Understanding The Self UTS Prelims Reviewer PDF

UNDERSTANDING THE SELF composition and processes of the world around Lesson 1: The Self from Various them. Perspectives Unsatisfied with...

UNDERSTANDING THE SELF composition and processes of the world around Lesson 1: The Self from Various them. Perspectives Unsatisfied with mere mythological and supernatural explanations, these so-called Pre- The Philosophical Constructions of Self Socratic philosophers turned to observation, documentation, and reasoning. Many philosophical perspectives deal with the understanding of the self. The philosophy of man Orientation of Thinking is a being or self and its ultimate reason for being. Rationalism - regards reason as the It is a comprehensive study of truth. chief source and test of knowledge. Philosophers: Socrates, Plato, Kant, and Man's human nature comprises many Descartes components that are unified and harmonized in Skepticism - always in doubt and that the self - physical, intellectual, moral, social, knowledge is uncertain. Philosophers: political, religious, aesthetic, sensual, sexual, and Humes and Socrates economic. Empiricism - all of our knowledge comes from our sensory experience. In these components the self is the whole man but Philosophers: Humes, Ryle, Locke, taken in totality man, the self is imbued with Aristotle, Churchland , and Maurice- reason, free will, and responsibility. This man, Ponty when fully developed becomes man, a many Idealism - the nature of reality is based splendored creation through Philosophy. on ideas, perceptions, or consciousness rather than physical matter. Thus, it was inevitable to come up with various Philosophers: Socrates, Plato conceptions of what it means to be human and in Platonism - refers to the philosophical doing so, the different definitions of the self. ideas and doctrines derived from the works of the ancient Greek philosopher What is Philosophy? Plato. Philosophers: Plato > Comes from two Greek words philos which Existentialism - emphasizes on personal means “love”, sophia which means “wisdom”. experience and responsibility and the Thus, a philosopher is a “Lover of Wisdom” complexities of human existence. > WISDOM connotes knowledge - knowledge Philosophers: Maurice-Ponty directed to the fundamental and pervasive concerns of existence. Philosophical Perspectives > WISDOM in philosophy is in how you help Socrates - “An unexamined life is not yourself think more clearly, precisely and worth living...” systematically. Plato - “The Soul is Immortal...” > Is is the investigation of normal and St. Augustine - “I am Doubting. fundamental issues concerning matters for Therefore I...” example, presence, information, values, reason, Rene Descartes - “I Think Therefore I psyche and dialect am...” John Locke - “The Self is Greek thinkers before Socrates, like Thales, Consciousness...” Pythagoras, and Heraclitus, focused on the  UNDERSTANDING THE SELF David Hume - “There is no Self...” Socrates saw a person as dualistic, that is, Immanuel Kant - “We Construct the every person is composed of body and Self...” soul. Gilbert Ryle - “The Self is the Way There is an imperfect and impermanent People Behave...” aspect of every one of us, which is our Maurice Jean Jacques Merleau-Ponty physical body, and then, there is also the - “The Self is Embodied Subjectivity” perfect and permanent, which is the soul. Paul Churchland - “The Self is the Brain” SOCRATES “The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing.” (469-399 BCE) Socrates provided a change of perspective by focusing on the self. His life and ideas, documented by his students, the historian Xenophon and the PLATO philosopher Plato, showed how Socrates “The soul of man is immortal applied systematic questioning of the and imperishable” (428-347 self. BCE) Socrates believed that it is the duty of the Plato further expounded on the philosopher to know oneself. To live idea of the soul by stating that without knowing who you are and what it has three parts/components: virtues you can attain is the worst that can ○ The appetitive soul - happen to a person. Thus, he noted that responsible for the an “unexamined life is not worth living.” desires and cravings of a Contributions: person. ○ Socratic method or Dialect ○ The rational soul – the style of teaching - a method of thinking, reasoning, and inquiry by answering questions judging aspect with another question. Socratic ○ The spirited soul – methods consist of two processes accountable for ironic and maieutic. emotions and also ○ Ironic process - to make the makes sure that the rules seeker of knowledge, clear his of reason are followed in mind for action. It removes from order to attain victory his mind prejudice and leads to and/or honor. the humble and sincere confession of ignorance. ○ Maieutic process - draws the In his work The Republic, he emphasized that all truth out of the pupils' mind three parts of the soul must work harmoniously to which is done using dialogue or attain justice and virtue in a person. conversation.  