Lesson 1: The Self From Various Perspectives PDF

Lesson 1: ​​The Self from Various Perspectives **The Philosophical Constructions of Self** Many philosophical perspectives deal with the understanding of the self. The philosophy of man is a being or self and its ultimate reason for being. It is a comprehensive study of truth. Man\'s human nature...

Lesson 1: ​​The Self from Various Perspectives **The Philosophical Constructions of Self** Many philosophical perspectives deal with the understanding of the self. The philosophy of man is a being or self and its ultimate reason for being. It is a comprehensive study of truth. Man\'s human nature comprises many components that are unified and harmonized in the self - physical, intellectual, moral, social, political, religious, aesthetic, sensual, sexual, and economic. In these components the self is the whole man but taken in totality man, the self is imbued with reason, free will, and responsibility. This man, when fully developed becomes man, a many splendored creation through Philosophy. Thus, it was inevitable to come up with various conceptions of what it means to be human and in doing so, the different definitions of the self. **What is Philosophy?** **\>** Comes from two Greek words **philos** which means "love", **sophia** which means "wisdom". Thus, a philosopher is a "**Lover of Wisdom**" **\>** WISDOM  connotes knowledge - knowledge directed to the fundamental and pervasive concerns of existence.  **\>** WISDOM in philosophy is in how you help yourself think more clearly, precisely and systematically.  **\>** Is is the investigation of normal and fundamental issues concerning matters for example, presence, information, values, reason, psyche and dialect Greek thinkers before Socrates, like Thales, Pythagoras, and Heraclitus, focused on the composition and processes of the world around them.  Unsatisfied with mere mythological and supernatural explanations, these so-called Pre-Socratic philosophers turned to observation, documentation, and reasoning. **[Orientation of Thinking ]** - **Rationalism** -** ** regards reason as the chief source and test of knowledge. Philosophers: Socrates, Plato, Kant, and Descartes - **Skepticism** - always in doubt and that knowledge is uncertain. Philosophers: Humes and Socrates - **Empiricism** - all of our knowledge comes from our sensory experience. Philosophers: Humes, Ryle, Locke, Aristotle, Churchland , and Maurice-Ponty - **Idealism** - the nature of reality is based on ideas, perceptions, or consciousness rather than physical matter. Philosophers: Socrates, Plato - **Platonism** - refers to the philosophical ideas and doctrines derived from the works of the ancient Greek philosopher Plato. Philosophers: Plato - **Existentialism** - emphasizes on personal experience and responsibility and the complexities of human existence. Philosophers: Maurice-Ponty **[Philosophical Perspectives]** - **Socrates** - "An unexamined life is not worth living\..." - **Plato** - "The Soul is Immortal\..." - **St. Augustine** - "I am Doubting. Therefore I\..." - **Rene Descartes** - "I Think Therefore I am\..." - **John Locke** - "The Self is Consciousness\..." - **David Hume** - "There is no Self\..." - **Immanuel Kant** - "We Construct the Self\..." - **Gilbert Ryle** - "The Self is the Way People Behave\..." - **Maurice Jean Jacques Merleau-Ponty** - "The Self is Embodied Subjectivity" - **Paul Churchland** - "The Self is the Brain" **SOCRATES ** - "The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing." (469-399 BCE) - Socrates provided a change of perspective by focusing on the self. - His life and ideas, documented by his students, the historian Xenophon and the philosopher Plato, showed how Socrates applied systematic questioning of the self. - Socrates believed that it is the duty of the philosopher to know oneself. To live without knowing who you are and what virtues you can attain is the worst that can happen to a person. Thus, he noted that an "unexamined life is not worth living." - **Contributions:** - **Socratic method or Dialect style of teaching** - a method of inquiry by answering questions with another question. Socratic methods consist of two processes ironic and maieutic. - **Ironic process** - to make the seeker of knowledge, clear his mind for action. It removes from his mind prejudice and leads to the humble and sincere confession of ignorance. - **Maieutic process** - draws the truth out of the pupils\' mind which is done  using dialogue or conversation. - Socrates saw a person as dualistic, that is, every person is composed of body and soul. - There is an imperfect and impermanent aspect of every one of us, which is our physical body, and then, there is also the perfect and permanent, which is the soul. A diagram of body and soul Description automatically generated **PLATO ** - "The soul of man is immortal and imperishable" (428-347 BCE) - Plato further expounded on the idea of the soul by stating that  it has three parts/components: - **The appetitive sou**l - responsible for the desires and cravings of a person. - **The rational sou**l -- the thinking, reasoning, and judging aspect - **The spirited soul** -- accountable for emotions and also makes sure that the rules of reason are followed in order to attain victory and/or honor. In his work The Republic, he emphasized that all three parts of the soul must work harmoniously to attain justice and virtue in a person. The rational soul must be well-developed  and in charge, the emotions from the spirited soul are checked, and the desires of the appetitive must be controlled and focused on those that give life, like eating, drinking, and sleeping, among others. **ST. AUGUSTINE** - "The good man, though a slave, is free; the wicked, though he reigns, is a slave. (354-430 AD) - St. Augustine is considered as one of the most significant Christian thinkers, esp. in the development of Latin Christian theology. - His