Kin 100 Anatomy PDF

KIN 100 ANATOMY ___ botes Muscles That Position the Pectoral Girdle: 1. Trapezius: Origin: External occipital protuberance, nuchal ligament, spinous processes of C7-T12. (Top vertebrae) Insertion: Lateral third of the clavicle, acromion, and spine of the scapula...

KIN 100 ANATOMY ___ botes Muscles That Position the Pectoral Girdle: 1. Trapezius: Origin: External occipital protuberance, nuchal ligament, spinous processes of C7-T12. (Top vertebrae) Insertion: Lateral third of the clavicle, acromion, and spine of the scapula. Function: Elevates, retracts, and rotates the scapula. Upper fibers elevate the scapula, middle fibers retract it, and lower fibers depress the scapula. 2. Levator Scapulae: Origin: Transverse processes of C1-C4 vertebrae. Insertion: Superior part of the medial border of the scapula. Function: Elevates the scapula and tilts the glenoid cavity downward by rotating the scapula. 3. Rhomboid Major and Minor: Origin: ○ Rhomboid Major: Spinous processes of T2-T5. ○ Rhomboid Minor: Spinous processes of C7-T1. Insertion: Medial border of the scapula. Function: Retract the scapula and rotate it to depress the glenoid cavity. 4. Serratus Anterior: Origin: Lateral surfaces of ribs 1-8. Insertion: Anterior surface of the medial border of the scapula.  Function: Protracts the scapula and holds it against the thoracic wall. Rotates the scapula for upward movement of the arm. 5. Pectoralis Minor: Origin: Ribs 3-5 near the costal cartilages. Insertion: Coracoid process of the scapula. Function: Stabilizes the scapula by drawing it anteriorly and inferiorly against the thoracic wall. Muscles That Move the Arm: These muscles control the movement of the humerus at the shoulder joint. 1. Pectoralis Major: Origin: Clavicular head from the anterior surface of the medial half of the clavicle, sternocostal head from the anterior surface of the sternum and costal cartilages of ribs 1-6. Insertion: Lateral lip of the intertubercular sulcus of the humerus. Function: Adducts and medially rotates the arm. The clavicular head also helps in flexion, while the sternocostal head assists in extension. ( It can contribute to extension at the level of the glenohumeral joint ).. Latissimus Dorsi: Origin: Spinous processes of T7-L5, thoracolumbar fascia, iliac crest, and lower three or four ribs. Insertion: Floor of the intertubercular sulcus of the humerus. Function: Extends, adducts, and medially rotates the arm. 3. Deltoid: Origin: Lateral third of the clavicle, acromion, and spine of the scapula. Insertion: Deltoid tuberosity of the humerus. Function: Abducts the arm beyond the initial 15 degrees, flexes and medially rotates the arm (anterior fibers), and extends and laterally rotates the arm (posterior fibers). 4. Teres Major (Connected to the scapula anterior side):  Origin: Posterior surface of the inferior angle of the scapula. Insertion: Medial lip of the intertubercular sulcus of the humerus. Function: Adducts and medially rotates the arm. ( Like the latissimus dorsi, it can contribute to adduction at the level of the glenohumeral joint ). 5. Rotator Cuff Muscles: These muscles stabilize the shoulder joint and allow for a range of movements. Supraspinatus: ○ Origin: Supraspinous fossa of the scapula. ○ Insertion: Greater tubercle of the humerus. ○ Function: Initiates abduction of the arm. Infraspinatus: ○ Origin: Infraspinous fossa of the scapula. ○ Insertion: Greater tubercle of the humerus. ○ Function: Externally rotates the arm. Subscapularis: ○ Origin: Subscapular fossa of the scapula. ○ Insertion: Lesser tubercle of the humerus. ○ Function: Medially rotates the arm. Teres Minor: ○ Origin: Lateral border of the scapula. ○ Insertion: Greater tubercle of the humerus. ○ Function: Externally rotates the arm. Muscles That Move the Forearm: These muscles control the movement of the forearm at the elbow joint. 1. Biceps Brachii: Origin: ○ Short head: Coracoid process of the scapula. ○ Long head: Supraglenoid tubercle of the scapula. Insertion: Radial tuberosity and the bicipital aponeurosis into the fascia of the forearm. Function: Flexes the elbow and supinates the forearm.  