UNDERSTANDING THE SELF The rational soul must be well-developed and in doubt about the self proves that there is a charge, the emotions from the spirited soul are thinking/doubting self (“cogito ergo checked, and the desires of the appetitive must be sum”) controlled and focused on those that give life, like He believes that to doubt is to think; the eating, drinking, and sleeping, among others. cognitive aspect of human nature is his basis for the existence of the self. ST. AUGUSTINE The self is a combination of 2 distinct “The good man, though a slave, is free; entities: the wicked, though he reigns, is a slave. ○ Cogito ergo sum - the things that (354-430 AD) think (mind) which is the proof St. Augustine is considered as one of the of human existence. most significant Christian thinkers, esp. ○ Extenza - an e`xtension of the in the development of Latin Christian mind (body) The body is like a theology. machine that is controlled by the His idea of the “self” merged that of Plato mind and aided by the mind. and the then-new Christian perspective, which led him to believe in the duality of JOHN LOCKE a person “The only fence against the world is a He believes that there is an imperfect part thorough knowledge of it” (1632-1704) of us, which is connected with the world John Locke was an English philosopher. and yearns to be with the divine. There is His works as a physician provided him part of us that is not bound by this world with an idea that deviated from the and therefore attains immortality. duality of the body or soul. The imperfection of the body A person’s mind is a blank state (tabula incapacitates it from thriving in the rasa) at birth; it is through experiences spiritual communion with God, thus, it that this blank state is filled, and a must die for the soul to reach the eternal personal identity or “self’ is formed. realm. However, this communion of the This “self” cannot be found in the soul soul with God can only be attained if the nor the body but in one’s consciousness body lives in this world with virtue. (Nimbalkar 2011). John Locke stated that personal identity RENĒ DESCARTES or the self is found in the consciousness. “I think, therefore I am” (1596-1650) He identified the brain as comprising the René Descartes was a French consciousness that has one's identity. It is mathematician, scientist, and alleged that life is a quest for the philosopher. understanding of what is after death and He argues that a person should only immortality. believe the things that can pass the test of He argued as well that a person may only doubt. be judged for the acts of his body but the In his “Discourse on the Method” and truth, according to him, is that one is “Meditations on First Philosophy”, he, liable only for the acts of which he is therefore, concluded that the only thing conscious. that a person cannot doubt is the existence of his/her “self”. Because even DAVID HUME  UNDERSTANDING THE SELF “Be a philosopher; but, amidst all your it is there, but the reason says it is only a philosophy, be still a man.” (1711-1776) computer-generated image. David Hume was a Scottish philosopher The “self” organizes our experience into and an empiricist who believed that all something meaningful. It can do such a concepts and knowledge come from the thing because it is independent from senses and experiences. sensory experiences; something that He argued that there is no self beyond transcends or is above our consciousness. what can be experienced. Kant said that every person has an inner We do not know others because we have and outer self comprising consciousness. seen/touched their souls; we know them According to Kant, the intellect and the because of what we can actually observe. psychological state of a being is what we This “self” according to him is a “bundle call the inner self while the outer self is or collection of different perceptions, made of the senses and the physical self. which succeed each other with an Largely, the object of the inner self is the inconceivable rapidity, and are a 'soul' while the outer self is directed to the perpetual flux and movement” 'body'. The self is a combination of experiences of a person. Experiences can be GILBERT RYLE categorized into: “In searching for the self, one cannot ○ Impressions – real/actual simultaneously be the hunter and the experiences or sensations like hunted” (1900-1976) feeling the rough edges of a Ryle focused on observable behavior in stone or tasting a sweet ice cream defining the self. He stated that every ○ Ideas – copies of human being has both a physical body impressions/representations of and a non-physical mind which are the world and sensations, like ordinarily "harnessed together" while we love, faith, or even an are alive. association with this certain He stated that "A person, therefore lives event is caused by something in through two collateral histories, one the past could possibly create consisting of what happens in and to his another reaction in the future. body, and other consisting of what happens in and to his mind. The first is public, the second private." This simply IMMANUEL KANT explains how the mind is operating All our knowledge begins with sense, within the person himself while the body turns into understanding, and ends with is subjected to the observation and reeson. There is nothing higher than criticisms of the public. reason. (1711-1776) Ryle does not adhere to the idea of One of the most influential philosophers duality and sees the self as an entirely of in Modern Western philosophy. thoughts, emotions and actions of person He thinks that reason, not mere that relates to observable behavior. experience, is the foundation of We get to know others by observing their knowledge. It is like seeing a visual behavior and inferring about their effect on television, your experience says  UNDERSTANDING THE SELF “selves”; we can apply the same The dual perspective of the “self” continues to observation and reflections on ourselves exist, perhaps because our brains are programmed to think of dualities. MAURICE MERLEAU PONTY We know not through our intellect but Our religious beliefs, that of a mortal body and through our experience.” (1908-1961) an immortal soul, also affect such continuity. A leading French existentialist and However, new ideas from academic fields as phenomenologist, also contributes to the well as findings from technological advances are idea by stating that mind and body are being considered and incorporated in this debatE interconnected with each other and