idea of the "self" merged that of Plato and the then-new Christian perspective, which led him to believe in the duality of a person - He believes that there is an imperfect part of us, which is connected with the world and yearns to be with the divine. There is part of us that is not bound by this world and therefore attains immortality. - The imperfection of the body incapacitates it from thriving in the spiritual communion with God, thus, it must die for the soul to reach the eternal realm. However, this communion of the soul with God can only be attained if the body lives in this world with virtue. **RENĒ DESCARTES ** - "I think, therefore I am" (1596-1650) - René Descartes was a French mathematician, scientist, and philosopher. - He argues that a person should only believe the things that can pass the test of doubt. - In his "Discourse on the Method" and "Meditations on First Philosophy", he, therefore, concluded that the only thing that a person cannot doubt is the existence of his/her "self". Because even doubt about the self proves that there is a thinking/doubting self ("cogito ergo sum") - He believes that to doubt is to think; the cognitive aspect of human nature is his basis for the existence of the self. - The self is a combination of 2 distinct entities: - Cogito ergo sum - the things that think (mind) which is the proof of human existence. - Extenza - an e\`xtension of the mind (body) The body is like a machine that is controlled by the mind and aided by the mind. **JOHN LOCKE** - "The only fence against the world is a thorough knowledge of it" (1632-1704) - John Locke was an English philosopher. His works as a physician provided him with an idea that deviated from the duality of the body or soul. - A person's mind is a blank state (tabula rasa) at birth; it is through experiences that this blank state is filled, and a personal identity or "self' is formed. - This "self" cannot be found in the soul nor the body but in one's consciousness (Nimbalkar 2011). - John Locke stated that personal identity or the self is found in the consciousness. - He identified the brain as comprising the consciousness that has one\'s identity. It is alleged that life is a quest for the understanding of what is after death and immortality. - He argued as well that a person may only be judged for the acts of his body but the truth, according to him, is that one is liable only for the acts of which he is conscious. **DAVID HUME** - "Be a philosopher; but, amidst all your philosophy, be still a man." (1711-1776) - David Hume was a Scottish philosopher and an empiricist who believed that all concepts and knowledge come from the senses and experiences. - He argued that there is no self beyond what can be experienced. - We do not know others because we have seen/touched their souls; we know them because of what we can actually observe. - This "self" according to him is a "bundle or collection of different perceptions, which succeed each other  with an inconceivable rapidity, and are a perpetual flux and movement" - The self is a combination of experiences of a person. Experiences can be categorized into: - **Impressions** -- real/actual experiences or sensations like feeling the rough edges of a stone or tasting a sweet ice cream - **Ideas** -- copies of impressions/representations of the world and sensations, like love, faith, or even an association with this certain event is caused by something in the past could possibly create another reaction in the future. **IMMANUEL KANT ** - All our knowledge begins with sense, turns into understanding, and ends with reeson. There is nothing higher than reason. (1711-1776) - One of the most influential philosophers in Modern Western philosophy. - He thinks that reason, not mere experience, is the foundation of knowledge. It is like seeing a visual effect on television, your experience says it is there, but the reason says it is only a computer-generated image. - The "self" organizes our experience into something meaningful. It can do such a thing because it is independent from sensory experiences; something that transcends or is above our consciousness. - Kant said that every person has an inner and outer self comprising consciousness. - According to Kant, the intellect and the psychological state of a being is what we call the inner self while the outer self is made of the senses and the physical self. - Largely, the object of the inner self is the \'soul\' while the outer self is directed to the \'body\'. **GILBERT RYLE** - "In searching for the self, one cannot simultaneously be the hunter and the hunted" (1900-1976) - Ryle focused on observable behavior in defining the self. He stated that every human being has both a physical body and a non-physical mind which are ordinarily \"harnessed together\" while we are alive. - He stated that \"A person, therefore lives through two collateral histories, one consisting of what happens in and to his body, and other consisting of what happens in and to his mind. The first is public, the second private.\" This simply explains how the mind is operating within the person himself while the body is subjected to the observation and criticisms of the public. - Ryle does not adhere to the idea of duality and sees the self as an entirely of thoughts, emotions and actions of person that relates to observable behavior. - We get to know others by observing their behavior and inferring about their "selves"; we can apply the same observation and reflections on ourselves **MAURICE MERLEAU PONTY ** - We know not through our intellect but through our experience." (1908-1961) - A leading French existentialist and phenomenologist, also contributes to the idea by stating that mind and body are interconnected with each other and therefore, cannot be separated. - Our body is our connection to the external world, including other people, thus all experiences are embodied. This also includes the thoughts and emotions