare used to seek specific information so they are also referred to as INFORMATION QUESTIONS. Except for how, these words begin with wh- : who, whose, whom, what, which, where, when, why, and how. A variety of constituents can be queried in awh-question. Consider this sentence: Liza bought a beautiful house for her parents before she went to Canada. Subject NP: Whobought a beautiful house? (Liza) Object NP: What did Liza buy? (a beautiful house) Object of the For whom did Liza buy a beautiful house? preposition: (her parents)  Who(m) did Liza buy a beautiful house for? (her parents) Verb phrase: What did Liza do when she came home? (She bought a beautiful house). Determiner: Whoseparents did Liza buy a beautiful house for when she came home? (her parents) Adjective: What kind of house did Liza buy? (a beautiful house) Adverbial: Whendid Liza buy a beautiful house? (before she went to Canada) Adverbial: Wheredid Liza go? (to Canada) Wh-questions elicit specific kinds of information. What? The answer is non-human. Who? The answer will be human. Which? The answer is one of a limited group. When? The answer will be a time or an occasion. Where? The answer will be a place or situation. Why? The answer will be reason. How? The answer will show manner, means, or degree. How much? The answer will be connected with an uncountable noun. How many? The answer will be connected with a countable noun. How often? The answer will indicate frequency. Forming Wh-Questions If who, what, or which is the subject of the sentence, it is followed by the normal word order of a statement. Statement: Grammar study is exciting. Question: What is exciting? Statement: Those big dogs chased the cat. Question: Which dogs chased the cat. Statement: Their teacher gave a test. Question: Who gave a test? Whom/who, what and which as objects form questions by putting the wh-words first, and do, does, or did next. Statement: He planted fruit trees. Question: Whatdid he plant? Statement: Mothers bathes my baby sister. Question: Who(Whom) does my mother bathe? Statement: The children catch yellow butterflies. Question: Which butterfliesdo the children catch? A modal (e.g., can) cannot be replaced by do, does, or did. The do-verb replaces the main verb. Statement: My three-year-old sister canread. Question: What can my sister do? Social Uses of Wh-Questions Certain fixed formulaic wh-questions serve social functions (Celce-Murcia and Larsen Freeman 2001). Among them are: Introductions: How do you do? Greetings: How are you?/ How have you been?/ What’s up?/ What’s new? Eliciting personal reactions: How was the test? Making suggestions: Why don’t you seek advice? How about a trip? Responding positively Why not? to a suggestion: Expressing exasperation: What now? Seeking another’s opinion: How about you?/ What do you think? Challenging another’s opinion: What for?/ How come?/ Since when? Expressing perplexity: What to do? Asking for clarification/expansion: What about it? Area: ENGLISH Focus: Introduction to Linguistics Competencies: 1. demonstrate familiarity with the theories of language and language learning and their influence on language teaching 2. revisit the knowledge of linguistic theories and concepts and apply it to the teaching of communication skills – listening, speaking, reading, writing, and grammar 3. show understanding of how language rules are used in real conversations A. Linguistics and English Language Teaching Teachers’ knowledge on the workings of language and language teaching are essentially intertwined with each other. The teachers’ competence on how a language behaves will certainly help teachers explain to the students how the language works, as well as anticipate and respond appropriately to possible learning difficulties. 1. Knowledge of linguistics, specifically phonology, may be useful for explaining interference problems that may be experienced by English language learners with the English sound system. To illustrate, in the absence of the following sounds such as /f/ and /v/ in Philippine languages, except in Ivatan and Ibanag, Filipino English learners are likely to use /p/ and /v/ as substitute sounds, e.g., /pæn/ for /fæn/ ‘ fan’ and /bæn/ for /væn/ ‘van’. Language teachers are advised to remember that each language has its own inventory of phonemes that may differ from that of another language. Such differences may result in using sounds that only approximate the target sounds, as shown in the aforecited examples. 2. Language teachers need to realize that grammatical units such as morphemes, words, phrases and clauses behave quite differently across languages. For example, plurality, and tense in English are expressed through inflections as is {-s/ -es} and {-ed}. However, Tagalog plurality is expressed as separate words as in mga bata ‘children’. Linguistically speaking, Tagalog verbs have no tense, only aspects – perfective “kumain’ and imperfective ‘kumakain’, which may explain the Filipinos’ problems in dealing with English tenses. 3. Helping students to discover the meaning of words by parsing them into small parts depends heavily on the teacher’s knowledge of morphology or word formation rules. To exemplify, students may parse or segment the following words, taking note of the morpheme {- ment} that recurs in embarrassment, government, disillusionment, enhancement. As students discover the meaning of {-ment} as ‘state or condition’, they may be able to give the meaning of the cited examples as: ‘state of being embarrassed’, ‘state of governing’, ‘state of being disillusioned’, and ‘state of enhancing’. Hence, the process of  word formation such as derivation may help learners interpret and remember meaning of words that follow certain patterns in forming short words into longer words. 4. Teachers’ knowledge about larger units of language use – discourse structure – may be relevant when teaching exchanges or conversations. The use of language for social functions such as asking permission involves familiarity with modals that express formality and a higher degree of politeness when speaking with someone who is older, who occupies a higher position, or is an authority than the speaker. In this context appropriacy has to be observed in selecting modals. For example, it is appropriate to use may, not can when asking permission from someone who is older, higher in position than the speaker. e.g. May I use the office computer? B. Views about Language 1. The structuralists believe that language can be described in terms of observable and verifiable data as it is being used. They also describe language in terms of its structure and according to the regularities and patterns or rules in language structure. To them, language is a system of speech sounds, arbitrarily assigned to the objects, states, and concepts to which they refer, used for human communication.  