and the discovery of the self. therefore, cannot be separated. Our body is our connection to the Being open to such new ideas may help us know external world, including other people, more about our own “self”. thus all experiences are embodied. This also includes the thoughts and emotions of a person. Lesson 2: The Self, Society, and Culture PAUL CHURCHLAND There is a common saying in the social sciences, A Canadian philosopher known for his especially in sociology and anthropology that studies in neurophilosophy and the Human beings are, by nature, social beings. That philosophy of mind (the study of the is, each of us doesn’t exist in a vacuum. We philosophy of the mind, the philosophy interact with people and even the most introvert of science, neuroscience, and of us would have to relate and communicate with psychology). few. As Hughes and Kroehler 2008) puts it: He further utilized knowledge from other academic and research fields to talk “We are born into a social environment; we fully about the self as well as the mind. develop into human beings in a social One of those who proposed the use of environment; and we live our lives in a social “eliminative materialism” or environment. What we think, how we feel, and “eliminativism”. what we say and do, all are shaped by our The Self is the brain. interactions with other people. “Eliminative materialism” or Every person lives in a society, which is defined “Eliminativism” means that the old terms as a group of people sharing the same culture and we use to describe the mind are outdated. typically interacts in a definite territory. Each If not mere “folk psychology”, thus the society has a culture or a way of life for those need to use more accurate and living in a specific society. scientifically proven terms, esp. based on neuroscience research. Culture is commonly divided into: Neuroscience somehow shows a Material culture – attires, tools, weapons, connection of what we call mental states architectural designs, religious that of the physical activities of the brain. implements Nonmaterial culture – the belief systems, the values, the norms or expected  UNDERSTANDING THE SELF behaviors, as well as the shared language Our position in a society or a particular and symbols. group. You may be the first child, a teenager, a student, or a president of a Culture student organization; it can also be your Described as a group of people’s way of distinguishing title relative to the other life which includes behaviors, values, members of the group. beliefs and symbols that they accept Status can either be: (usually unconsciously) that are socially a. ascribed - inherited or given transmitted through communication and birth, or imitation from generation to generation. b. achieved - personally acquired for achieving something. An ascribed status is being a prince for example, while an achieved status is being elected as a president. However, each position or title also has expected roles or parts to play. Included in our roles are expected behaviors, norms, values, and attitudes. Simply put, “society is composed of people” and Key Concepts culture is composed of ideas, behavior, and Values (Noun) material possessions” (Kendall 2006). These two Ideal behaviors or principles that set the coexist and are interdependent with each other. standard of what is acceptable and admirable from a person who is part of a To maintain a smooth-functioning society, social society institutions are created. Norms (Action verb) Rules on what to do or what not to do in Social Institutions are sets of ideas, norms, a certain situation. practices, or mechanisms organized and focused on addressing the needs of the community As a person grows into a society, he/she imbibes (McIntyre 2002). the culture of that society through the processes Social institutions of socialization. 1. Kinship/Family – the most basic social Socialization (or enculturation in anthropology) institution of a society that organizes us based on is a lifelong process of learning, teaching, our familial ties. It can be based on blood internalizing, and living the culture of a society. relations, like sibling relations (consanguineal), by marriage, like a husband and a wife (affinal), Other things that a person will learn that will or social, which are relationships not falling affect his/her “self’ are status and roles. under the first two but you still consider them as family (Crossman 2019). Status 2. Economics/Market – this system aims to regulate the flow of resources and services.  UNDERSTANDING THE SELF Ideally, this should ensure that everyone gets a fair share of goods or that a person in need will Thus, a good education from a reputable school get the service he/she needs to address a must always be sought after. The effects of almost necessity. Ideally, this system should also twenty years in school to the mindset of a person regulate the price of the products to ensure fair cannot be diminished. It does not only dictate a competition among producers and sellers. At person’s skill on the job, but it will also affect times, it can also control the demand by his/her behavior and attitude toward social issues promoting a need or want for a certain product. and life in general. 