Developmental Psychology Lesson 2 PDF

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Lesson 2 Theories of Development  1. Describe the main theories in life-span perspective on development. 2. Appreciate the contribution of Freud’s Psychosexual and...

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Lesson 2 Theories of Development  1. Describe the main theories in life-span perspective on development. 2. Appreciate the contribution of Freud’s Psychosexual and Erikson’s Psychosocial development in one’s Learning Objectives : development. 3. Familiarize oneself with the key features of cognitive and moral development and value its contribution to one’s total make up. How can we answer questions about the roles of nature and nurture, stability and change, and continuity and discontinuity in development? How can we determine, for example, whether memory declines in older adults can be prevented or whether special care can repair the harm inflicted by child neglect? Answer: USE SCIENTIFIC METHOD  Scientific method. An approach that can be used to obtain accurate information. It includes these steps: (1) conceptualize the problem, (2) collect data, (3) draw conclusions, and (4) revise research conclusions and theory. Theory. An interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain and make predictions. There is nothing quite so practical as a good theory. —KURT LEWIN Hypothesis. Specific assumptions and predictions that can be tested to American Social Psychologist, 20th Century determine their accuracy.  PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory Erik Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory Describe development as primarily unconscious and heavily colored by emotion. Behavior is merely a surface characteristic, and the symbolic workings of the mind have to be analyzed to understand behavior. Early experiences with parents are emphasized. Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory Freud emphasized sexual motivation through his developmental stages. In his view, if the need for pleasure at any stage is either undergratified or overgratified, an individual may become fixated, or locked in, at that stage of development. Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital Birth to 11⁄ 2 Years 11⁄ 2 to 3 Years 3 to 6 Years 6 Years to Puberty Puberty to Old Age Freud was convinced that his client’s problems were the result of experiences early in life. He thought that as children grow up, their focus of pleasure and sexual impulses shifts from the mouth to the anus and eventually to the genitals. As a result, we go through five stages of psychosexual development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital Birth to 11⁄ 2 Years 11⁄ 2 to 3 Years 3 to 6 Years 6 Years to Puberty Puberty to Old Age Libido is focused on Libido is focused on Libido centers on Libido is quiet; Puberty reawakens the the mouth as a the anus, and toilet the genitals. psychic energy is sexual instincts as source of pleasure. training creates Resolution of the invested in youths seek to Obtaining oral conflicts Oedipus or the schoolwork and play establish mature gratification from a between the child’s Electra complex with same-sex friends. sexual relationships mother figure is biological urges and results in and pursue the critical to later the society’s identification with biological goal of development. demands. the same-sex parent reproduction. and development of the superego. Freud emphasized sexual motivation through his developmental stages. In his view, if the need for pleasure at any stage is either undergratified or overgratified, an individual may become fixated, or locked in, at that stage of development.  Let’s Watch For us to better understand Sigmund Freud’s theory, here’s a short video clip for you to watch. Below is the youtube link. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WBX7IDuh1bU  John refuses to attend school. His teacher are troubled to his attendance and class performance. EXPLORE What do you think is the cause of this problem? According to Elliott (1999)and Kearney (2008), psychological problems such as anxiety or depression may be the cause why children refuse to attend school Specifically, John’s problem, of which he is probably unaware, may not be fear of school as much as separation anxiety— fear of leaving his mother, originating in an unresolved Oedipal conflict involving his incestuous desire for his mother in the phallic stage of psychosexual development. We should analyze the mother–son relationship from birth to find the source of this boy’s problems. Lack of gratification, or too much gratification, during the oral or anal stages may have contributed to his current difficulty resolving his Oedipal conflict. Erik Erickson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development Erik Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory Identity Trust Autonomy Initiative Industry versus Intimacy Generativity Integrity versus versus shame versus versus identity versus versus versus mistrust and doubt guilt inferiority confusion isolation stagnation despair Infancy Infancy Early childhood Middle and late Adolescence Early Adulthood Middle Late adulthood (first year) (1 to 3 years) (preschool years, childhood (10 to 20 years) (20s, 30s) adulthood (60s onward) 3 to 5 years) (elementary (40s, 50s) school years, 6 years to puberty) In Erikson’s theory, we must undergo eight stages of development. At each stage, a unique developmental task confronts individuals with a crisis that must be resolved. This crisis is not a catastrophe but a turning point marked by both increased vulnerability and enhanced potential as stated by Erickson. The more