Elements of Production Planning and Control PDF

Chapter 1 Elements of production planning and control Chapter takeaways After completion of this chapter the reader would be able to 1. Appreciate the role and scope of production planning and control in a successful organization. 2. Appreciate the specific planning and control principles to b...

Chapter 1 Elements of production planning and control Chapter takeaways After completion of this chapter the reader would be able to 1. Appreciate the role and scope of production planning and control in a successful organization. 2. Appreciate the specific planning and control principles to be applied for long- range and short-range plans. 3. Understand the factor contributing to the complexity of control so as to prepare for any exigencies 4. Relate the P D C A cycle of quality control and the O A A E cycle of pro- duction control. 5. Make further study of the references made at the end of the chapter. 1.1 Production planning and control Production planning and control (PP&C) is the brain and the nervous system of the production program and is responsible for ensuring the availability all materials, part of assembly at the right time, at the right place, and in right quantities in order to enable the progress of operations according to the pre- determined schedules at the minimum possible costs. Nevertheless, this func- tion forms part of the production system, and hence we must know more about the production system. PP&C works with procurement, manufacturing, and program management to develop plans to execute customer requirements. Production planning is dynamic in nature and always remains in a fluid state, as plans may have to be changed according to changes in circum- stances. It is mainly concerned with the following important issues: 1. What production facilities are required? 2. How should these production facilities be laid out in the space available for production? 3. How they should they be used to produce the desired products at the desired rate of production? Production Planning and Control. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818364-9.00001-9 Copyright © 2019 BSP Books Pvt. Ltd. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 1 2 Production Planning and Control 1.2 Role and scope of production planning and control G The type and complexity of the PP&C techniques vary with the type and volume of production. G Factories producing large volumes of standardized products need very simple production control techniques. G Factories producing a variety of products and product mix also need meticulous control with complex production control techniques. G PP&C has to ensure that all the operations are done on all components without exception. G PP&C must balance the extent of meticulous control against the costs. 1.3 Objectives of production planning and control 1. Minimize the idle times of men and machines. 2. Minimize inventory turnover. 3. Maximize the percentage of the commitments given to the customers. 4. Maximize the product quality and customer satisfaction. 5. Keep inventory levels low. 6. Provide long runs and low setup times. 7. Minimize bottlenecks along the production flow. 8. Plan early indents to give enough lead time for the purchase of goods at optimal process. 1.4 Functions of production planning and control While Fig. 1.1 illustrates the several functions of PP&C, we summarize them as follows: 1. Aid forecasting the future for scheduling purposes. 2. Aid cost estimation for new jobs. 3. Receive orders from the marketing department. 4. Translate the schedules into manpower requirements. 5. Decide on make or buy decisions. 6. Determine the material requirements. 7. Maintain the raw material requirement. 8. Determine the machinery requirements and their special attachments, if any. 9. Determine the operations to be performed and the sequence of operations. 10. Prepare operation process charts. 11. Ensure all required equipment and material are available. 12. Plan production schedules. 13. Issue production orders. 14. Incorporate design changes to draw revised operations process charts. 15. Expedite production to ensure it follows the planned schedules.  Elements of production planning and control Chapter | 1 3 FIGURE 1.1 Several functions of PP&C. PP&C, Production planning and control. 4 Production Planning and Control 16. Maintain progress charts and other control charts and exhibit them so that concerned operatives can see them. 17. If the schedules get changed despite the above, revise the schedules and report them. 18. Maintain and control the finished goods stock registers. Fig. 1.1 illustrates the various functions involved in the manufacturing process, each of which will be detailed in subsequent chapters. 1.5 Phases of production planning and control While Fig. 1.1 illustrates the several functions of PP&C, these functions can be classified into three distinct phases: preplanning, planning, and control phases. We summarize them as follows. Fig. 1.2 illustrates these phases. FIGURE 1.2 Summary of functions of planning and control.  Elements of production planning and control Chapter | 1 5 1.5.1 Preplanning phase G Market survey and forecasting G Product design G Product specifications G Process design G Plant layout 1.5.2 Planning phase G Capacity planning G Aggregate planning G Material planning G Enterprise resource planning G Operation sequencing G Tools planning G Scheduling G Loading 1.5.3 Control phase G Dispatching G Expediting G Production follow-up G Data collection and interpretation G Progress reporting G Replanning and modification 1.6 Functions of production planning While the previous sections detail the overall objectives, functions, etc. of the PP&C as a department, the basic objectives and functions of the individual phases of the planning and control functions are detailed as follows. Production planning can be split into six basic functions, as also illustrated by Fig. 1.1. 