3. Politics/Government – this is usually composed of various organizations ensuring 5. Religion/Church – an organized set of peace and order by legitimizing the use of the practices, symbols and artifacts regarding the power of certain people or groups. In the belief in the supernatural. There are several Philippines, the government is divided into three reasons why people believe in the supernatural: equal branches: Explanation of the unexplainable Executive, headed by the president and Meaning and purpose of life who is in charge of enforcing the law. Continuity of relationship with the Legislative, composed of the House of people that we care about even after Representatives and the Senate of the death among others. Philippines who are in charge of creating, The Philippines is a Catholic country but our amending, or repealing those laws notion about supernatural and mythical beings is Judiciary, led by the Supreme Court to a very prominent part of our lives most especially provide proper interpretation of the laws those Filipinos who come from the countryside. and ensure that they are following the Constitution and basic human rights. Many Filipinos who live in rural or mountainous These three branches are treated equally areas still believe in mythical spirits and with powers to check and balance each monstrous creatures because they are said to be other. Under the constitution, they serve present only in the country side where there are the country and the utmost authority still forests and other uninhabited areas. comes from the people. 4. Education/School – the basic function of schools is to ensure that the knowledge of the past Although believing in superstition and and the culture of society gets transmitted from supernatural beings conflicts with Catholicism, one generation to another. It safeguards Filipinos simply cannot ignore the stories because continuity or brings about changes to the other there is always that curious and freakish view of social institutions. It aims to produce people who the unknown. can live harmoniously in the given social environment as well as able to be productive Belief in supernatural beings is one of the basic citizens for the economy. characteristics of religion. Some may look at this as a mechanistic way of A supernatural being is a being that is better and producing workers, but one must also consider more powerful than any creature in the natural that education has also played in bringing new world. ideas that changed what we have been oppressive status quos in the past.  UNDERSTANDING THE SELF The supernatural or above natural includes all Social media can be particularly helpful for that cannot be explained by the law of nature, people with social anxiety, who struggle to including things with characteristics of or relating interact with people in person. to ghosts, gods or other types of spiritual and other non-material beings, or to things beyond 7. Health services - well-being is a positive nature. outcome that is meaningful for people and for many sectors of society because it tells us that 6. Mass/Social Media - The media plays a role in people perceive that their lives are going well. self-concept development as well—both mass Good living conditions (e.g., housing, and media and social media. When these media employment) are fundamental to well-being. promote certain ideals, we're more likely to make those ideals our own. The more often these Tracking these conditions is important for public ideals are presented, the more they affect our self- policy. However, many indicators that measure identity and self- perception. living conditions fail to measure what people (https://www.verywellmind.com) think and feel about their lives, such as the quality of their relationships, their positive emotions and Mass media refers to technological devices that resilience, the realization of their potential, or reach a large number of people, whereas social their overall satisfaction with life— i.e., their media refers to computer-based technology that “well-being.” Well-being generally includes allows users to create and distribute information global judgments of life satisfaction and feelings as well as participate in social networking. ranging from depression to joy (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2008) Social media tends to reinforce use. People quickly become hooked on checking their 8. Recreation - an organized system of social statuses for comments and likes as well as relationships for satisfying the human desire of perusing other people's posts. entertainment, amusement and play among others. Recreation consists of activities or Using social media sometimes activates the experiences carried on within leisure, usually brain's reward center by releasing dopamine, also chosen voluntarily by the participant – either known as the feel-good chemical. This dopamine because of satisfaction, pleasure or creative release, in turn, keeps people coming back enrichment derived, or because he perceives because they want to repeat those feel-good certain personal or socia values to be gained from experiences. them. It may, also be perceived as the process of participation, or as the emotional state derived Social media also can boost self-esteem, the from involvement. belief that one is good and valuable to others, especially if a person is viewed favorably online Leisure refers to the free time that people can or gets several likes or interactions on their spend away from their everyday responsibilities content. And social media allows some people to (e.g. work and domestic tasks) to rest, relax and share parts of their identity that may be enjoy life. It is during leisure time that people challenging to communicate in person. participate in recreation and sporting activities.  