Лекция 2 — Теория словоформ PDF
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Mari State University
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This lecture introduces the theory of word classes in Russian linguistics. It discusses the different principles used for word categorization and explores how they are characterized in terms of their meaning, morphology, and syntactic functions. The lecture also details some controversial issues in classifying words. This is important for developing a strong understanding of this field.
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## Vorlesung 2: Theorie der Wortarten ### 2.1. Einleitendes - The vocabulary of each language can be seen as a system. - This system has many elements interconnected by various relationships. - It is also open, i.e. new elements are constantly being added. - Some elements, however, become obsolete...
## Vorlesung 2: Theorie der Wortarten ### 2.1. Einleitendes - The vocabulary of each language can be seen as a system. - This system has many elements interconnected by various relationships. - It is also open, i.e. new elements are constantly being added. - Some elements, however, become obsolete or disappear from the language. - One possible way of classifying the vocabulary is by **word classes** or **parts of speech** ### 2.2. The notion of word class - Linguists have different opinions on how to define word classes. - They are often characterized as **lexical-semantic** (e.g. by E.W. Gulyga, M.D. Stepanowa, G. Helbig, etc.) - Sometimes they are referred to as **grammatical-semantic** (e.g. in the "Einführung 1981"). - Some linguists consider them to be **grammatical classes** (W.G. Admoni, O.I. Moskalskaja). - O.I. Moskalskaja states that "[...] word classes are those word classes where the grammar orders the vocabulary of a language [...]". - The class membership of a word is determined by the function of the word in a sentence. ### 2.3. Word categorization principles - The classification of vocabulary into word classes raises many questions which have been discussed for centuries. - The number of word classes distinguished by different linguists ranges from 4 to 14. - Typically, 9 to 10 word classes are mentioned. - Since words encompass **meaning**, **function**, and **form**, they can be classified from these three perspectives. - However, the results are not always consistent. - Therefore, different categorizations might be used based on **semantic**, **morphological**, or **syntactic** principles or a **complex** approach that combines all three. #### 2.3.1. Semantic principle - This principle relies on the relation between the word and the concept it denotes. - One possible way to classify words is by their role in conveying the way reality is reflected and expressed in a language. - Thus, we can differentiate between words that express and denote concepts (**nouns**, **adjectives**, **pronouns**, **numerals**, **adverbs**, and **verbs**) and words that express feelings and sensations but do not denote concepts (**interjections**, **sound words**) and words that express relationships between concepts (**prepositions**, **conjunctions**, **articles**, **copula**). #### 2.3.2. Morphological principle - This principle relies on the word's form and inflections. - It can only be applied to languages with inflection. - It is not universal. - According to W. Flämig, all words can be classified into **inflectable** and **uninflectable** ones. - Inflectable words are then subdivided into **conjugated** (verbs) and **non-conjugated** (declined nouns). - B.A. Abramow proposed a slightly different classification based on morphology. #### 2.3.3. Syntactic principle - This principle relies on the roles of words in a sentence. - For example, the categorization into **sentence-level** and **sentence-constituent** words. - W. Flämig and O.I. Moskalskaja use this criterion in their categorizations. - The principle also includes the categorization based on the words function in phrase structure. #### 2.3.4. Complex principle - This principle considers semantic, morphological, and syntactic features. - Traditional classification systems usually rely on this principle. - W.G. Admoni suggests combining the word's meaning, morphological structure, and syntactic function. - This approach leads to a system of 13 word classes. - E.W. Gulyga proposes another system of 11 word classes based on the overall meaning of the word, grammatical categories, and the word-forming potential. - O.I. Moskalskaja proposes a system of 14 word classes considering the meaning of the word, its syntactic function, and its word-forming characteristics. - M.D. Stepanowa advocates combining semantic, syntactic, and morphological criteria. - The Duden-Grammatik also relies on this complex principle based on semantic, syntactic, and morphological aspects. ### 2.4. Controversial issues in the theory of word classes - Linguists debate not only about