1. Product planning: product engineering, product design and development, functional and technological considerations, quality considerations. 2. Forecast planning: quantity forecast, demand pattern forecast. 3. Process planning: technology selection, process selection, machine selec- tion, tool selection, process parameter selection, operation sequencing, etc. 4. Equipment planning: types of equipment, number of equipment, machine capacity analysis, maintenance planning. 5. Materials planning: materials specifications, material volumes, economi- cal lot sizing, inventory planning, store planning. 6. Production planning: machine loading, operations scheduling, job sequencing, etc. 6 Production Planning and Control The basic functions as explained earlier can be elaborated as follows: 1. To decide on the production volume based on sales forecasting. 2. To make or buy decided based on cost economics. 3. To decide on the operation sequence based on product specifications. 4. To determine the run quantities and number of setups with an objective of minimizing the total work in process inventory. 5. To determine for each product: i. the type of material to be used, ii. the machines to be operated on, and iii. the tools to be used. 6. To determine the right place and right time when these functions are required. 7. To undertake steps to fulfill the production target established by master schedule and budgets. 1.7 Definitions of production planning Production planning incorporates a multiplicity of production elements, rang- ing from the everyday activities of staff to the ability to realize accurate delivery times for the customer. With an effective production planning oper- ation at its nucleus, any form of manufacturing process has the capability to exploit its full potential. Let us see what famous management gurus have to say about the function of planning and production planning in particular: Planning is deciding the best alternative among others to perform different managerial operations in order to achieve the predetermined goals.... Henri Fayol Planning is the determination in advance of line of action by which certain results are to be obtained.... Hart Planning is an intellectual process, the conscious determination of the course of action, the basing the decisions on purpose, facts and considered estimates.... Koontz and O’Donnell Planning is found amentally in a mental pre-disposition to do things in orderly way, to think before acting and to act in light of facts rather than of guesses..... Urwick  Elements of production planning and control Chapter | 1 7 Planning is the continuous process of making present entrepreneurial decisions systematically and with best possible knowledge of their futurity by organizing systematically the efforts needed to carry out these decisions and measuring the results of these decisions against the expectation through organized and systematic feed-back..... Peter Drucker Planning is the process of selecting and relating of facts in the visualization and formation of proposed activities believed to be necessary to achieve the desired results.... George Terry Production planning is the planning of production and manufacturing processes in a company or industry. It utilizes the resource allocation of activities of employ- ees, materials and production capacity, in order to serve different customers..... Wikipedia Production Planning is the administrative process that takes place within a manufacturing business and which involves making sure that sufficient raw materials, staff and other necessary items are procured and ready to create fin- ished products according to the schedule specified..... Business dictionary 1.8 Long-range versus short-range planning 1. Long-range planning: a. Location of the factory/service center b. Product development c. Process development d. Plant layout e. Long-term capacity f. Equipment planning for production g. Materials handling h. Supporting activities i. Employee welfare 2. Intermediate- and short-range planning: a. Material requirement planning i. Purchased items ii. Machine scheduling and loading 8 Production Planning and Control b. Planning of controlling systems i. Production control ii. Material control iii. Quality control iv. Labor control v. Financial control 3. Short-range plans (detailed plans): a. Machine loading b. Job assignments Theoretically, production planning encompasses all as the above factors, and it practically refers to those involving the short-range planning, espe- cially of machine scheduling and loading. Nevertheless, the production plan- ner has to ensure perfect planning and control of all the other aspects to achieve an optimal PP&C objective. In other words, as Ray Wilde puts it, Production planning is that determination, acquisition and arrangement of all facilities and materials necessary for the production of the products. 