UNDERSTANDING THE SELF Sport refers to any type of organized physical current trends of what is important in our activity, e.g. soccer, rugby, football, basketball, society. Education might be an important and athletics (Gulzar 2021). thing to your self-concept, because you grew up in a family that valued Theoretical Approach education. Money might be important to some, because they may have grown in a GEORGE HERBERT MEAD poor family and realized how important Social psychology is especially money is in addressing certain needs. interested in the effect which the social Being a nurse or a lawyer can be priority gorup has in the determination of the in your self- schema, because it is the in- experience and conduct of the individual demand course during your time. member. Social interaction and group affiliation, Mead was an American philosopher, therefore, are vital factors in creating our sociologist, and psychologist, who is self-concept, especially our social considered one of the founders of social identity or our perception of who we are psychology and symbolic interactionism. based on our membership to certain He was a professor at the University of groups (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). Chicago and one of the leading figures in It is also inevitable then, that we can have the early development of the field of several social identities, which can sociology. overlap, and that we can automatically Theory of Symbolic Interactionism play the roles as we interact with our George Herbert Mead claimed that the groups. self is created, developed, and changed through human interaction (Hogg and RUTH FULTON BENEDICT Vaughan 2010) for three reasons: Benedict (1887-1948) was a prominent The “self” did not just come out of thin American anthropologist known for her air. Our sociocultural context affects who work on culture and personality and her we are, even most of the choices we think contributions to cultural anthropology. we freely make. This influence still Benedict was a key figure in the culture affects you even if you move from one and personality school of thought, which place to another and adopt a new examined the interplay between culture perspective. and individual personality development. Whether we like to admit it or not, we She argued that each culture selects actually need others to affirm and limited number of personality traits to reinforce who we think we are. emphasize, leading to distinct cultural We also need them as reference points patterns. about our identity. In the case of Facebook, there are those who will MARGARET MEAD consciously or unconsciously try to Mead (1901-1978) was a renowned garner more likes and/or positive American cultural anthropologist who reactions, and that can and will reinforce significantly contributed to the field their self- concept. through her ethnographic research and Our notion of what is personally writings. important to us is also influenced by the  UNDERSTANDING THE SELF Mead was an influential public intellectual and wrote extensively for CLIFFORD JAMES GEERTZ popular audiences, makinG One of the most important and widely anthropology accessible to the general read anthropologist of the late 20th public. century. She held various academic and curatorial One of the founders of symbolic or positions, including working at the interpretive anthropology, American. Museum of Natural History in This was an approach to culture that was New York City. very similar to the analysis of literature Both Mead and Benedict were associated and art. with developing ideas related to Cultural Geertz was famous for his writing style. Determinism. He was widely cited by almost every Theory of Cultural Determinism anthropologist in the 1970s and 80s. The contention that culture strongly Later, his works were less widely cited impacts how the individual views because his approach had been himself. incorporated into the practice of most Human nature is determined by the ideas, anthropologists. meanings, beliefs, and values learned as He died in 2006. members of a society. Clifford James Geertz looks at culture as With the different cultures that exist not a collection of symbols with meanings, only in society but all over the world, which are made, communicated, and anthropologists suggest that THERE IS negotiated by each person to make sense NO UNIVERSAL or RIGHT WAY OF of their lives and interactions (Clifford BEING HUMAN; the right way is Geertz: Work and Legacy, n.d.) always based on ONE’S CULTURE. Culture and Personality CHARLES HORTON COOLEY Another school of thought founded by He was an American sociologist who Ruth Benedict and Margaret Mead used the socio-psychological approach to argued that the personality or the self understanding how societies work. depends on a certain group's cultural He earned his doctorate at the University practices and socialization process. Thus, of Michigan and taught at the same studying a person’s personality can university as a sociology professor until already provide us with an idea of his/her the end of his life. in his written work, cultural background and social Human Nature and the Social Order upbringing and vice versa (Dia et.al. (1902), he discussed the formation of the 2014). This is especially highlighted in self through interaction. Mead’s “Patterns of Culture” Looking Glass Self masterpiece. Charles Horton Cooley said that people Meanwhile, Ruth Benedict in her change or develop their respective self anthropological books, concluded that concept as they engage in social personal development, especially on interaction. gender roles and traits, is not based on This idea is called looking glass self – a biological traits. Most of these roles are process by which a person develops his based on cultural expectations. self-image based on how others treat  UNDERSTANDING THE SELF him. Their treatment therefore is like a One of his concepts and influences is mirror reflecting one’s personality. Dramaturgical Analysis. Seeing oneself as boastful or timid is Dramaturgical Analysis based on how others treated him as such. Goffman believes that people in their A person cannot see himself without a everyday lives are very much like actors mirror, so self-image cannot be seen performing on stage. If one imagines unless others react to a person’s himself doing