successfully an individual resolves the crises, the healthier development will be. Erik Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory Trust Trust versus mistrust is Erikson’s first psychosocial stage, which is versus experienced in the first year of life. Trust in infancy sets the stage for a lifelong mistrust expectation that the world will be a good and pleasant place to live. Autonomy versus shame and doubt is Erikson’s second stage. This stage occurs in late infancy and toddlerhood (1 to 3 years). After gaining trust in their Autonomy versus shame caregivers, infants begin to discover that their behavior is their own. They start and doubt to assert their sense of independence or autonomy. They realize their will. If infants and toddlers are restrained too much or punished too harshly, they are likely to develop a sense of shame and doubt. Erik Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory Initiative versus guilt , Erikson’s third stage of development, occurs during the preschool Initiative versus years. As preschool children encounter a widening social world, they face new guilt challenges that require active, purposeful, responsible behavior. Feelings of guilt may arise, though, if the child is irresponsible and is made to feel too anxious. Industry versus inferiority is Erikson’s fourth developmental stage, occurring Industry approximately in the elementary school years. Children now need to direct their energy versus inferiority toward mastering knowledge and intellectual skills. The negative outcome is that the child may develop a sense of inferiority—feeling incompetent and unproductive. Identity Individuals face finding out who they are, what they are all about, and where they are versus going in life. This is Erikson’s fifth developmental stage, identity versus identity confusion identity confusion. If adolescents explore roles in a healthy manner and arrive at a positive path to follow in life, then they achieve a positive identity; if not, then identity confusion reigns. Erik Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory Intimacy Generativity Integrity versus versus versus isolation stagnation despair Intimacy versus isolation is Erikson’s The seventh developmental stage occurs Final stage of development, which sixth developmental stage, which during middle adulthood. By generativity, individuals experience in late individuals experience during the this means primarily a concern for adulthood. During this stage, a early adulthood years. At this time, helping the younger generation to person reflects on the past. If the individuals face the developmental develop and lead useful lives. The feeling person’s life review reveals a life well task of forming intimate of having done nothing to help the next spent, integrity will be achieved; if relationships. If young adults form generation is stagnation. not, the retrospective glances likely healthy friendships and an intimate will yield doubt or gloom—the relationship with another, intimacy despair Erikson described. will be achieved; if not, isolation will result.  Let’s Watch For us to better understand Erickson’s theory, here’s a short video clip for you to watch. Below is the youtube link. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aYCBdZLCDBQ  COGNITIVE THEORIES Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory Robert Siegler’s Cognitive Information-processing Theory Whereas psychoanalytic theories stress the importance of the unconscious, cognitive theories emphasize conscious thoughts. Three important cognitive theories are Jean Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory, Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural cognitive theory, and the information-processing theory. Jean Piaget Cognitive Development Theory  Jean Piaget Cognitive Development Theory For example, we separate This theory states that children. cognitive construction of the important ideas from less world happen due to two processes: organization and important ideas, and we adaptation. To make sense of our world, we organize our connect one idea to experiences (Carpendale, Muller, & Bibok, 2008). In addition to organizing our observations and experiences, we adapt, another. adjusting to new environmental demands (Byrnes, 2008). Individuals go through four stages of cognitive development as they actively construct their understanding of the world. PIAGET’S FOUR STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT According to Piaget, how a child thinks—not how much the child knows - determines the child’s stage of cognitive development. Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational Stage Stage Stage Stage PIAGET’S FOUR STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Sensorimotor Stage Preoperational Stage Birth to 2 yrs old. The infant constructs an 2 to 7 yrs old. The child begins to represent the understanding of the world by coordinating world with words and images. These words and sensory experiences with physical actions. An images reflect increased symbolic thinking and go infant progresses from reflexive, instinctual beyond the connection of sensory information and action at birth to the beginning of symbolic physical action. During this stage, young children thought toward the end of the stage. The main can think about things symbolically. This is the ability achievement during this stage is object to make one thing - a word or an object - stand for permanence - knowing that an object still exists, something other than itself. Thinking is even if it is hidden. still egocentric, and the infant has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others. PIAGET’S FOUR STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Concrete Operational Stage Formal Operational Stage 7 to 11 Years of Age. Piaget considered the 11 yrs old and over. The formal operational stage concrete stage a major turning point in the child's begins at approximately age eleven and lasts into cognitive development because it marks the adulthood. During this time, people develop the beginning of logical or operational thought. This ability to think about abstract concepts, and means the child can work things out internally in logically test hypotheses. their head (rather than physically try things out in the real world). Children can conserve number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9). Conservation is the understanding that something stays the same in quantity even though its appearance changes.  