categorization principles, but also about the boundaries and composition of each word class. - They also discuss the percentage of each word class within the total vocabulary. - O.I. Moskalskaja considers only **nouns** and **verbs** as undisputed word classes. - The composition of **verbs** is, however, debatable. - Traditionally, **infinitives** and **finite forms** belong to this word class, which is justifiable if we use either the semantic or the complex principles. - The syntactic or morphological principles, however, do not allow combining them. - **Infinitives** differ from **finite forms** morphologically and syntactically because they lack personal forms and functionally closer to nouns. - **Participles**, too, differ from **finite forms** in their morphological and syntactic characteristics. - Participles, which can be used attributively, behave like adjectives. - The scope of **nouns** also varies in different accounts. - Traditionally, nouns are understood as the terms denoting concrete entities. - However, some linguists argue that **pronouns** should also be considered as nouns. - Similarly, some argue that **numerals** belong to this class. - The classification of the **adjectives** is also controversial, especially regarding the role of **adverbs** that have the same form. - Traditionally, **adverbs** are recognized as a separate word class. - W.G. Admoni suggests that they constitute a common segment of adjectives and adverbs. - O.I. Moskalskaja considers adverbs as adjectives based on their semantic similarities. - The classification of the **pronouns** is also debated. - Traditionally, they constitute a separate word class. - J.S. Maslow views them as an independent system. - Other linguists, such as A.M. Peshkovsky, L.W. Scherba, and L. Sütterlin, classify them into separate categories based on their grammatical properties. - W. Schmidt categorizes them into the category of substitutes. - G. Helbig considers some pronouns as nouns and others as articles. - The status of **numerals** is also debated. - G. Helbig, W. Schmidt, J. Erben, W. Jung, L. Sütterlin, and A.M. Peshkovsky deny their status as a separate word class. - W.G. Admoni and O.I. Moskalskaja, on the other hand, treat them as a separate category. - The classification of **negation** is also debated. - W.G. Admoni considers it a separate word class, whereas G. Helbig treats it separately, despite acknowledging that these words are not uniform in syntactic and morphological terms. - The **article** is a separate word class in the view of only a few linguists (e.g. O.I. Moskalskaja). - Most tend to include it into other classes. - The **modal words** also have no consistent categorization. - They are either viewed as a separate class, treated together with other categories, or considered a separate category within a larger class. ### 2.5. Transition of word class membership (conversion) - This is a type of relationship between words that arises when a word changes its class. - It is referred to as **word class shift**, **conversion**, or **implied derivation**. - This process denotes the change of semantic, syntactic, and sometimes morphological properties of a word without the addition of any affixes. - In general, all word classes can undergo this process. - In German, the transition to the **noun** class is most common. - Any element can in principle become the subject of a mental act. - This allows us to nominalize **infinitives**: "das Lachen des Kindes", "das Verweilen am Waldesrand", "sein ständiges Von-der-Hand-in-den-Mund-Leben", etc. - Ideally, any **adjective** can also be nominalized, although it retains its adjectival features: "etwas Wesentliches - das Wesentliche", "nichts Neues - das Neue". - Only adjectives denoting human qualities can be converted into masculine or feminine nouns: "ein Kranker - der Kranke", "eine Kranke - die Kranke", "ein Verwandter - der Verwandte", etc. - Many **nouns** stem from **verbs**: "der Sprung", "der Schritt", "der Fluß", etc. - **Pronouns** can be nominalized: "das Seine", "die Meinen", "das Ich", "das Nichts", etc. - **Numerals** can be nominalized: "die Eins", "Zwei", etc. - **Adverbs** can be nominalized: "mein Gegenüber", "das Jenseits", "der Rechtsaußen", etc. - **Interjections** can be nominalized: "das Hurra", "der Plumps", etc. - Even **finite forms** can be nominalized in specific cases: "das Ist", "Soll", "Muß". - Affixes can be nominalized: "der Ismus", etc. - Letters can be nominalized: "das A und das 0". - The transition to **adjectives** occurs rarely: "ernst", "feind", "freund", "angst", "schade", "schuld", "not", etc. - Only adjectives "rege", "starr", "wach", and "wirr" can be derived from verbs. - The derivation of adverbs from adjectives is also rare: "zufrieden", "behende", "selten", "vorhanden", and combinations with the suffix "-weise": "probeweise" (Anstellung). - The transition to **adverbs** is not very common, either: "heim", "weg", "dank". - Some **prepositions** stem from nouns: "laut", "kraft", "trotz", "anhand", "mittels". - **Verbs** are easily derived from nouns and adjectives: "acker-n", "trä-nen", "bild-hauer-n", "tischler-n", "besser-n", "milder-n", "reif-en", "faul-en", "grün-en", "geig-en", "trommel-n", etc. - It is important to understand not only the individual word classes, but also the systemic relationship between them. ## Appendix 1: Hierarchies of word classes in different systems - **Schendels 1979:** - **Full words** or **independent words (autosemantika):** nouns, adjectives, pronouns, numerals, verbs, adverbs, modal words - **Auxiliary words** or **dependent words (synsemantika):** prepositions, conjunctions, particles, articles - **Interjections** - **Engelen 1984:** - **Words with the feature KASUS (nouns, adjectives, pronouns)** - **Words with the feature TEMPUS (verbs)** - **Words with the features KASUS and TEMPUS (participles)** - **Criteria for non-inflectable words:** - their function in a sequence of elements - their position relative to other elements - their possibility of forming paradigms - their function as a placeholder for another element or a sequence of elements - their function as a placeholder only in combination with a gesture - **Erben 1972:** - **The predicate word or the word depicting a state or a process (verb)** - **The noun (noun)** - **The connective word (preposition - conjunction)** - **The attributive or descriptive word (adjective - adverb)** - **Qualitative form words with context-sensitive features (pronoun)** - **Interjections** are sentence-level words but not sentences. - **Einführung 1981:** - **Verbs**, **nouns**, **articles**, and **adjectives** are treated separately, and **modal words** and **particles** are considered within the category of adverbs. - **J.S. Maslow (for Russian):** - **Designational words:** - nouns (reference to objects), adjectives (qualities), verbs (actions) and verbals (infinitives and participles), non-verbal predicate (state), numerals (quantity), and adverbs (additional qualities) - **Pro-words** (a special system parallel to the main system). - **Interjections** - **Morphological and syntactic auxiliary words** ## Appendix 2: Conversion - **Fleischer & Barz 1992:** | Base | Conversion product | | ------------------------ | ----------------------------- | | 1. **VERB** | | | 1.1. Verb stem | | | 1.2. Infinitive | | | 1.3. Personal form | | | 1.4. Participle I | | | 1.5. Participle II | | |:---|---| | *ruf-wach-* | *Substantiv:* der Ruf | | *schreiben* | *Adjektiv:* wach | | *soll, ist* | *Substantiv:* das Schreiben | | *reisend* | *Substantiv:* der/ die Reisende | | *angestellt* | *Adjektiv:* reizend | | *beliebt* | *Substantiv:* der/ die Angestellte | | *hoch, lahm* | *Substantiv:* das/ der/ die Hohe; das Hoch | | *Film* | *Verb:* lahmen | | *Schmuck, Koralle, Zeit* | *Verb:* filmen | | *Adjektiv:* schmuck | | *Präposition:* Zeit | | 2. **ADJECTIVE** | | | *hoch, lahm* | *Substantiv:* der/ die/ das Hoch | | *Film* | *Verb:* lahmen | | *Schmuck, Koralle, Zeit* | *Adjektiv:* schmuck | | *Präposition:* Zeit | | **3. NOUN** | | | *heute* | *Substantiv:* das Heute | | *fünf* | *Substantiv:* die Fünf | | *irgendwer* | *Substantiv:* ein Irgendwer | | *für, wider* | *Substantiv:* das Für und Wider | | 4. **ADVERB** | | | 5. **NUMERAL** | | | 6. **PRONOUN** | | | 7. **PREPOSITION** | | | 8. **WORD GROUPS** | | | 8.1. verbal | | | 8.2. substantivisch | | | *auswendig lernen* | *Substantiv:* das Auswendiglernen | | *zu Gunsten (in der) Zeit* | *Präposition:* zugunsten | | *des Lebens* | *Adverb:* zeitlebens | | 9. **SENTENCES** | | | 9.1. *Ich danke schön* | *Substantiv:* ein Dankeschön | | 9.2. *Schlage tot!* | *Substantiv:* ein Schlagetot | ## Algorithm for categorizing words into word classes (W. Flämig, Grundzüge 1981) - **Word:** - **Inflectable:** - **Conjugated:** *VERB* - **Declined:** - **Article-bearing:** *SUBSTANTIVE* - **Comparable:** *ADJECTIVE* - **Not comparable:** *PRONOUNS* - **With a case requirement:** *PRÄPOSITION* - **Not article-bearing:** *ADVERB* - **Non-inflectable:** - **With a sentence-level value:** *MODALWORT* - **Without a sentence-level value:** - **With a sentence-constituent value:** - **With a constituent value:** *Fügteil, ADVERB* - **Without a constituent value:** *PARTIKEL* - **Without a constituent value:** *KONJUNKTION* - **Word list (vocabulary):** - **Inflectable word classes:** - **Declined word classes:** *Adverb, Modal word, preposition, conjunction, interjection, particle, infinitive*, *VERB* - **Not declined word classes:** *VERB* - **Genus-changeable classes:** *adjective, adjective pronouns, participles* - **Not genus-changeable classes:** - *substantive, substantive pronouns* - **full case paradigm:** *SUBSTANTIVE* - **incomplete case paradigm:** *MAN,* *ES* - **Word classes with multiple declension patterns:** *adjective, participles* - **Word class with only one declension pattern:** *adjective pronouns*