what goes on in a theatre behavior. of everyday life, he is doing Cooley suggested that the looking-glass dramaturgical analysis – the study of self is a lifelong mental process that is social interactions in terms of theatrical characterized by three phases: performance. How one imagines how he appears to As people interact, they behave like others. Ex. One may think of himself as actors by following a script that they have gaining some extra weight, such as learned from their parents, teachers, and becoming “fat”. friends. The script essentially dictates a How one imagines how others will judge person how to behave based on his status his appearance. People typically think of and roles. Ex. In describing the changes obese people as unattractive. Hence, that occurs in a waiter’s behavior from based on the example given, one will the kitchen to the dining room. In the conclude that he is unattractive in the dining room (front stage), the waiters eyes of others. project a polite gesture to their How one perceives other’s judgment to customers. While in the kitchen be such as pride or shame. In this case, (backstage), they openly reveal their irate one will feel embarrassed or ashamed behavior or sometimes ridicule the regarding his “obese” state. This will servility they must portray front stage. lead to the development of emotional He referred to this process of altering reactions. how the person presents himself to others Looking glass self is a subjective process as impression management. and it is not necessarily in accordance In this book, he wrote how he observed with what is real. that people early in their social interactions learned to slant their ERVING GOFFMAN presentation of themselves to create Goffman (1922-1982) was a Canadian preferred appearances and satisfy sociologist and writer, considered one of particular people. the most influential sociologists of the In Goffman's observation of people in 20th century. His work focused on the everyday interactions, he sees detailed study of face-to-face interaction similarities between real social and the subtleties of social behavior. interaction to a theatrical presentation. His work remains a cornerstone in the This is the reason for the label's field of sociology, providing essential dramaturgical approach to his view. frameworks for understanding the It was also Goffman, who used the phrase complexities of human interaction and face-work to describe another aspect of social behavior. the self.  UNDERSTANDING THE SELF This was usually observed in situations The field assumed the existence of the where face-saving measures are resorted states of consciousness in human beings to in the maintenance of a proper image Psychology further believes that the of the self in frustrating or embarrassing world of material things including people situations (Schaefer, 2012). exists independently of the perceiving human mind. We are all actors within the Social The concept of “Self” in psychology as at World, a central theme from Goffman times interchangeable with other similar work. terms. Sometimes a framework or school In a sense, we are called “Fakers” or of thought would look at what we can engaged in a “Con Job” on ourselves to describe as one aspect of the self as its affect other people. focus. Goffman argues that the self is nothing Mental processes, which are comprised more than “Self Presentations” and “Role of our thoughts (cognition), senses Presentations” (perception) and feelings (emotion) that Social life as a theater, with social scripts, helps us understand and make sense of performances and actors & roles that the world and who we are within it. perform in the Front and Back Regions of (Corcini & Wedding, 2000) self. The concept of depicting social life as a Psychology as Science Theater, Goffman developed the term The systematic method explains human Dramaturgy. behavior and mental processes. Reason behind the behavior, mental Lesson 3: The Self as Cognitive Construct processes or capacity. Analyzing and conducting studies. Cognitive Development Is the construction of thought processes, The Psychology of Self focuses on the including memory, problem solving, and representation of an individual based on his/her decision making, from fancy through experiences either from the home, school, and adolescence to adulthood (Wells, 2020). other groups, organizations, or affiliations he/she Refers to how a person through the is engaged in. interaction of genetic and learned influences, perceives, thinks, and William James develops an understanding of their The greatest weapon against stress is our environment. Information processing, ability to choose one thought over knowledge, reasoning, language another. development, and memory are among the Father of American Psychology and One areas of cognitive development. of the Most Influential American Psychology Philosophers of All Time. The field of the social sciences that deals A professor of psychology and with the description, explanation, philosophy at Harvard University and prediction, and control of behavior known for being one of the great (Ciccarelli and Meyer, 2006) pragmatists.  UNDERSTANDING THE SELF Known for his “Theory of the Self” and connections to cognitive constructs, wrote for many articles on both particularly self-concept. philosophy and psychology and He was one of the first to use the term published several books like “The client rather than patient. Principles of Psychology. Carl Rogers’ Theory of personality also It is in this book where his theory of the used the same terms, the “I” is one who self is explained acts and decides, while the “me” is what JAMES’ ASPECTS OF SELF you think or feel about yourself as an 1.