of a person. **PAUL CHURCHLAND ** - A Canadian philosopher known for his studies in neurophilosophy and the philosophy of mind (the study of the philosophy of the mind, the philosophy of science, neuroscience, and psychology). - He further utilized knowledge from other academic and research fields to talk about the self as well as the mind. - One of those who proposed the use of "eliminative materialism" or "eliminativism". - The Self is the brain. - "Eliminative materialism" or "Eliminativism" means that the old terms we use to describe the mind are outdated. - If not mere "folk psychology", thus the need to use more accurate and scientifically proven terms, esp. based on neuroscience research. - Neuroscience somehow shows a connection of what we call mental states that of the physical activities of the brain. The dual perspective of the "self" continues to exist, perhaps because our brains are programmed to think of dualities. Our religious beliefs, that of a mortal body and an immortal soul, also affect such continuity. However, new ideas from academic fields as well as findings from technological advances are being considered and incorporated in this debatE and the discovery of the self. Being open to such new ideas may help us know more about our own "self". Lesson 2: The Self, Society, and Culture There is a common saying in the social sciences, especially in sociology and anthropology that Human beings are, by nature, social beings. That is, each of us doesn't exist in a vacuum. We interact with people and even the most introvert of us would have to relate and communicate with few. As Hughes and Kroehler 2008) puts it: "We are born into a social environment; we fully develop into human beings in a social environment; and we live our lives in a social environment. What we think, how we feel, and what we say and do, all are shaped by our interactions with other people. Every person lives in a society, which is defined as a group of people sharing the same culture and typically interacts in a definite territory. Each society has a culture or a way of life for those living in a specific society. Culture is commonly divided into: - Material culture -- attires, tools, weapons, architectural designs, religious implements  - Nonmaterial culture -- the belief systems, the values, the norms or expected behaviors, as well as the shared language and symbols. **Culture ** - Described as a group of people's way of life which includes behaviors, values, beliefs and symbols that they accept (usually unconsciously) that are socially transmitted through communication and imitation from generation to generation.  **Key Concepts** **Values (Noun)** - Ideal behaviors or principles that set the standard of what is acceptable and admirable from a person who is part of a society **Norms (Action verb)** - Rules on what to do or what not to do in a certain situation. As a person grows into a society, he/she imbibes the culture of that society through the processes of socialization. Socialization (or enculturation in anthropology) is a lifelong process of learning, teaching, internalizing, and living the culture of a society.  Other things that a person will learn that will affect his/her "self' are status and roles. **Status ** - Our position in a society or a particular group. You may be the first child, a teenager, a student, or a president of a student organization; it can also be your distinguishing title relative to the other members of the group. - Status can either be:  1. ascribed  - inherited or given birth, or 1. achieved - personally acquired for achieving something. An **ascribed status** is being a prince for example, while an achieved status is being elected as a president. However, each position or title also has expected roles or parts to play. Included in our roles are expected behaviors, norms, values, and attitudes. Simply put, "society is composed of people" and culture is composed of ideas, behavior, and material possessions" (Kendall 2006). These two coexist and are interdependent with each other. To maintain a smooth-functioning society, social institutions are created. Social Institutions are sets of ideas, norms, practices, or mechanisms organized and focused on addressing the needs of the community (McIntyre 2002). **Social institutions** 1\. **Kinship/Family** -- the most basic social institution of a society that organizes us based on our familial ties. It can be based on blood relations, like sibling relations (consanguineal), by marriage, like a husband and a wife (affinal), or social, which are relationships not falling under the first two but you still consider them as family (Crossman 2019). 2\. **Economics/Market** -- this system aims to regulate the flow of resources and services. Ideally, this should ensure that everyone gets a fair share of goods or that a person in need will get the service he/she needs to address a necessity. Ideally, this system should also regulate the price of the products to ensure fair competition among producers and sellers. At times, it can also control the demand by promoting a need or want for a certain product. 3\. **Politics/Government** -- this is usually composed of various organizations ensuring peace and order by legitimizing the use of the power of certain people or groups. In the  Philippines, the government is divided into three equal branches: - **Executive**, headed by the president and who is in charge of enforcing the law. - **Legislative**, composed of the House of Representatives and the Senate of the Philippines who are in charge of creating, amending, or repealing those laws - **Judiciary**, led by the Supreme Court to provide proper interpretation of the laws and ensure that they are following the Constitution and basic human rights. - These three branches are treated equally with powers to check and balance each other. Under the constitution, they serve the country and the utmost authority still comes from the people.  