2. Triceps Brachii: Origin: ○ Long head: Infraglenoid tubercle of the scapula. ○ Lateral head: Posterior surface of the humerus. ○ Medial head: Posterior surface of the humerus, inferior to the radial groove. Insertion: Olecranon process of the ulna. Function: Extends the elbow. 3. Brachialis: Origin: Distal half of the anterior surface of the humerus. Insertion: Coronoid process and tuberosity of the ulna. Function: Major flexor of the forearm at the elbow. 4. Brachioradialis: Origin: Lateral supracondylar ridge of the humerus. Insertion: Styloid process of the radius. Function: Flexes the forearm at the elbow. Movements of the Scapula: Various muscles work together to move the scapula, which helps with the movement of the shoulder joint. Lateral Rotation: ○ Muscles: Trapezius (superior part), Serratus anterior. Medial Rotation: ○ Muscles: Rhomboids, Pectoralis minor. Elevation: ○ Muscles: Levator scapulae, Trapezius (upper part). Depression: ○ Muscles: Trapezius (lower part), Pectoralis minor. Protraction (moving scapula forward): ○ Muscles: Pectoralis minor, Serratus anterior. Retraction (pulling the scapula back): ○ Muscles: Rhomboids, Trapezius.  Joints and Movements: These joints and movements apply to different areas of the body: Flexion/Extension: Bending or straightening the limbs. Abduction/Adduction: Movement away from/towards the midline. Rotation: Turning movement at a joint. Circumduction: Circular movement involving flexion, abduction, extension, and adduction in succession. Protraction/Retraction: Moving a body part forward or backward. Functional Classification of Joints: Joints are classified based on their movement capabilities: 1. Synarthrosis (Immovable Joints): ○ These joints allow no movement and are often found in areas where stability is important, such as the sutures in the skull. ○ Example: Cranial sutures, where the bones of the skull are fused. 2. Amphiarthrosis (Slightly Movable Joints): ○ These joints permit slight movement and are commonly seen in areas that require some flexibility. ○ Example: The intervertebral discs between the vertebrae and the pubic symphysis. 3. Diarthrosis (Freely Movable Joints): ○ These are the most common and mobile joints in the body, allowing a wide range of movements. ○ Example: Most of the joints in the limbs like the knee, shoulder, and hip. Structural Classification of Joints: 1. Fibrous Joints: ○ These joints are connected by dense connective tissue and allow little to no movement. ○ Suture: Found in the skull, where the bones are tightly bound together.  ○ Syndesmosis: A slightly movable joint where bones are connected by ligaments. Example: The distal tibiofibular joint. ○ Gomphosis: A peg-in-socket fibrous joint. Example: The connection of teeth to the mandible and maxilla (periodontal ligament). 2. Cartilaginous Joints: ○ These joints are connected by cartilage and allow slight movement or no movement at all. ○ Synchondrosis: Bones united by hyaline cartilage. Example: The epiphyseal plates in growing bones. ○ Symphysis: Bones connected by fibrocartilage. Example: The pubic symphysis and the intervertebral discs. 3. Synovial Joints: ○ The most mobile type of joint, characterized by a synovial cavity filled with synovial fluid, which lubricates the joint. ○ Examples: Shoulder, knee, hip, and elbow joints. Types of Synovial Joints and Their Movements: 1. Plane (Gliding) Joints: ○ Allow sliding or gliding movements where two flat or slightly curved surfaces slide across each other. ○ Movement: Nonaxial or multiaxial (allows movement in multiple directions). ○ Example: Intercarpal joints in the wrist. 2. Hinge Joints: ○ Movement occurs in one plane, similar to the motion of a door hinge. ○ Movement: Uniaxial (flexion and extension only). ○ Example: Elbow joint, knee joint. 