“ I self”– is the thinking, acting, and feeling self object (Gleitman et.al. 2011; Hogg and Vaughan 2010). ▪ Other concepts similar to self are: 1. Identity – composed of one’s The self that knows and recognizes who they are characteristics, roles, and and what they have done. It is similar to the responsibilities, as well as affiliations person’s soul or mind; it comprises the totality of that define who one (Elmore et.al. 2012). the person’s identity; it takes into account the 2. Self-concept – is basically what comes past, present and future selves of the individual. to your mind when you are asked about yourself (Elmore et.al. 2012). ex. I borrowed the book from the library. I won Self, identity, and self-concept are not the game fixed. Ex. When asked about who you are, you 2. “ Me self” – it is the physical characteristics as can say, “I was a varsity player in Grade well as psychological capabilities that makes who 5” which pertains to the past, “a college you are (Gleitman et.al. 2011; Hogg and Vaughan student which may be the present, and “a 2010). future politician” which is the future. While they are not fixed, they are also not It can also be considered as a separate object or very fluid. Think of a malleable metal, individual that the person refers to when strong and hard, that can be heated and discussing or describing their personal hammered to any shape yet retain its core experiences. elements. The concept of self-schema is our own ex. The gifts were sent to ME. The person is organized system or collection of smiling at ME. knowledge about who we are. (Gleitman et.al. 2011; Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). Carl Rogers It may also include your interests, your The curious paradox is that when I accept work, your course, your age, your name, myself just as I am, then I can change. and your physical characteristics among Rogers is a prominent figure in others. humanistic psychology, primarily As you grow and adapt to the changes focused on concepts such as self- around you, they also change. But they actualization, unconditional positive are not passive receivers as they actively regard, and the client-centered (or shape and affect how you see, think, and person-centered) approach in therapy. feel about other things or the people Although his work is rooted in around you (Gleitman et.al. 2011; humanistic psychology, it has Jhangiani and Tarry 2014).  UNDERSTANDING THE SELF ○ Ex. When someone states your into the workings of the unconscious first name, even if not talking mind. about you, your attention is Conceptualized the 3 levels of drawn. consciousness that provide an idea of ○ If you have a provincial how a person develops a sense of self. language and you hear someone using it, it catches your attention. 3 Aspects of Personality ○ If you consider yourself a book lover, a bookstore may always 1. Id – the structure that is primarily based on entice you out of all the other the pleasure principle. stores in a mall. 2. Ego – the structure that is based on the reality Theories generally see these concepts of principle. It mediates between the impulses of self and identity as mental constructs, the id and the restraints of the superego. created and recreated in memory (Elmore 3. Superego – primarily dependent on learning et.al. 2012). Current research points to the difference between right and wrong. the frontal lobe of the brain as the Morality of the action is largely dependent on specific area in the brain related to the childhood upbringing (reward and punishment) processes of the self (Elmore et.al. 2012). Several psychologists, especially during However, one cannot fully discount the effects the field’s earlier development, followed of society and culture on the formation of the this trend of thought by looking deeper self, identity, and self- concept. into what they thought was the mind. The most influential of them is Sigmund Even as Freud and other theories and researchers Freud. Freud conceptualized the try to understand the person by digging deeper processes, construct, and behavior of the into the mind, they cannot fully discount the “self” as the results of the interaction huge and important effects of the environment. between the Id, the Ego, and the Superego. This is not nature versus nurture, instead a nature-and-nurture perspective. Sigmund Freud Unexpressed emotions will never die. Internal and External (James Carver, They are buried alive and will come forth Michael Scheier) later in uglier ways. They identified two types of self that we can be Austrian Psychologist and physician. aware of: Father of Psychoanalysis 1.The private self (a person’s internal thoughts One of the most influential people of the and feelings) twentieth century and his enduring 2. The public self (what a person commonly legacy has influenced not only shows to others, especially for creating a good psychology but art, literature, and even public image (Hogg and Vaughan 2010) the way people bring up their children. Freud’s then revolutionary ideas of the Self-awareness also presents us with at least probable factors that determine human three other self-schemas: behavior pave the way for science to look 1. Actual Self – who we are at the present  UNDERSTANDING THE SELF 2. Ideal Self - who we like to be, especially in Group identity and self-awareness also the future affect our self-esteem, which is defined 3. Ought Self – whom we think we should be in as our personal positive or negative contrast to the actual self (Higgins 1997 in Hogg perception or evaluation of ourselves and Vaughn 2010) (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014; Gleitman et.al. 2011) Ex. You are a student interested in basketball but One of how our social relationship are also academicall challenged in most of your affects our self-esteem is through social subjects. comparison. According to the Social Comparison Your ideal self might be to practice more and Theory, we learn about ourselves, the play with the varsity team, but ought to pass appropriateness of our behaviors, as well your subjects as a responsible student. One has as our social statuses by comparing to find solutions to such discrepancies in order aspects of ourselves with other people to avoid agitation, dejection, or other negative (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014; Hogg and emotions. Vaughan 2010). Sometimes, all three may be in line with one TYPES OF COMPARISON: another. 