Language is primarily vocal. Language is speech, primarily made up of vocal sounds produced by the speech apparatus in the human body. The primary medium of language is speech; the written record is but a secondary representation of the language. Writing is only the graphic representation of the sounds of the language. While most languages have writing systems, a number of languages continue to exist, even today, in the spoken form only, without any written form. Linguists claim that speech is primary, writing secondary. Therefore, it is assumed that speech has a priority in language teaching.  Language is a system of systems. Language is not a disorganized or a chaotic combination of sounds. Sounds are arranged in certain fixed or established, systematic order to form meaningful units or words. For example, no word in English starts with bz-, lr- or zl- combination, but there are those that begin with spr- and str- (as in spring and string). In like manner, words are also arranged in a particular system to generate acceptable meaningful sentences. The sentence “Shen bought a new novel” is acceptable but the group of words “Shen bought new novel a” is unacceptable, since the word order of the latter violates the established convention in English grammar, the Subject-Verb-Object or S-V-O word order.  Language is a system of structurally related elements or ‘building blocks’ for the encoding of meaning, the elements being phonemes (sounds), morphemes (words), tagmemes (phrases and sentences/clauses). Language learning, it is assumed, entails mastering the elements or building blocks of the language and learning the rules by which these elements are combined, from phoneme to morpheme to word to phrase to sentence.  Language is arbitrary. There is no inherent relation between the words of a language and their meanings or the ideas conveyed by them. Put another way, there is no one to one correspondence between the structure of a word and the thing it stands for. There is no ‘sacred’ reason why an animal that flies is called ibon in Filipino, pajaro in Spanish, bird in English. Selection of these words in the languages mentioned here is purely an accident of history that native speakers of the languages have agreed on. Through the years reference to such animal has become an established convention that cannot be easily changed. That language is arbitrary means that the relationship between the words and the ‘things’ they denote is merely conventional, i.e. native speakers of English, in some sense, agreed to use the sounds / kæt / ‘cat’ in English because native speakers of English ‘want’ it to be.  Language is a means of communication. Language is an important means of communicating between humans of their ideas, beliefs, or feelings. Language gives shape to people’s thoughts, as well as guides and controls their activity. 2. The transformationalists/ cognitivists believe that language is a system of knowledge made manifest in linguistic forms but innate and, in its most abstract form, universal.  Language is innate. The presence of the language acquisition device (LAD) in the human brain predisposes all normal children to acquire their first language in an amazingly short time, around five years since birth.  Language is creative. It enables native speakers to produce and understand sentences they have not heard nor used before.  Language is a mental phenomenon. It is not mechanical.  Language is universal. It is universal in the sense that all normal children the world over acquire a mother tongue but it is also universal in the sense that, at a highly abstract level, all languages must share key features of human languages,  such as all languages have sounds; all languages have rules that form sounds into words, words into phrases and clauses; and all languages have transformation rules that enable speakers to ask questions, negate sentences, issue orders, defocus the doer of the action, etc. 2. The functionalists believe that language is a dynamic system through which members of speech community exchange information. It is a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning such as expressing one’s emotions, persuading people, asking and giving information, making people do things for others. This view of language emphasizes the meaning and functions rather than the grammatical characteristics of language, and leads to a language teaching content consisting of categories of meaning/notions and functions rather than of elements of structure and grammar. 3. The interactionists believe that language is a vehicle for establishing interpersonal relations and for performing social transactions between individuals. It is a tool for creating and maintaining social relations through conversations. Language teaching content, according to this view, may be specified and organized by patterns of exchange and interaction. B. Acquisition of Language 1. Behaviorist learning theory. Derived from a general theory of learning, the behaviorist view states that the language behavior of the individual is conditioned by sequences of differential rewards in his/her environment. It regards language learning as a behavior like other forms of human behavior, not a mental phenomenon, learned by a process of habit formation. Since language is viewed as mechanistic and as a human activity, it is believed that learning a language is achieved by building up habits on the basis of stimulus-response chains. Behaviorism emphasizes the consequences of the response and argues that it is the behavior that follows a response which reinforces it and thus helps to strengthen the association. According to Littlewood (1984), the process of habit formation includes the following: a. The child imitates the sounds and patterns which s/he hears around her/him. b. People recognize the child’s attempts as being similar to the adult models and reinforce (reward) the sounds by approval or some other desirable reaction.  