Let’s Watch For us to better understand Jean Piaget’s theory, here’s a short video clip for you to watch. Below is the youtube link. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IhcgYgx7aAA Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory  Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory Like Piaget, the Russian developmentalist Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) argued that children actively construct their knowledge. However, Vygotsky (1962) gave social interaction and culture far more important roles in cognitive development than Piaget did. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory Vygotsky’s theory is a sociocultural cognitive theory that emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development. Vygotsky portrayed the child’s development as inseparable from social and cultural activities (Daniels, 2017). He maintained that cognitive development involves learning to use the inventions of society, such as language, mathematical systems, and memory strategies. Thus in one culture, children might learn to count with the help of a computer; in another, the might learn by using beads. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory According to Vygotsky, children’s social interaction with more skilled adults and peers is indispensable to their cognitive development. Through this interaction, they learn to use the tools that will help them adapt and be successful in their culture (Holzman, 2017).  Let’s Watch For us to better understand Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory, here’s a short video clip for you to watch. Below is the youtube link. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8I2hrSRbmHE Robert Siegler’s Cognitive Information- processing Theory  Robert Siegler’s Cognitive Information-processing Theory Robert Siegler (2006, 2017), a leading expert on children’s information processing, states that thinking is information processing. In other words, when individuals perceive, encode, represent, store, and retrieve information, they are thinking. Siegler emphasizes that an important aspect of development is learning good strategies for processing information. Information-processing Theory emphasizes that individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it. Central to this theory are the processes of memory and thinking.  Robert Siegler’s Cognitive Information-processing Theory Information-processing theory emphasizes that individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it. Unlike Piaget’s theory, but like Vygotsky’s theory, information-processing theory does not describe development as stage-like. Instead, according to this theory, individuals develop a gradually increasing capacity for processing information, which allows them to acquire increasingly complex knowledge and skills (Knapp & Morton, 2017). The information-processing approach often uses the computer as an analogy to help explain the connection between cognition and the brain (Radvansky & Ashcraft, 2018).  Robert Siegler’s Cognitive Information-processing Theory ▪ The computer’s role in cognitive and developmental psychology continues to increase. ▪ An entire scientific field called artificial intelligence (AI) focuses on creating machines capable of performing activities that require intelligence when they are done by people. ▪ A new field titled developmental robotics is emerging that examines various developmental topics and issues using robots, such as motor development, perceptual development, information processing, and language development (Cangelosi & Schlesinger, 2015; Faghihi & Moustafa, 2017; Morse & Cangelosi, 2017). ▪ The hope is to build robots that are as much like humans as possible in order to gain a better understanding of human development (Vujovic & others, 2017).  BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORIES BF Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory Behaviorism essentially holds that we can study scientifically only what can be directly observed and measured. Out of the behavioral tradition grew the belief that development is observable behavior that can be learned through experience with the environment (Maag, 2018). Skinner’s Operant Conditioning  Skinner’s Operant Conditioning According to B. F. Skinner (1904–1990), through operant conditioning the consequences of a behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior’s occurrence. Through operant conditioning the consequences of a behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior’s occurrence. A behavior followed by a rewarding stimulus is more likely to recur, whereas a behavior followed by a punishing stimulus is less likely to recur. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning ▪ In Skinner’s (1938) view, such rewards and punishments shape development. ▪ For him, the key aspect of development is behavior, not thoughts and feelings. ▪ He emphasized that development consists of the pattern of behavioral changes that are brought about by rewards and punishments. ▪ For example, Skinner would say that shy people learned to be shy as a result of experiences they had while growing up. It follows that modifications in an environment can help a shy person become more socially oriented. Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory  Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory American psychologist Albert Bandura (1925– ) is the leading architect of social cognitive theory. Bandura (1986, 2004, 2010a, b, 2012, 2015) emphasizes that cognitive processes have important links with the environment and behavior. His early research program focused heavily on observational learning (also called imitation or Social cognitive theory holds that behavior, environment, and cognition are the key modeling), which is learning that occurs factors in development. through observing what others do. Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory BANDURA’S SOCIAL COGNITIVE MODEL. The arrows illustrate how relations between behavior, person/cognitive, and environment are reciprocal rather than one-way. Person/ cognitive refers to cognitive processes (for example, thinking and planning) and personal characteristics (for example, believing that you can control your experiences). Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory Social cognitive theorists stress that people acquire a wide range of behaviors, thoughts, and feelings Bandura’s (2004, 2010a, b, 2012, 2015) most through observing others’ behavior recent model of learning and development and that these observations play a includes three elements: behavior, the person/ central role in lifespan development. cognition, and the environment. An individual’s confidence in being able to control his or her success is an example of a person factor; strategies are an example of a cognitive factor.  ETHOLOGICAL THEORY Konrad Lorenz’s Ethological Theory Ethology stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, and is characterized by critical or sensitive periods. Konrad Lorenz’s Ethological Theory  Konrad Lorenz’s Ethological Theory ▪ In his best-known research, Lorenz (1965) studied the behavior of greylag geese, which will follow their mothers as soon as they hatch. ▪ Lorenz separated the eggs laid by one goose into two groups. ▪ One group he returned to the goose to be hatched by her. ▪ The other group was hatched in an incubator. ▪ The goslings in the first group performed as predicted. They followed their mother as soon as they hatched. ▪ However, those in the second group, which saw Lorenz when they first hatched, followed him everywhere, as though he were their mother. ▪ Lorenz marked the goslings and then placed both groups under a box. Mother goose and “mother” Lorenz stood aside as the box was lifted. Each group of goslings went directly to its “mother.” ▪ Lorenz called this process imprinting—the rapid, innate learning that involves attachment to the first moving object seen.  ECOLOGICAL THEORY Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory While ethological theory stresses biological factors, ecological theory emphasizes environmental factors. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory consists of five environmental systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem. Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory  Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory Urie Bronfenbrenner developed ecological theory, a perspective that is receiving increased attention today. His theory emphasizes the importance of both micro and macro dimensions of the environment in which the child lives. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g6pUQ4EDHeQ Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory The microsystem is the setting in which the individual lives. These contexts include the person’s family, peers, school, and neighborhood. It is in the microsystem that the most direct interactions with social agents take place—with parents, peers, and teachers The mesosystem involves relations between microsystems or connections between contexts. Examples are the relation of family experiences to school experiences, school experiences to religious experiences, and family experiences to peer experiences. The exosystem consists of links between a social setting in which the individual does not have an active role and the individual’s immediate context. For example, a husband’s or child’s experiences at home may be influenced by a mother’s experiences at work.  Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory The macrosystem involves the culture in which individuals live. Culture refers to the behavior patterns, beliefs, and all other products of a group of people that are passed on from generation to generation. The chronosystem consists of the patterning of environmental events and transitions over the life course, as well as sociohistorical circumstances. Laurence Kohlberg Moral Development Theory  Laurence Kohlberg Moral Development Theory A comprehensive stage theory of moral development based on Jean Piaget’s theory of moral judgment for children (1932) and developed by Lawrence Kohlberg in 1958. Cognitive in nature, Kohlberg’s theory focuses on the thinking process that occurs when one decides whether a behavior is right or wrong. Thus, the theoretical emphasis is on how one decides to respond to a moral dilemma, not what one decides or what one actually does. Laurence Kohlberg Moral Development Theory He used Piaget’s storytelling technique to tell people stories involving moral dilemmas. In each case, he presented a choice to be considered, for example, between the rights of some authority and the needs of some deserving individual who is being unfairly treated. One of the best known of Kohlberg’s (1958) stories concerns a man called Heinz who lived somewhere in Europe.. Women in a rally holding a card: “No justice, no peace.” She walks alongside with other protesters who voices the death of a black American who died helplessly in the hands of the cops.  