4\. **Education/School** -- the basic function of schools is to ensure that the knowledge of the past and the culture of society gets transmitted from one generation to another. It safeguards continuity or brings about changes to the other social institutions. It aims to produce people who can live harmoniously in the given social environment as well as able to be productive citizens for the economy. Some may look at this as a mechanistic way of producing workers, but one must also consider that education has also played in bringing new ideas that changed what we have been oppressive status quos in the past. Thus, a good education from a reputable school must always be sought after. The effects of almost twenty years in school to the mindset of a person cannot be diminished. It does not only dictate a person's skill on the job, but it will also affect his/her behavior and attitude toward social issues and life in general. 5\. **Religion/Church** -- an organized set of practices, symbols and artifacts regarding the belief in the supernatural. There are several reasons why people believe in the supernatural: - Explanation of the unexplainable - Meaning and purpose of life - Continuity of relationship with the people that we care about even after death among others. The Philippines is a Catholic country but our notion about supernatural and mythical beings is a very prominent part of our lives most especially those Filipinos who come from the countryside. Many Filipinos who live in rural or mountainous areas still believe in mythical spirits and monstrous creatures because they are said to be present only in the country side where there are forests and other uninhabited areas. Although believing in superstition and supernatural beings conflicts with Catholicism, Filipinos simply cannot ignore the stories because there is always that curious and freakish view of the unknown. Belief in supernatural beings is one of the basic characteristics of religion. A **supernatural being** is a being that is better and more powerful than any creature in the natural world. The supernatural or above natural includes **all that cannot be explained by the law of nature**, including things with characteristics of or relating to ghosts, gods or other types of spiritual and other non-material beings, or to things beyond nature. Although believing in superstition and supernatural beings conflicts with Catholicism, Filipinos simply cannot ignore the stories because there is always that curious and freakish view of the unknown. Belief in supernatural beings is one of the basic characteristics of religion. A supernatural being is a being that is better and more powerful than any creature in the natural world. The supernatural or above natural includes all that cannot be explained by the law of nature, including things with characteristics of or relating to ghosts, gods or other types of spiritual and other non-material beings, or to things beyond nature. 6\. **Mass/Social Media** - The media plays a role in self-concept development as well---both mass media and social media. When these media promote certain ideals, we\'re more likely to make those ideals our own. The more often these ideals are presented, the more they affect our self-identity and self- perception. (https://www.verywellmind.com) Mass media refers to technological devices that reach a large number of people, whereas social media refers to computer-based technology that allows users to create and distribute information as well as participate in social networking. Social media tends to reinforce use. People quickly become hooked on checking their statuses for comments and likes as well as perusing other people\'s posts. Using social media sometimes activates the brain\'s reward center by releasing dopamine, also known as the feel-good chemical. This dopamine release, in turn, keeps people coming back because they want to repeat those feel-good experiences. Social media also can boost self-esteem, the belief that one is good and valuable to others, especially if a person is viewed favorably online or gets several likes or interactions on their content. And social media allows some people to share parts of their identity that may be challenging to communicate in person. Social media can be particularly helpful for people with social anxiety, who struggle to interact with people in person. 7\. **Health services -** well-being is a positive outcome that is meaningful for people and for many sectors of society because it tells us that people perceive that their lives are going well. Good living conditions (e.g., housing, and employment) are fundamental to well-being. Tracking these conditions is important for public policy. However, many indicators that measure living conditions fail to measure what people think and feel about their lives, such as the quality of their relationships, their positive emotions and resilience, the realization of their potential, or their overall satisfaction with life--- i.e., their "well-being." Well-being generally includes global judgments of life satisfaction and feelings ranging from depression to joy (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2008) 8\. Recreation - an organized system of social relationships for satisfying the human desire of entertainment, amusement and play among others. Recreation consists of activities or experiences carried on within leisure, usually chosen voluntarily by the participant -- either because of satisfaction, pleasure or creative enrichment derived, or because he perceives certain personal or socia values to be gained from them. It may, also be perceived as the process of participation, or as the emotional state derived from involvement.  Leisure refers to the free time that people can spend away from their everyday responsibilities (e.g. work and domestic tasks) to rest, relax and enjoy life. It is during leisure time that people participate in recreation and sporting activities.  