c. In order to obtain more of these rewards, the child repeats the sounds and patterns so that these become habits. d. In this way the child’s verbal behavior is conditioned (‘shaped’) until the habits coincide with the adult models. The behaviorists claim that the three crucial elements of learning are: a stimulus, which serves to elicit behavior; a response triggered by the stimulus, and reinforcement, which serves to mark the response as being appropriate (or inappropriate) and encourages the repetition (or suppression) of the response. 2. Cognitive learning theory. Chomsky argues that language is not acquired by children by sheer imitation and through a form of conditioning on reinforcement and reward. He believes that all normal human beings have an inborn biological internal mechanism that makes language learning possible. Cognitivists/ innatists claim that the child is born with an ‘initial’ state’ about language which predisposes him/her to acquire a grammar of that language. They maintain that the language acquisition device (LAD) is what the child brings to the task of language acquisition, giving him/her an active role in language learning. One important feature of the mentalist account of second language acquisition is hypothesis testing, a process of formulating rules and testing the same with competent speakers of the target language. 3. Krashen’s Monitor Model (1981). Probably this is the most often cited among theories of second language acquisition; considered the most comprehensive, if not the most ambitious, consisting of five central hypotheses: The five hypotheses are: a. The acquisition/ learning hypothesis. It claims that there are two ways of developing competence in L2: Acquisition - the subconscious process that results from informal, natural communication between people where language is a means, not a focus nor an end, in itself. Learning - the conscious process of knowing about language and being able to talk about it, that occurs in a more formal situation where the properties or rules of a language are taught. Language learning has traditionally involved grammar and vocabulary learning. Acquisition parallels first language development in children while learning approximates the formal teaching of grammar in classrooms. Conscious thinking about the rules is said to occur in second language  learning while unconscious feeling about what is correct and appropriate occurs in language acquisition. b. The natural order hypothesis. It suggests that grammatical structures are acquired in a predictable order for both children and adults, that is, certain grammatical structures are acquired before others, irrespective of the language being learned. When a learner engages in natural communication, then the standard order below will occur. Group 1: present progressive -ing (She is reading) plural -s (bags) copula ‘to be’ (The girl is at the library.) Group 2: auxiliary ‘to be’ (She is reading.) articles the and an (That’s a book.) Group 3: irregular past forms (She drank milk.) Group 4: regular past -ed (She prayed last night.) third-person-singular -s (She prays every day.) possessive -s (The girl’s bag is new.) b. The monitor hypothesis. It claims that conscious learning of grammatical rules has an extremely limited function in language performance: as a monitor or editor that checks output. The monitor is an editing device that may normally operate before language performance. Such editing may occur before the natural output or after the ouput. Krashen suggests that monitoring occurs when there is sufficient time, where there is pressure to communicate correctly and not just convey meaning, and when the appropriate rules are known. d. The input hypothesis. Krashen proposes that when learners are exposed to grammatical features a little beyond their current level (i.e., i + 1), those features are ‘acquired’. Acquisition results from comprehensible input, which is made understandable with the help provided by the context. If learners receive understandable input, language structures will be naturally acquired. Ability to communicate in a second language ‘emerges’ rather than indirectly put in place by teaching. c. The affective filter hypothesis. Filter consists of attitude to language, motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. Thus  learners with favorable attitude and self-confidence may have a ‘low filter’ which promotes language learning. Learners with a low affective filter seek and receive more input, interact with confidence, and are more receptive to the input they are exposed to. On the other hand, anxious learners have a high affective filter which prevents acquisition from taking place. d. Implications for teaching: 1. Teachers must continuously deliver at a level understandable by learners. 2. Teaching must prepare the learners for real life communication situations. Classrooms must provide conversational confidence so that when in the outside world, the student can cope with and continue learning. 3. Teachers must ensure that learners do not become anxious or defensive in language learning. The confidence of a language learner must be encouraged in a language acquisition process. Teachers should not insist on learners conversing before they feel comfortable in doing so; neither should they correct errors nor make negative remarks that inhibit learners from learning. They should devise specific techniques to relax learners and protect their egos. 4. Teachers must create an atmosphere where learners are not embarrassed by their errors. Errors should not be corrected when acquisition is occurring. Error correction is valuable when learning simple rules but may have negative effects in terms of anxiety and inhibitions. 5. Formal grammar teaching is of limited value because it contributes to learning rather than acquisition. Only simple rules should be learned. 6. Teachers should not expect learners to learn ‘late structures’ such as third person singular early. C. Influences of Theories on Language Teaching 1. Applied linguists claim that theories of language learning as well as theories of language may provide the basis for a particular teaching approach/method. To illustrate, the linking of structura