ANALYZE Heinz’s wife was dying from a particular type of cancer. Doctors said a new drug might save her. The drug had been discovered by a local chemist, and the Heinz tried desperately to buy some, but the chemist was charging ten times the money it cost to make the drug, and this was much more than the Heinz could afford. Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help from family and friends. He explained to the chemist that his wife was dying and asked if he could have the drug cheaper or pay the rest of the money later. The chemist refused, saying that he had discovered the drug and was https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5czp9S4u26M&feature=youtu.be going to make money from it. The husband was desperate to save his wife, so later that night he broke into the chemist’s and stole the drug. ACTIVITY Kohlberg asked a series of questions for you: 1. Should Heinz have stolen the drug? 2. Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife? 3. What if the person dying was a stranger, would it make any difference? 4. Should the police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman died? Laurence Kohlberg Moral Development Theory STAGE 4 STAGE 5 STAGE 6 STAGE 1 STAGE 2 STAGE 3 Obedience to Difference with Individual Avoid Good intentions: authority. moral and legal principles of Aiming at Punishment behave according Importance of right. Recognition conscience. Reward to norm doing one’s duty that rules may be broken Right and Wrong determined Views of other matters. Abstract notions of justice. by Reward and Punishment Avoidance of blame, seeking Rights of others can override approval obedience / laws. LEVEL 1 LEVEL 2 LEVEL 3 Pre-conventional Morality Conventional Morality Post-conventional Morality Laurence Kohlberg Moral Development Theory STAGE 1 STAGE 2 At the pre-conventional level (most nine-year-olds Avoid Aiming at Punishment Reward and younger, some over nine), we don’t have a personal code of morality. Instead, our moral code is shaped by the standards of adults and the Right and Wrong determined consequences of following or breaking their rules. by Reward and Punishment Authority is outside the individual and reasoning is LEVEL 1 based on the physical consequences of actions. Pre-conventional Morality Laurence Kohlberg Moral Development Theory STAGE 4 STAGE 3 Obedience to Good intentions: behave according authority. At the conventional level (most adolescents and Importance of to norm doing one’s duty adults), we begin to internalize the moral standards of valued adult role models. Authority is Views of other matters. internalized but not questioned, and reasoning is Avoidance of blame, seeking based on the norms of the group to which the approval person belongs. LEVEL 2 Conventional Morality Laurence Kohlberg Moral Development Theory Individual judgment is based on self-chosen STAGE 5 STAGE 6 Difference with Individual principles, and moral reasoning is based on moral and legal right. Recognition principles of conscience. individual rights and justice. According to Kohlberg that rules may be broken this level of moral reasoning is as far as most people get. Abstract notions of justice. Rights of others can override obedience / laws. Only 10-15% are capable of the kind of abstract LEVEL 3 thinking necessary for stage 5 or 6 (post- Post-conventional Morality conventional morality). That is to say, most people take their moral views from those around them and only a minority think through ethical principles for themselves.  Let’s Watch For us to better understand Kohlberg’s theory, here’s a short video clip for you to watch. Below is the youtube link. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sBop4yfH4pg REFLECT Which of the life-span theories do you think best explains your own development? Why? CONNECT Does special care might be able to repair the harm inflicted by child neglect. How might this question be answered differently using the different theories outlined? ASSIGNMENT For better appreciation and understanding the next lecture, conduct an interview to your parents or other significant others who saw your mother’s situation in carrying you in her womb for 9 months [though its best if you can interview your mother]. You may ask to describe what it was when you were in her womb, how does she cope with the demands of having you in her womb or what are the experiences she had on those 9 months of carrying you. Write an essay on this interview you had and give your insight about the transcribe experience. REFERENCES Santrock, J. W. (2021). Life-span development. McGraw-Hill Education. Sigelman, C. K., George-Walker, L. D., Cunial, K., & Rider, E. A. (2019). Life span human development. Cengage Learning Australia. Lally, M., & Valentine-French, S. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective. https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/textbooks/lifespan-development-a-psychological-perspective. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/lifespandevelopment2/chapter/lecture-lesson 5/#:~:text=Early%20childhood%20is%20sometimes%20referred,or%202%20to%206%20years.&text=But%206%20year%20old%20chil dren,bodies%20as%20their%20torso%20lengthens. https://www.rsd.k12.pa.us/Downloads/Development_Chart_for_Booklet.pdf