3. Pivot Joints: ○ A rounded or pointed structure of one bone fits into a ring formed by another bone and ligament, allowing rotational movement around a central axis. ○ Movement: Uniaxial (rotation). ○ Example: The atlantoaxial joint (between the first and second cervical vertebrae), radioulnar joint. 4. Condyloid (Ellipsoid) Joints: ○ An oval-shaped articular surface fits into a concave depression in another bone. ○ Movement: Biaxial (flexion/extension and abduction/adduction).  ○ Example: Wrist joint, metacarpophalangeal joints (knuckles). 5. Saddle Joints: ○ Both articulating surfaces have concave and convex regions, shaped like a saddle, which allows for a wider range of motion. ○ Movement: Biaxial (allows flexion/extension, abduction/adduction, and circumduction). ○ Example: The carpometacarpal joint of the thumb (first metacarpal and trapezium). 6. Ball-and-Socket Joints: ○ The most flexible type of synovial joint, where a spherical head of one bone fits into a cup-like socket of another bone. ○ Movement: Multiaxial (flexion/extension, abduction/adduction, and rotation). ○ Example: Shoulder joint (glenohumeral joint), hip joint. Movements Permitted by Synovial Joints: 1. Angular Movements: ○ Flexion: Decreasing the angle between two bones (e.g., bending the elbow). ○ Extension: Increasing the angle between two bones (e.g., straightening the elbow). ○ Hyperextension: Extension beyond the normal range of motion (e.g., bending the head backward). ○ Dorsiflexion: Bringing the toes toward the shin (ankle flexion). ○ Plantar Flexion: Pointing the toes away from the shin (ankle extension). 2. Abduction/Adduction: ○ Abduction: Movement of a body part away from the midline (e.g., raising the arm or leg sideways). ○ Adduction: Movement of a body part toward the midline (e.g., bringing the arm back to the side of the body). 3. Rotation: ○ Medial Rotation: Turning a limb towards the midline (e.g., rotating the shoulder inward). ○ Lateral Rotation: Turning a limb away from the midline (e.g., rotating the shoulder outward). 4. Circumduction: ○ Circular movement of a limb that creates a conical shape (e.g., moving the arm in a circle at the shoulder).  5. Special Movements: ○ Protraction/Retraction: Moving a body part forward or backward (e.g., moving the scapula or mandible). ○ Elevation/Depression: Lifting a body part up or moving it downward (e.g., shrugging the shoulders or lowering them). ○ Inversion/Eversion (Foot): Turning the sole of the foot inward (inversion) or outward (eversion). ○ Pronation/Supination (Forearm): Rotation of the forearm so that the palm faces down (pronation) or up (supination). Joints in Specific Areas: Shoulder (Glenohumeral Joint): Type: Ball-and-socket synovial joint. Movements: Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, medial/lateral rotation, and circumduction. Ligaments: Glenohumeral, coracohumeral, and coracoacromial ligaments help to stabilize the shoulder. Elbow Joint: Type: Hinge joint (between the humerus and ulna). Movements: Flexion and extension. Ligaments: Ulnar collateral ligament, radial collateral ligament, and annular ligament (for the radius). Hip Joint: Type: Ball-and-socket synovial joint. Movements: Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation, and circumduction. Ligaments: Iliofemoral, pubofemoral, and ischiofemoral ligaments stabilize the joint. Knee Joint: Type: Hinge joint. Movements: Flexion and extension (some rotation when flexed). Ligaments: Cruciate ligaments (ACL and PCL), collateral ligaments (MCL and LCL). The Wrist and Hand Joints: Wrist (Radiocarpal Joint): Type: Condyloid joint. Movements: Flexion, extension, radial deviation (abduction), ulnar deviation (adduction). Carpometacarpal Joints: Thumb: A saddle joint allowing a wide range of motion (flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, and opposition). Fingers: Plane joints allowing gliding movements. Metacarpophalangeal (MCP) Joints: Type: Condyloid joints. Movements: Flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction of the fingers. Interphalangeal Joints (Fingers): Type: Hinge