1.9 Elements of production control Despite planning to the minute details, it is not always possible to achieve production 100% as planned. There may be innumerable factors that affect the production system, and because of which there may be a deviation from the actual plan. Some of the factors that affect include 1. nonavailability of materials (due to shortage, etc.); 2. plant, equipment, and machine breakdown; 3. changes in demand and rush orders; 4. absenteeism of workers; and 5. lack of coordination and communication among various functional areas of business. Thus production control is an essential element of PP&C. Control is a continuous process that helps management to get the performance of each unit or individual to correspond to the standards fixed, to detect the varia- tions as and when they occur, and to take corrective action to prevent their occurrence in future. In other words, it provides a categorized record of what happens in the business process and pinpoints the reasons for their occur- rence. It provides data that enables management to take corrective actions. If there is a deviation between actual production and planned production, the control function comes into action. Production control through control mechanisms tries to take corrective action to match the planned and actual production. Thus production control reviews the progress of the work and takes corrective steps to ensure that programmed production takes place.  Elements of production planning and control Chapter | 1 9 1.10 Functions of production control 1. To give directives so that the products in the factory proceed without hin- drance and interruptions. 2. To deliver necessary orders to the workforce so that the production plans can be carried out. 3. To make available necessary items, like the machines, materials, men, jigs and fixtures, tools, etc., in the right time. 4. To monitor the progress so that the quality and quantity are as per the specifications. 5. To achieve all these at optimal cost. 1.11 Definitions of production control A better understanding of the functions of control can be understood by the definitions put forth by several writers and management experts as follows: The managerial function of control is the measurement and correction of the performance of the subordinates in order to make sure that the enterprise objectives and the devised plans are accomplished..... Koontz & O’Donnell In an undertaking, control consists of verifying whether everything occurs in conformity with the plans adapted, the instructions issued and principles esti- mated. It has the far objective to point out weaknesses and errors in order to rectify them and prevent reoccurrence. It operated on everything things, people ad actions..... Henry Fayol Control is exercised by means of media such as ethics, policies, organizations, structures, supervision, systems, order costs and discipline..... Terry Control is the process that measures current performance and guides it towards some predetermined goals..... Joseph Massey Control has been defined as an aspect and projection of planning. Whereas planning sets the course, control observes deviations from the course and initi- ates action to return it the chosen courses or to an appropriately changed one..... Mary Cushing Niles 10 Production Planning and Control Control is the process of taking steps to bring actual results closer together..... Philips Kotler Management Control is the process by which a manager can assure that the resources are obtained and used effectively in the accomplishment of the orga- nization’s objectives..... Robert Anthony Managerial planning seeks consistent, integrated and articulated programs, while management control seeks to compel events to conform to the plans..... Goetz Management control is a conscious planned, directed, coordinated, and orga- nized process by and through which the manager ensures that the objectives, plans and policies of the top management for the enterprise and carried out by the people for whom he is personally responsible..... Cyril Hurdon Controlling is the decision making and command work that related to the pre- vention, correction and minimization of deviations from the performance level specified in the mission and derivative plans..... Hodge & Johnson The essence of control is the action which adjusts operations to determined standards and its basis is the information in the hands of the manager..... Douglas Sherwin Production control is the task of predicting, planning and scheduling work, taking into account manpower, materials availability and other capacity restrictions, and cost so as to achieve proper quality and quantity at the time it is needed and then following up the schedule to see that the plan is carried out, using whatever systems have proven satisfactory for the purpose..... American Production and Inventory Control Society Production control provides the foundation on which most of the other con- trols are based. It is the function of management that plans, directs, and controls the material supply and processing activities of an enterprise, so that specified  Elements of production planning and control Chapter | 1 11 products are produced by specified methods to meet an approved sales program. These activities are carried out in such a manner that the labor force and capital available are used to their best advantage. The production control has four phases—programming, ordering, dispatching, and postoperative. G Programming phase plans the production output of products. G Ordering phase plans the output of components from the suppliers and department, which is necessary to meet the program. G Dispatching phase considers each department in turn and plans the output from machines and work centers necessary to carry out the orders. G Postoperative phase evaluates the progress to get feedback information for further planning. 1.12 The essential steps in control activity The essential steps in control activity are: G initiation the production; G progressing; and G corrective action based upon the feedback and reporting back to the pro- duction planning. 1.13 The elements of production control 1. Control of activities: This involves the release of manufacturing orders, setting plans in motion at an assigned time by means of dispatching. 