Sport refers to any type of organized physical activity, e.g. soccer, rugby, football, basketball, and athletics (Gulzar 2021). **Theoretical Approach** **GEORGE HERBERT MEAD ** - Social psychology is especially interested in the effect which the social gorup has in the determination of the experience and conduct of the individual member. - Mead was an American philosopher, sociologist, and psychologist, who is considered one of the founders of social psychology and symbolic interactionism. - He was a professor at the University of Chicago and one of the leading figures in the early development of the field of sociology.  **Theory of Symbolic Interactionism** - George Herbert Mead claimed that the self is created, developed, and changed through human interaction (Hogg and Vaughan 2010) for three reasons: - The "self" did not just come out of thin air. Our sociocultural context affects who we are, even most of the choices we think we freely make. This influence still affects you even if you move from one place to another and adopt a new perspective. - Whether we like to admit it or not, we actually need others to affirm and reinforce who we think we are. - We also need them as reference points about our identity. In the case of Facebook, there are those who will consciously or unconsciously try to garner more likes and/or positive reactions, and that can and will reinforce their self- concept. - Our notion of what is personally important to us is also influenced by the current trends of what is important in our society. Education might be an important thing to your self-concept, because you grew up in a family that valued education. Money might be important to some, because they may have grown in a poor family and realized how important money is in addressing certain needs. Being a nurse or a lawyer can be priority in your self- schema, because it is the in-demand course during your time. - Social interaction and group affiliation, therefore, are vital factors in creating our self-concept, especially our social identity or our perception of who we are based on our membership to certain groups (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). - It is also inevitable then, that we can have several social identities, which can overlap, and that we can automatically play the roles as we interact with our groups. **RUTH FULTON BENEDICT ** - Benedict (1887-1948) was a prominent American anthropologist known for her work on culture and personality and her contributions to cultural anthropology. - Benedict was a key figure in the culture and personality school of thought, which examined the interplay between culture and individual personality development. - She argued that each culture selects limited number of personality traits to emphasize, leading to distinct cultural patterns. **MARGARET MEAD** - Mead (1901-1978) was a renowned American cultural anthropologist who significantly contributed to the field through her ethnographic research and writings. - Mead was an influential public intellectual and wrote extensively for popular audiences, makinG anthropology accessible to the general public. - She held various academic and curatorial positions, including working at the American. - Museum of Natural History in New York City. - Both Mead and Benedict were associated with developing ideas related to Cultural Determinism. **Theory of Cultural Determinism ** - The contention that culture strongly impacts how the individual views himself. - Human nature is determined by the ideas, meanings, beliefs, and values learned as members of a society. - With the different cultures that exist not only in society but all over the world, anthropologists suggest that THERE IS NO UNIVERSAL or RIGHT WAY OF BEING HUMAN; the right way is always based on ONE'S CULTURE. **Culture and Personality** - Another school of thought founded by Ruth Benedict and Margaret Mead argued that the personality or the self depends on a certain group\'s cultural practices and socialization process. Thus, studying a person's personality can already provide us with an idea of his/her cultural background and social upbringing and vice versa (Dia et.al. 2014). This is especially highlighted in Mead's "Patterns of Culture" masterpiece. - Meanwhile, Ruth Benedict in her anthropological books, concluded that personal development, especially on gender roles and traits, is not based on biological traits. Most of these roles are based on cultural expectations. **CLIFFORD JAMES GEERTZ** - One of the most important and widely read anthropologist of the late 20th century.  - One of the founders of symbolic or interpretive anthropology, - This was an approach to culture that was very similar to the analysis of literature and art. - Geertz was famous for his writing style. - He was widely cited by almost every anthropologist in the 1970s and 80s. - Later, his works were less widely cited because his approach had been incorporated into the practice of most anthropologists. - He died in 2006.  - Clifford James Geertz looks at culture as a collection of symbols with meanings, which are made, communicated, and negotiated by each person to make sense of their lives and interactions (Clifford Geertz: Work and Legacy, n.d.) **CHARLES HORTON COOLEY** - He was an American sociologist who used the socio-psychological approach to understanding how societies work. - He earned his doctorate at the University of Michigan and taught at the same university as a sociology professor until the end of his life. in his written work, Human Nature and the Social Order (1902), he discussed the formation of the self through interaction. **Looking Glass Self** - Charles Horton Cooley said that people change or develop their respective self concept as they engage in social interaction.  - This idea is called looking glass self -- a process by which a person develops his self-image based on how others treat him. Their treatment therefore is like a mirror reflecting one's personality. Seeing oneself as boastful or timid is based on how others treated him as such. A person cannot see himself without a mirror, so self-image cannot be seen unless others react to a person's behavior. Cooley suggested that the looking-glass self is a lifelong mental process that is characterized by three phases:  - How one imagines how he appears to others. Ex. One may think of himself as gaining some extra weight, such as becoming "fat".  - How one imagines how others will judge his appearance. People typically think of obese people as unattractive. Hence, based on the example given, one will conclude that he is unattractive in the eyes of others.  - How one perceives other's judgment to be such as pride or shame. In this case, one will feel embarrassed or ashamed regarding his "obese" state. This will lead to the development of emotional reactions.  - Looking glass self is a subjective process and it is not necessarily in accordance with what is real. **ERVING GOFFMAN** - Goffman (1922-1982) was a Canadian sociologist and writer, considered one of the most influential sociologists of the 20th century. His work focused on the detailed study of face-to-face interaction and the subtleties of social behavior.  - His work remains a cornerstone in the field of sociology, providing essential frameworks for understanding the complexities of human interaction and social behavior.  - One of his concepts and influences is Dramaturgical Analysis. **Dramaturgical Analysis** - Goffman believes that people in their everyday lives are very much like actors performing on stage. If one imagines himself doing what goes on in a theatre of everyday life, he is doing dramaturgical analysis -- the study of social interactions in terms of theatrical performance.  - As people interact, they behave like actors by following a script that they have learned from their parents, teachers, and friends. The script essentially dictates a person how to behave based on his status and roles. Ex. In describing the changes that occurs in a waiter's behavior from the kitchen to the dining room. In the dining room (front stage), the waiters project a polite gesture to their customers. While in the kitchen (backstage), they openly reveal their irate behavior or sometimes ridicule the servility they must portray front stage. - He referred to this process of altering how the person presents himself to others as impression management.  - In this book, he wrote how he observed that people early in their social interactions learned to slant their presentation of themselves to create preferred appearances and satisfy particular people. - In Goffman\'s observation of people in everyday interactions, he sees similarities between real social interaction to a theatrical presentation.  - This is the reason for the label\'s dramaturgical approach to his view.  - It was also Goffman, who used the phrase face-work to describe another aspect of the self.  - This was usually observed in situations where face-saving measures are resorted to in the maintenance of a proper image of the self in frustrating or embarrassing situations (Schaefer, 2012). - We are all actors within the Social World, a central theme from Goffman work. - In a sense, we are called "Fakers" or engaged in a "Con Job" on ourselves to affect other people. - Goffman argues that the self is nothing more than "Self Presentations" and "Role Presentations" - Social life as a theater, with social scripts, performances and actors & roles that perform in the Front and Back Regions of self. - The concept of depicting social life as a Theater, Goffman developed the term Dramaturgy. ***Lesson 3: The Self as Cognitive Construct*** **Cognitive Development** - Is the construction of thought processes, including memory, problem solving, and decision making, from fancy through adolescence to adulthood (Wells, 2020). - Refers to how a person through the interaction of genetic and learned influences, perceives, thinks, and develops an understanding of their environment. **Psychology ** - The field of the social sciences that deals with the description, explanation, prediction, and control of behavior (Ciccarelli and Meyer, 2006) - The field assumed the existence of the states of consciousness in human beings  - Psychology further believes that the world of material things including people exists independently of the perceiving human mind. - The concept of "Self" in psychology as at times interchangeable with other similar terms. - Mental processes, which are comprised of our thoughts (cognition), senses (perception) and feelings (emotion) that helps us understand and make sense of the world and who we are within it. (Corcini & Wedding, 2000) **Psychology as Science ** - The systematic method explains human behavior and mental processes. - Reason behind the behavior, mental processes or capacity. - Analyzing and conducting studies. The **Psychology of Self** focuses on the representation of an individual based on his/her experiences either from the home, school, and other groups, organizations, or affiliations he/she is engaged in. **William James** - The greatest weapon against stress is our ability to choose one thought over another.  - Father of American Psychology and One of the Most Influential American Philosophers of All Time. - A professor of psychology and philosophy at Harvard University and known for being one of the great pragmatists. - Known for his "Theory of the Self" and wrote for many articles on both philosophy and psychology and published several books like "The Principles of Psychology.  - It is in this book where his theory of the self is explained **JAMES' ASPECTS OF SELF** 1." I self"-- is the thinking, acting, and feeling self (Gleitman et.al. 2011; Hogg and Vaughan 2010).   