joints. Movements: Flexion and extension. Skeletal Landmarks: These are prominent points on bones where muscles, tendons, or ligaments attach or where nerves and blood vessels pass through. Tuberosity: A large, rounded or roughened projection. ○ Example: The deltoid tuberosity on the humerus, where the deltoid muscle attaches. Tubercle: A small rounded projection. ○ Example: The greater and lesser tubercles on the humerus, where rotator cuff muscles attach. Trochanter: A large, blunt, irregularly shaped projection, found only on the femur. ○ Example: The greater and lesser trochanters of the femur. Condyle: A rounded articular surface at the end of bones.  ○ Example: The condyles of the femur articulate with the tibia in the knee joint. Epicondyle: A raised area on or above a condyle, often where muscles attach. ○ Example: The medial and lateral epicondyles of the humerus. Head: A bony expansion carried on a narrow neck, often involved in ball-and-socket joints. ○ Example: The head of the humerus articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula. Neck: The portion of the bone that connects the head to the shaft. ○ Example: The anatomical and surgical necks of the humerus. Fossa: A shallow depression in a bone. ○ Example: The subscapular fossa on the scapula, where the subscapularis muscle attaches. Foramen: A round or oval opening through a bone. ○ Example: The foramen magnum in the skull allows passage of the spinal cord. Sulcus: A groove in the bone that accommodates a nerve, tendon, or blood vessel. ○ Example: The intertubercular sulcus (bicipital groove) on the humerus holds the tendon of the biceps brachii. Detailed Description of Bones: Clavicle (Collarbone): Structure: A long bone with a slight S-shape, connecting the upper limb to the trunk. Landmarks: ○ Acromial end: Lateral end that articulates with the acromion of the scapula. ○ Sternal end: Medial end that articulates with the manubrium of the sternum. ○ Conoid tubercle: A bump near the acromial end for the attachment of the conoid ligament. Scapula (Shoulder Blade): Landmarks: ○ Acromion: An extension of the scapular spine that forms the highest point of the shoulder and articulates with the clavicle. (The top of the scapula that is attached to the spine of the scapula.) ○ Coracoid Process: A small hook-like structure on the scapula, where the pectoralis minor and biceps brachii attach.  ○ Supraspinous Fossa: The depression above the scapular spine where the supraspinatus muscle attaches. (Anterior on top where the spine separates) ○ Infraspinous Fossa: The depression below the scapular spine where the infraspinatus muscle attaches. (Anterior the lower part of the scapula that is seperated by the spine of the scapula.) ○ Glenoid Fossa: A shallow cavity that articulates with the head of the humerus, forming the shoulder joint. (The cavity that is more clearly seen on the side) ○ Subscapular Fossa: The large depression on the anterior surface where the subscapularis muscle attaches. Humerus (Upper Arm Bone): Landmarks: ○ Greater and Lesser Tubercles: Attachment points for the rotator cuff muscles. ○ Intertubercular Groove: A groove between the tubercles that holds the tendon of the long head of the biceps brachii. ○ Deltoid Tuberosity: A roughened area on the lateral surface where the deltoid muscle attaches. ○ Medial and Lateral Epicondyles: Projections on the distal humerus for muscle attachments, especially those controlling wrist and finger movement. The Shoulder Joint (Glenohumeral Joint): Type: Synovial ball-and-socket joint. Movements: Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, medial rotation, lateral rotation, and circumduction. Ligaments: ○ Glenohumeral Ligaments: Reinforce the front of the shoulder joint. ○ Coracohumeral Ligament: Strengthens the upper part of the joint capsule. ○ Coracoacromial Ligament: Forms a protective arch over the joint. The Elbow Joint: Type: Hinge joint. Movements: Flexion and extension of the forearm. Ligaments: ○ Ulnar Collateral Ligament: Medial ligament, providing stability to the elbow.  ○ Radial Collateral Ligament: Lateral ligament, stabilizing the outer elbow. ○ Annular Ligament: Wraps around the head of the radius, allowing the radial head to rotate during pronation and supination. Muscles Moving the Forearm and Hand: Brachialis: Origin: Distal half of the anterior surface of the humerus. Insertion: Coronoid process and tuberosity of the ulna. Function: Primary flexor of the forearm at the elbow. Brachioradialis: Origin: Proximal two-thirds of the lateral supracondylar ridge of the humerus. Insertion: Lateral surface of the distal end of the radius. Function: Flexes the forearm at the elbow, especially when the forearm is in a mid-prone position. Movements of the Forearm: Pronation: Rotating the forearm so the palm faces downward. ○ Muscle: Pronator teres. Supination: Rotating the forearm so the palm faces upward. ○ Muscles: Supinator, biceps brachii. The Wrist and Hand Joints: Radiocarpal Joint (Wrist Joint): Type: Condyloid synovial joint. Movements: Flexion, extension, abduction (radial deviation), and adduction (ulnar deviation). Carpometacarpal Joint (Thumb):  Type: Saddle joint. Movements: Allows for flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, and opposition (bringing the thumb across the palm). Metacarpophalangeal Joints (Knuckles): Type: Condyloid joints. Movements: Flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction of the fingers. Interphalangeal Joints (Fingers): Type: Hinge joints. Movements: Flexion and extension of the fingers. Ligaments in the Upper Limb: Ligaments stabilize joints by connecting bones together and limiting excessive movements. Sternoclavicular Joint: Costoclavicular Ligament: Stabilizes the clavicle by connecting it to the first rib. Anterior and Posterior Sternoclavicular Ligaments: Reinforce the joint capsule. Acromioclavicular Joint: Acromioclavicular Ligament: Connects the acromion of the scapula to the clavicle. Coracoclavicular Ligament: Stabilizes the joint by attaching the coracoid process to the clavicle. Movements of the Scapula: Several muscles control the movement of the scapula, allowing it to assist in arm movements. Elevation: Lifting the scapula upwards. ○ Muscles: Trapezius (superior part), Levator scapulae. Depression: Moving the scapula downwards. ○ Muscles: Trapezius (inferior part), Pectoralis minor. Protraction: Moving the scapula forward, away from the spine.  ○ Muscles: Serratus anterior, Pectoralis minor. Retraction: Pulling the scapula back toward the spine. ○ Muscles: Rhomboids, Trapezius (middle part). Upward Rotation: Rotating the scapula so that the glenoid cavity faces upwards. ○ Muscles: Trapezius (superior part), Serratus anterior. Downward Rotation: Rotating the scapula so that the glenoid cavity faces downward. ○ Muscles: Rhomboids, Levator scapulae, Pectoralis minor. 1. Bones of the Forearm and Hand Forearm: ○ Consists of two main bones: the ulna and the radius. ○ These bones articulate with the humerus at the elbow and with the carpal bones of the wrist. Wrist (Carpal Bones): ○ The wrist contains 8 bones, known as carpal bones. They are arranged in two rows: Proximal row: Scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform. Distal row: Trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate. ○ The scaphoid and lunate articulate with the distal end of the radius. Hand: ○ Metacarpals: 5 metacarpal bones form the palm of the hand. ○ Phalanges: There are 14 phalanges in each hand, organized in proximal, middle, and distal rows. ○ The thumb, or first digit, has only two phalanges (lacks a middle phalanx). 2. Articulations (Joints) of the Forearm and Hand Elbow Joint: ○ Includes ulnar collateral, radial collateral, and annular ligaments. Wrist Joint: ○ Classified as a condyloid joint, allowing flexion, extension, radial and ulnar deviation. ○ The motion is produced by the articulation between the radius and the proximal carpal bones. ○ There is an articular disk between the ulna and the triquetrum. Hand Joints: ○ Carpometacarpal (CMC) Joints:  Thumb: A saddle joint. Fingers: Plane joints. ○ Metacarpophalangeal (MCP) Joints: Thumb: A hinge joint. Fingers: Condyloid joints. ○ Interphalangeal (IP) Joints: All digits have hinge joints. 