2. Control of material movements: This requires observations of items of receipt of material from vendors of issuance to the shop and of move- ment within the shop, all in accordance with the production plans. 3. Control of tool availability: This requires observation of the availability of the tools specified by the production planning division in the tool crib, as and when planned. 4. Control of due dates: This requires observation of the effect of delays or stoppages on machine loading that may interfere with the completion of the work assigned to the machine on the due date process. Machine load- ing is defined as the amount of work assigned ahead to each machine. It is sometimes wrongly called “machine burden.” 5. Control of quantity produced: This involves observation of work in pro- cess at predetermined stages to determine if the right quantity of acceptable work has been processed. 6. Control of replacements: This requires observation of the quantity of raw material and of work in process that fails to pass each stage of inspection, with provision for issuing replacements orders for such material or work. 7. Control of labor efficiency: This requires the observation and recording of the time taken on each unit of work in process and comparison with the time allowance as planned. It also involves a comparison of the total man hours consumed with that planned for specified periods. 12 Production Planning and Control 8. Control of progress of orders: This requires the observation of the prog- ress of orders by marking off completed work on the production schedule and the production department copy of the combined manufacturing order and route sheet. 1.14 Factors contributing to the complexity of control 1. Number of components in the product 2. Number of operations in each component 3. Existence of dependent operations, like the rigid sequence of operations 4. Variations in the capacities of similar machines 5. Machine breakdown history 6. Degree of subassembly 7. Customer orders with specific delivery dates 8. Small lot orders 1.15 Observation analysis action evaluation cycle of control procedure Section 1.13 details the production control elements, and Table 1.1 details in general the overall control phases, like observation, analysis, action, and evaluation (O A A E), which have to be exercised in each control proce- dure element, like the process, inventory, inspection, and cost. 1.16 Duties of a production controller 1. To draw up the detailed timetable for carrying out the various operations, including ordering material, making or buying tools, and instituting spe- cial training schemes. 2. To allocate particular men or machines to be put on the work. 3. To issue orders to the various people concerned: to the buyer, to get material; to the store keep, to issue it; to the tool room, to obtain or make and issue tools and set up machines; to operators, instructing them what to do and when, how and where to do it; to the transport men, to move materials when required. 4. To receive reports back from the people concerned about how the orders have been carried out. The main purpose of these reports is to enable the controller to satisfy himself that production is going ahead according to plan, and if necessary, should unforeseen circumstances arise, to modify the plans, A further function of production control is to keep load on the shops steady and well divided, to prevent overloading, delays, overtime, etc. The production controller is in a position to advise the production planning about facilities available; having in mind the work already in hand, he can also inform the sales department before deliver dates for new job orders are agreed on in any contract.  Elements of production planning and control Chapter | 1 13 TABLE 1.1 Elements of control procedure. Processes Inventory Inspection Cost Observation Compare Record of stock Process control Collect cost output versus level and control data time for charts active processes and measure breakdown and idle times for idle processes Analysis Compare Demand Process Compute costs actual distribution, capabilities and and compare progress with trends, and trends with estimates scheduled seasonal progress variations Action Expedite Issue Initiate 100% Adjust sales production and inspection and price, if procurement adjust the possible orders processes Evaluation Process Replenish Reassessment of Economic capacity and policies and specifications, evaluation maintenance inventory process of processes; schedules systems improvement preparing better and inspection data for future procedures estimates 1.17 Advantages of robust production control G Ensures a smooth flow of all production processes. G Ensures production cost savings, thereby improving the bottom line. G Controls wastage of resources. G Maintains standard of quality through the production life cycle. 1.18 Checklist of information required for production control function 1. Product data: a. Design b. Specifications c. Tolerances d. Production process 14 Production Planning and Control e. Operational details f. Details of assemblies and subassemblies 2. Bill of materials, which can be had from the R&D or product department. 3. Availability of materials as from stock register or from periodic stock statements. 4. Standards of quality, specifications and tolerances, and drawings. 5. Type of fixtures, tools, jigs, and dimensional gauging instruments that will be required for production. 6. Standard times for each operation on each unit as available from time study, from operation analysis, and from technical experience. 7. Machine output or equipment capacity (at normal and peak loads): This can be derived from the analysis of machine capacity and consists of the units of work per hour capable of being handled by each machine or process. 