The self that knows and recognizes who they are and what they have done. It is similar to the person's soul or mind; it comprises the totality of the person's identity; it takes into account the past, present and future selves of the individual. ex. I borrowed the book from the library. I won the game 2\. " Me self" -- it is the physical characteristics as well as psychological capabilities that makes who you are (Gleitman et.al. 2011; Hogg and Vaughan 2010).  It can also be considered as a separate object or individual that the person refers to when discussing or describing their personal experiences.  ex. The gifts were sent to ME. The person is smiling at ME. **Carl Rogers ** - The curious paradox is that when I accept myself just as I am, then I can change. - Rogers is a prominent figure in humanistic psychology, primarily focused on concepts such as self-actualization, unconditional positive regard, and the client-centered (or person-centered) approach in therapy.  - Although his work is rooted in humanistic psychology, it has connections to cognitive constructs, particularly self-concept. - He was one of the first to use the term client rather than patient. - Carl Rogers' Theory of personality also used the same terms, the "I" is one who acts and decides, while the "me" is what you think or feel about yourself as an object - ▪ Other concepts similar to self are:  1\. Identity -- composed of one's characteristics, roles, and responsibilities, as well as affiliations that define who one (Elmore et.al. 2012).  2\. Self-concept -- is basically what comes to your mind when you are asked about yourself (Elmore et.al. 2012).  Self, identity, and self-concept are not fixed.  Ex. When asked about who you are, you can say, "I was a varsity player in Grade 5" which pertains to the past, "a college student which may be the present, and "a future politician" which is the future. - While they are not fixed, they are also not very fluid. Think of a malleable metal, strong and hard, that can be heated and hammered to any shape yet retain its core elements. - The concept of self-schema is our own organized system or collection of knowledge about who we are. (Gleitman et.al. 2011; Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). - It may also include your interests, your work, your course, your age, your name, and your physical characteristics among others.  - As you grow and adapt to the changes around you, they also change. But they are not passive receivers as they actively shape and affect how you see, think, and feel about other things or the people around you (Gleitman et.al. 2011; Jhangiani and Tarry 2014).  - Ex. When someone states your first name, even if not talking about you, your attention is drawn.  - If you have a provincial language and you hear someone using it, it catches your attention.  - If you consider yourself a book lover, a bookstore may always entice you out of all the other stores in a mall. - Theories generally see these concepts of self and identity as mental constructs, created and recreated in memory (Elmore et.al. 2012). Current research points to the frontal lobe of the brain as the specific area in the brain related to the processes of the self (Elmore et.al. 2012).  - Several psychologists, especially during the field's earlier development, followed this trend of thought by looking deeper into what they thought was the mind.  - The most influential of them is Sigmund Freud. Freud conceptualized the processes, construct, and behavior of the "self" as the results of the interaction between the Id, the Ego, and the Superego. **Sigmund Freud** - Unexpressed emotions will never die. They are buried alive and will come forth later in uglier ways. - Austrian Psychologist and physician. - Father of Psychoanalysis - One of the most influential people of the twentieth century and his enduring legacy has influenced not only psychology but art, literature, and even the way people bring up their children. - Freud's then revolutionary ideas of the probable factors that determine human behavior pave the way for science to look into the workings of the unconscious mind.   - Conceptualized the 3 levels of consciousness that provide an idea of how a person develops a sense of self. **3 Aspects of Personality** 1\. **Id** -- the structure that is primarily based on the pleasure principle. 2\. **Ego** -- the structure that is based on the reality principle. It mediates between the impulses of the id and the restraints of the superego. 3\. **Superego** -- primarily dependent on learning the difference between right and wrong. **Morality** of the action is largely dependent on childhood upbringing (reward and punishment) However, one cannot fully discount the effects of society and culture on the formation of the self, identity, and self- concept.  Even as Freud and other theories and researchers try to understand the person by digging deeper into the mind, they cannot fully discount the huge and important effects of the environment.  This is not nature versus nurture, instead a nature-and-nurture perspective. **Internal and External (James Carver, Michael Scheier)** They identified two types of self that we can be aware of:  1.The private self (a person's internal thoughts and feelings)  2\. The public self (what a person commonly shows to others, especially for creating a good public image (Hogg and Vaughan 2010) Self-awareness also presents us with at least three other self-schemas:  1\. Actual Self -- who we are at the present  2\. Ideal Self - who we like to be, especially in the future  3\. Ought Self -- whom we think we should be in contrast to the actual self (Higgins 1997 in Hogg and Vaughn 2010)  Ex. You are a student interested in basketball but are also academicall challenged in most of your subjects.  Your ideal self might be to practice more and play with the varsity team, but ought to pass your subjects as a responsible student. One has to find solutions to such discrepancies in order to avoid agitation, dejection, or other negative emotions.  