1. Upward social comparison – happens when an individual compares himself to others who are Self-awareness may be positive or better than him. negative depending on the circumstances and our next course of action. ex. An adolescent male who values a well-built, Self-awareness can keep you from doing muscled physique compares himself to one who something dangerous. It can help remind is a bodybuilder to inspire him to do workouts to you that there is an exam tomorrow in get the abs that he desires. one of your subjects when you are about to spend time playing computer games On the negative, when an individual compares with your cousins. himself with someone better than him, he may In other instances, self-awareness can be experience inferiority, envy, or frustration. too much that we are concerned about being observed and criticized by others, 2. Downward social comparison – it is the more also known as self- consciousness common type of comparing ourselves with (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). others. It happens when an individual compares At other times, especially with large himself to someone who is in a worse situation crowds, we may experience than he is especially when he is feeling so low. deindividuation or “the loss of individual This may make himself feel better knowing that self-awareness and individual he is more fortunate than this person. accountability” in groups (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). On the other hand, comparing oneself to a less fortunate person may give rise to feelings of superiority and arrogance. Facebook is the biggest venue of social On Self-Esteem comparison.  UNDERSTANDING THE SELF Take note that this occurs not only between Narcissism is “a trait characterized by overly high individuals but also among groups. Thus, if a self-esteem, self-admiration, and self- person’s group is performing better and is centeredness”. They are often charismatic acknowledged more than the other group, then because of how they take care of their image. his/her self-esteem may also be heightened. Taking care of that image includes their interpersonal relationships, thus, they will try to The social comparison also entails The Self- look for better partners, better acquaintances, as evaluation Maintenance Theory, which states that well as people who will appreciate them a lot. we can feel threatened when someone outperforms us, especially when that person is This makes them a bad romantic partner or close to us (a friend or family) (Tesser 1988 in friends since they engage in relationships only to Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). In this case, we react serve themselves. (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). in three ways: 1. We distance ourselves from that person or Though self-esteem is a very important concept redefine our relationship with them (Jhangiani related to the self, studies have shown that it only and Tarry 2014). has a correlation, not causality, to positive outputs and outlook (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). Some will resort to the silent treatment, or change of friends, while some may also redefine by being It can be argued that high or healthy self-esteem closer to that person, hoping that some may result to an overall good personality, but it is association may give him/her a certain kind of not, and should not be, the only source of a acknowledgment also. person’s healthy perspective of himself/herself. 2. We may reconsider the importance of the People with high self-esteem are commonly aspect or skill in which we were outperformed described as outgoing, adventurous, and (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). adaptable in a lot of situations. They also initiate activities and build relationships with people. Ex. If we get beaten in drawing, we might think that drawing is not really for us and we should However, they may also dismiss other activities find a hobby where we could excel, thus that do not conform to their self- concept or boost preserving our self- esteem. their self-esteem. They may also be bullies and experiment on abusive behaviors with drugs, 3. We may also strengthen our resolution to alcohol, and sex (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). improve that certain aspect of ourselves (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). This duality in behavior and attitudes only proves Instead of quitting drawing, we might join the mentioned correlation. seminars, practice more often, read books about it, add some elements to our drawing that make it Baumeister, Smart, and Boden (1996) in their unique, and, so on. Achieving your goal through research on self-esteem concluded that programs, hard work may increase your self-esteem, too. activities, and parenting styles to boost self- ▪ However, in an attempt to increase or maintain esteem should only be for rewarding good our self-esteem, some people become behavior and other achievements, and not to narcissistic. merely try to make children feel better about  UNDERSTANDING THE SELF themselves or to appease them when they get angry or sad (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014).