8. Actual machine and operator capacities as obtained from production booking. 9. The economic lots of quantities for manufacture for each product. 10. Job analysis: This indicates the particulars of the work to be done, its condition, skills needed, and personnel type needed. 11. Factors to be coordinated at each of the production stages in order to accomplish the plan according to the time schedules. 12. Rate of output per month or per week or per day. 13. Material cost per unit. 14. Obsolescence and its rate. 15. Inventory costs and the rate of interest on invested capital. 16. Ascertainment of customers’ order in hand and the delivery dates prom- ised for each product. 17. Quantities immediately required for delivery purposes and those required for stock purposes. 18. Job analysis and personnel information about the labor available, the wage rates, and output of workers. 19. Other information relating to: a. completion time of all previous operations of part and assemblies; b. power production and consumption internal transport and materials handling service; c. the actual costs of all previous performance; d. the customers order on hand and the delivery dates promised; and e. what immediate production is needed for customers and what for stock purposes It should be noted that a balanced production planning would tend to increase the operating efficiency by stabilizing productive activities to facili- tate selling and customer service and help in reducing the production costs. Fig. 1.3 illustrates the flow of information among the different departments for smooth manufacturing activities.  Information flow chart Among various departments Design and development Industrial engineering Production planning Production Material control Sales department department department department department department Monthly Fixation of Component rawings sales forecasts stock levels Material Bill of materials procurement plans Process planning Physical stock layouts statements Time study sheets Standard declaration forms Operation process charts Componentwise summary of BT/ST Machinewise summary of BT/ST Machine capacities Componentwise manufacturing targets Machine allocation and scheduling Job orders and Material issues material warrants Daily production booking operationwise Daily production booking Management reporting operationwise Operator efficiency calculations FIGURE 1.3 Information flow among the manufacturing departments. 16 Production Planning and Control 1.19 Data versus information per http://www.diffen.com Data Information Meaning Data is raw, unorganized facts that When data is processed, organized, need to be processed. Data can be structured, or presented in a given something simple and seemingly context so as to make it useful, it is random and useless until it is called information organized Etymology “Data” comes from a singular Latin “Information” is an older word that word, datum, which originally dates back to the 1300s and has Old meant “something given.” Its early French and Middle English origins. It usage dates back to the 1600s. Over has always referred to “the act of time, “data” has become the plural informing,” usually in regard to of datum education, instruction, or other knowledge communication Example Each student’s test score is one piece The average score of a class or of of data the entire school is information that can be derived from the given data Features 1. Data is a set of discrete, objective 1. Information is knowledge of facts about events ideas, facts, and/or processes 2. Symbols represent information for 2. Information is meant to change processing purposes, based on the way the receiver perceives explicit or implicit agreements something, to have an impact on about the meaning of the data his judgment and behavior 3. Data is factual information (as 3. Think of information as data that measurements or statistics) used make a difference as a basis for reasoning, 4. Information is data interpreted in discussion, or calculation its original meaning 1.20 Data definitions per http://searchdatamanagement. techtarget.com 1. Data is information converted into binary digital form. 2. Data life cycle management is a policy-based approach to managing the flow of an information system’s data throughout its life cycle. 3. In computer systems, data is often distinguished from “control informa- tion,” “control bits,” and similar terms to identify the main content of a transmission unit. 4. In telecommunications, data sometimes means digital-encoded informa- tion to distinguish it from analog-encoded information such as conven- tional telephone voice calls. 5. Data transmission can be sent with intermittent connections in packets that arrive in piecemeal fashion. 1.21 Production planning versus production control We have discussed in detail the several complementary characteristics of the two major functions of PP&C: production planning and production control.  