Sometimes, all three may be in line with one another. - Self-awareness may be positive or negative depending on the circumstances and our next course of action.  - Self-awareness can keep you from doing something dangerous. It can help remind you that there is an exam tomorrow in one of your subjects when you are about to spend time playing computer games with your cousins.  - In other instances, self-awareness can be too much that we are concerned about being observed and criticized by others, also known as self- consciousness (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014).  - At other times, especially with large crowds, we may experience deindividuation or "the loss of individual self-awareness and individual accountability" in groups (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). **On Self-Esteem** - Group identity and self-awareness also affect our self-esteem, which is defined as our personal positive or negative perception or evaluation of ourselves (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014; Gleitman et.al. 2011)  - One of how our social relationship affects our self-esteem is through social comparison.  - According to the Social Comparison Theory, we learn about ourselves, the appropriateness of our behaviors, as well as our social statuses by comparing aspects of ourselves with other people (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014; Hogg and Vaughan 2010). **TYPES OF COMPARISON: ** 1\. Upward social comparison -- happens when an individual compares himself to others who are better than him.  ex. An adolescent male who values a well-built, muscled physique compares himself to one who is a bodybuilder to inspire him to do workouts to get the abs that he desires.  On the negative, when an individual compares himself with someone better than him, he may experience inferiority, envy, or frustration. 2\. Downward social comparison -- it is the more common type of comparing ourselves with others. It happens when an individual compares himself to someone who is in a worse situation than he is especially when he is feeling so low. This may make himself feel better knowing that he is more fortunate than this person.  On the other hand, comparing oneself to a less fortunate person may give rise to feelings of superiority and arrogance.  Facebook is the biggest venue of social comparison.  Take note that this occurs not only between individuals but also among groups. Thus, if a person's group is performing better and is acknowledged more than the other group, then his/her self-esteem may also be heightened. The social comparison also entails The Self-evaluation Maintenance Theory, which states that we can feel threatened when someone outperforms us, especially when that person is close to us (a friend or family) (Tesser 1988 in Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). In this case, we react in three ways:  1\. We distance ourselves from that person or redefine our relationship with them (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014).  Some will resort to the silent treatment, or change of friends, while some may also redefine by being closer to that person, hoping that some association may give him/her a certain kind of acknowledgment also. 2\. We may reconsider the importance of the aspect or skill in which we were outperformed (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014).  Ex. If we get beaten in drawing, we might think that drawing is not really for us and we should find a hobby where we could excel, thus preserving our self- esteem.  3\. We may also strengthen our resolution to improve that certain aspect of ourselves (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014).  Instead of quitting drawing, we might join seminars, practice more often, read books about it, add some elements to our drawing that make it unique, and, so on. Achieving your goal through hard work may increase your self-esteem, too. ▪ However, in an attempt to increase or maintain our self-esteem, some people become narcissistic.  Narcissism is "a trait characterized by overly high self-esteem, self-admiration, and self-centeredness". They are often charismatic because of how they take care of their image. Taking care of that image includes their interpersonal relationships, thus, they will try to look for better partners, better acquaintances, as well as people who will appreciate them a lot.  This makes them a bad romantic partner or friends since they engage in relationships only to serve themselves. (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). Though self-esteem is a very important concept related to the self, studies have shown that it only has a correlation, not causality, to positive outputs and outlook (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014).  It can be argued that high or healthy self-esteem may result to an overall good personality, but it is not, and should not be, the only source of a person's healthy perspective of himself/herself. People with high self-esteem are commonly described as outgoing, adventurous, and adaptable in a lot of situations. They also initiate activities and build relationships with people.  However, they may also dismiss other activities that do not conform to their self- concept or boost their self-esteem. They may also be bullies and experiment on abusive behaviors with drugs, alcohol, and sex (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). This duality in behavior and attitudes only proves the mentioned correlation.  Baumeister, Smart, and Boden (1996) in their research on self-esteem concluded that programs, activities, and parenting styles to boost self-esteem should only be for rewarding good behavior and other achievements, and not to merely try to make children feel better about themselves or to appease them when they get angry or sad (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014).