3. Muscles of the Forearm and Hand Flexor Muscles (Anterior): ○ Divided into 3 layers of flexors: Superficial: Includes muscles like pronator teres, flexor carpi radialis, and palmaris longus. Intermediate: Includes the flexor digitorum superficialis. Deep: Includes the flexor digitorum profundus and flexor pollicis longus. Extensor Muscles (Posterior): ○ Divided into 2 layers of extensors: Superficial: Includes extensor digitorum, extensor carpi ulnaris, and others. Deep: Includes muscles like extensor pollicis longus and extensor indicis. Muscles for Pronation and Supination: ○ Pronation: Involves the pronator teres and pronator quadratus. ○ Supination: Performed by the biceps brachii and supinator. Intrinsic Muscles of the Hand: ○ Thenar muscles: Control thumb movements. ○ Hypothenar muscles: Control movements of the little finger. ○ Intermediate muscles: Include the lumbricals and interossei. 4. Specific Muscle Functions Wrist Flexors: ○ Flexor carpi radialis, flexor carpi ulnaris, and palmaris longus are responsible for wrist flexion. Wrist Extensors: ○ Extensor carpi radialis longus, extensor carpi radialis brevis, and extensor carpi ulnaris extend the wrist.  Finger Flexors: ○ Flexor digitorum superficialis and flexor digitorum profundus flex the fingers. Thumb Flexor and Extensors: ○ Flexor pollicis longus flexes the thumb. ○ Extensor pollicis longus and extensor pollicis brevis extend the thumb. Other Important Muscles: ○ Abductor pollicis longus abducts the thumb. ○ Thenar and Hypothenar muscles are responsible for abduction, flexion, and opposition of the 1st and 5th digits. Lab 3 : Upper Appendicular 2 (Continued) ○ Ulna ○ Olecranon process tricep brachii insertion ○ Coronoid process Projects anteriorly ○ Radial Notch Articulates with head of the radius, Orients laterally (labels which head its connected to, usually the corresponding ulna or radius) ○ Trochlear/semilunar notch Articulates with trochlea of humerus ○ Ulnar tuberosity a roughed up area that is under the radial notch ○ Body (Shaft) ○ The Head of the Ulna (distal/bottom) The rounded area ○ Styloid process Surface landmark Radius ○ Head Articulates with capitulum of humerus ○ Neck Connected to ulna via annular ligament ○ Radial tuberosity Biceps brachii insertion, Medially and Anteriorly oriented ○ Body ○ Ulnar notch (Distal end) Articulates with head of ulna, Medially oriented ○ Styloid process Surface landmark, Posterior and lateral (Specify either ulnar or radial) ○ Carpal articular surface Between ulnar notch and styloid process Annular Ligament ○ Attaches radius to ulna Carpal Bones ○ Scaphoid/Navicular Articulates with radius (carpal articular surface) ○ Lunate Articulates with radius (Carpal articular surface) ○ Triquetrum  ○ Pisiform little pea ○ Trapezium Under the thumb ○ Trapezoid ○ Capitate ○ Hamate Hook “Hook of Hamate” ○ “Straight line to pinky here comes the thumb” (SLTPHCTT) The Hand Anatomy 8 Carpal Bones (Wrist): ○ These are small, cube-shaped bones arranged in two rows of four. ○ Proximal row (lateral to medial): Scaphoid, Lunate, Triquetrum, Pisiform. ○ Distal row (lateral to medial): Trapezium, Trapezoid, Capitate, Hamate. ○ Function: They articulate with the radius and ulna to form the wrist joint and allow a wide range of motion including flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction. 5 Metacarpal Bones: ○ Long bones that form the palm of the hand. ○ Numbered 1-5 starting from the thumb (1) to the little finger (5). ○ Proximal end articulates with the carpal bones; distal end articulates with the proximal phalanges. ○ Function: Serve as structural support for the hand and allow flexion, extension, and opposition of the thumb. 