Elements of production planning and control Chapter | 1 17 TABLE 1.2 Distinction between production planning and production control. Production planning Production control 1. Production planning is a Production control will be in action preproduction activity when production activity begins 2. It coordinates the production It promotes effective shop operations by department with other departments of way of monitoring of activities within the business the production department 3. Planning involves the collection, Control is concerned with maintenance, and analysis of data communication of their information and with respect to time standards, producing reports like those of output, materials and their specifications, and productivity, rejection rate, etc. machines and their process Control plans and organizes the control capabilities charts, etc. needed for follow-up 4. Planning determines what and how Control is useful in determining the much to produce, the batch quantity, delays and inefficiencies in the process and the resources needed and also in taking corrective steps to 5. Planning is useful to anticipate the ensure that the actual performance is as problems and in devising remedial per the planned performance measure in case the problem arises Control is a widespread activity that 6. Planning is a centralized activity and includes functions such as dispatching, includes functions like materials programming, and inspection control, tool control, and process Control keeps track of the activities and planning and control sees whether everything is going as per 7. Planning sees that all the necessary schedule or not resources are available to make the production at the right quality and time Now we see the conceptual differences between them as illustrated in Table 1.2. 1.22 Benefits of production planning and control 1.22.1 Benefits to consumers G Increased productivity G Better quality standards G Prompt deliveries G Improved knowledge base and sharing 1.22.2 Benefits to the producer G Adequate wages G Job security G Improved working conditions 18 Production Planning and Control G Increased satisfaction G Increased use of best practices G Reduced duplicative workflows G Improved decision making G More commonality in approaches and tools G Optimized resources G Improved project performance 1.22.3 Benefits to investors G Security G Adequate returns on investments G Fame and popularity G Capture of market share 1.22.4 Benefits to suppliers G Cooperation G Well balanced and ensured purchases G Prompt payment 1.22.5 Benefits to community G Stability G Economic and social status G Employment G Price and satisfaction 1.22.6 Benefits to the nation G Prosperity G Taxes and revenue 1.23 Industrial engineering versus production planning and control Even though PP&C is a major and critical function of production manage- ment, its skills are akin to industrial engineering activities, especially with regard to creativity. In fact, industrial engineering has widened its tentacles from its basic function of work study into several fields of management. The industrial engineering topics covered during the Second International Conference on Advances in Industrial Engineering Applications (ICAIEA— 2014) conducted by the Industrial Engineering Department of Anna University January 6 8, 2014, illustrates this:  Elements of production planning and control Chapter | 1 19 1. Applied Operations Research 2. Business Process Reengineering 3. Clean/Lean/Cellular Manufacturing 4. Customer/Supplier Relations Management 5. Design of Experiments 6. Engineering Ergonomics 7. Engineering Optimization 8. Engineering Quality Control 9. Enterprise Resource Planning 10. Facility Location and Layout Design 11. Financial Engineering 12. Health Care Systems Engineering and Management 13. Industrial Scheduling 14. Inventory and Materials Management 15. Just in Time Manufacturing 16. Knowledge Management 17. Lean Six Sigma 18. Manufacturing Systems Engineering 19. Metaheuristics 20. Operations Management 21. Physical Asset Management 22. Product Design and Development 23. Project Management 24. Reliability Engineering and Maintenance 25. Robotics. AS/RS, Factory Automation 26. Safety Engineering 27. Strategic and Operational Management 28. Supply Chain and Logistics Management 29. System Dynamics 30. Systems Modeling and Simulation 31. Taguchi Techniques 32. Total Employee Involvement 33. Total Productive Maintenance 34. Total Quality Management 35. Usability Engineering 1.24 Conclusion For efficient, effective, and economical operation in a manufacturing unit of an organization, it is essential to integrate the PP&C system into the overall operation management system. The fundamentals of the PP&C activities are detailed in this chapter, and their detailed discussions follow in the subse- quent chapters. 20 Production Planning and Control Further reading 1. Proceedings of the world congress on engineering and computer science 2010. 2. http://www.tarakos.de/en/factory-planning.html. 3. http://www.productionplanning.com/Production-Planning.aspx. 4. http://www.defence.gov.au/DASP/Docs/Manuals. 5. http://www.lockheedmartin.com. Criteria questions (The figures in the bracket provide a clue to the answer.) 1. Define production, production planning, and PP&C. What is the scope of PP&C in Industry? (1.1, 1.2) 2. Explain the terms planning, operations, and control. (1.1) 3. Explain in detail the various objectives of PP&C. (1.3) 4. What are the important functions of PP&C? (1.4) 5. Explain in detail the planning stage. (1.7) 6. Write about the phases of PP&C. (1.5) 7. Explain with reference to PP&C, the following: routing, scheduling, loading, and dispatching. (1.5.2) 8. How do you think the planning phase differs from the control phase? (1.6) 9. Distinguish between long-range planning and short-range planning. (1.8) 10. Explain the production control function. (1.9, 1.10) 11. What are the basic elements of production control? (1.13) 12. Illustrate some factors that contribute to complex production control. (1.14) 13. What do you understand by O A A E cycle? (1.15) 14. What do you think are the duties of a production controller? (1.16) 15. Discuss how production planning differs from production control. (1.18) 16. What are the advantages of PP&C? (1.19) 17. In one of the industrial discussions, a progressive entrepreneur said, “I do not use any planning and control function in my unit, but it is functioning well.” Do you agree with his statement? If so, why? If not, why?