14 Phalanges: ○ Each finger has three phalanges: proximal, middle, and distal, except for the thumb, which has only proximal and distal. ○ Proximal: Closest to the metacarpals. ○ Middle: Between the proximal and distal phalanges (absent in thumb). ○ Distal: Furthest from the metacarpals. ○ Function: Provide dexterity and fine motor control for grasping and manipulating objects. Elbow Joint Anatomy Humeroulnar Articulation (Hinge Joint): ○ Articulation between the trochlea of the humerus and the trochlear notch of the ulna. ○ Movement: Allows flexion and extension of the elbow.  ○ Function: Primary motion of the elbow (flexion/extension) occurs here. Humeroradial Articulation (Gliding Joint): ○ Articulation between the capitulum of the humerus and the head of the radius. ○ Movement: Allows a gliding motion and assists in forearm pronation and supination. ○ Function: Helps in rotation of the radius over the ulna, contributing to supination and pronation. Muscles of the Forearm and Hand Biceps Brachii (Muscle #11): ○ Function: Flexes the elbow and supinates the forearm. ○ Origin: Scapula (long head from the supraglenoid tubercle; short head from the coracoid process). ○ Insertion: Radial tuberosity. ○ Primary nerve supply: Musculocutaneous nerve. Brachioradialis: ○ Function: Flexes the forearm at the elbow, especially when the forearm is in a neutral position. ○ Origin: Lateral supracondylar ridge of the humerus. ○ Insertion: Styloid process of the radius. ○ Nerve supply: Radial nerve. Anconeus: ○ Function: Assists in elbow extension and stabilizes the elbow joint. ○ Origin: Lateral epicondyle of the humerus. ○ Insertion: Olecranon of the ulna. ○ Nerve supply: Radial nerve. Triceps Brachii: ○ Function: Extends the elbow. ○ Origin: Long head from the infraglenoid tubercle of the scapula, lateral and medial heads from the humerus. ○ Insertion: Olecranon process of the ulna. ○ Nerve supply: Radial nerve. Brachialis: ○ Function: Primary flexor of the elbow. ○ Origin: Distal anterior surface of the humerus. ○ Insertion: Coronoid process of the ulna.  ○ Nerve supply: Musculocutaneous nerve. Flexors of the Forearm: First Layer: ○ Pronator Teres (#16): Pronates the forearm and flexes the elbow. ○ Flexor Carpi Radialis (#17): Flexes and abducts the wrist. ○ Palmaris Longus (#18): Flexes the wrist and tenses the palmar fascia. ○ Flexor Carpi Ulnaris (#19): Flexes and adducts the wrist. Second Layer: ○ Flexor Digitorum Superficialis (#20): Flexes the proximal interphalangeal joints of the fingers. Third Layer: ○ Flexor Digitorum Profundus: Flexes the distal interphalangeal joints of the fingers. ○ Flexor Pollicis Longus: Flexes the thumb. Fourth Layer: ○ Pronator Quadratus: Pronates the forearm, stabilizes the distal radioulnar joint. Extensors of the Forearm: First Layer: ○ Extensor Carpi Radialis Longus: Extends and abducts the wrist. ○ Extensor Carpi Radialis Brevis: Extends and abducts the wrist. ○ Extensor Digitorum: Extends the fingers. ○ Extensor Carpi Ulnaris: Extends and adducts the wrist. ○ Extensor Digiti Minimi: Extends the little finger. Second Layer: ○ Extensor Pollicis Longus (EPL): Extends the thumb. ○ Extensor Pollicis Brevis (EPB): Extends the thumb at the metacarpophalangeal joint. ○ Abductor Pollicis Longus (APL): Abducts the thumb and wrist. ○ Extensor Indicis: Extends the index finger. ○ Supinator: Supinates the forearm. “Snuff Box”: The anatomical snuffbox is a triangular depression on the lateral side of the wrist. Boundaries: Tendons of Extensor Pollicis Longus (EPL) and Extensor Pollicis Brevis (EPB), and Abductor Pollicis Longus (APL).  Function: Visible when the thumb is extended, commonly used for palpating the scaphoid bone. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Sensory Nerves (Afferent): ○ Function: Carry sensory information (like pain, temperature, and touch) from peripheral receptors to the central nervous system (CNS). Motor Nerves (Efferent): ○ Function: Transmit motor signals from the CNS to muscles, causing them to contract and produce movement. Mixed Nerves: ○ Composed of both sensory and motor neurons. ○ Function: Allow for both sensory and motor control in specific regions of the body. Four Plexuses: Cervical Plexus: Innervates muscles of the neck, shoulders, and diaphragm. Brachial Plexus: Supplies the shoulders, arms, and hands. Lumbar Plexus: Innervates lower abdominal muscles, thighs, and groin. Sacral Plexus: Supplies the buttocks, legs, and feet. Spinal Nerves 31 Pairs of Spinal Nerves: ○ Each originates from the spinal cord. ○ All are mixed nerves, meaning they have both sensory and motor components. Thousands of Fibers Per Spinal Nerve: ○ Each spinal nerve contains thousands of fibers that transmit signals to/from the CNS. Redundancy: ○ Each spinal nerve pair also overlaps slightly with the regions supplied by the nerve pair above and below it. This provides a safety net, so damage to one nerve doesn't fully paralyze a region. Dermatomes:  Skin areas innervated by the cutaneous branches of each spinal nerve. Dermatome maps are used clinically to assess nerve damage. Brachial Plexus Nerves Axillary Nerve: ○ Sensory innervation: Skin over shoulder and shoulder joint. ○ Motor innervation: Deltoid and teres minor muscles. Radial Nerve: ○ Sensory innervation: Skin on the posterior lateral surface of the upper extremity. ○ Motor innervation: All extensor muscles, supinator, and two flexors of the elbow. Musculocutaneous Nerve: ○ Motor innervation: Muscles of the anterior arm (biceps, brachialis). ○ Sensory innervation: Skin of the lateral forearm. Ulnar Nerve: ○ Sensory innervation: Medial third of the hand. ○ Motor innervation: Two forearm muscles (flexor carpi ulnaris and half of flexor digitorum profundus) and intrinsic muscles of the hand. Median Nerve: ○ Sensory innervation: Radial portion of the palm. ○ Motor innervation: Forearm flexors (except flexor carpi ulnaris) and most muscles of the thumb. Arteries of the Shoulder and Upper Extremity Subclavian Artery: ○ Originates in the thorax and supplies blood to the neck and upper extremities. ○ Divides into multiple branches that serve the thoracic wall and continues as the axillary artery. Axillary Artery: ○ Continuation of the subclavian artery. ○ Supplies the shoulder and upper extremity. ○ Continues as the brachial artery at the lower border of the teres major muscle.  Brachial Artery: ○ Continuation of the axillary artery. ○ Splits into the radial and ulnar arteries near the elbow. Radial and Ulnar Arteries: ○ Radial artery: Located on the lateral side of the forearm, commonly used to detect a pulse. ○ Ulnar artery: Located on the medial side of the forearm. ○ Both form arches in the hand (superficial and deep palmar arches) and supply blood to the fingers through digital arteries. Veins of the Upper Extremity Deep Veins: ○ Accompany arteries and have similar names, such as the brachial, radial, and ulnar veins. ○ These veins are critical for draining blood from the upper extremities. Superficial Veins: ○ Highly variable in structure and found just below the skin. ○ Form an extensive network, which makes them clinically important for drawing blood and giving injections. ○ Notable veins include: Cephalic Vein: Drains into the axillary vein. Basilic Vein: Merges with deep veins to form the axillary vein. Median Cubital Vein: Frequently used for venipuncture, located in the cubital fossa (elbow pit). Veins of the Upper Extremity Pathway: Blood from the digital veins (in fingers) drains into the palmar venous arches. These veins then empty into the radial and ulnar veins, which continue to form the brachial vein. The brachial vein becomes the axillary vein, which eventually be Chapter 3: Epithelial Tissue (p. 51-55) Introduction to Epithelial Tissue:  Definition: Epithelial tissue covers surfaces, lines cavities, and forms glands. Functions: ○ Provide physical protection: Epithelia protects underlying tissues from mechanical and chemical damage. ○ Control permeability: They regulate the passage of materials into and out of tissues, controlling absorption and secretion. ○ Provide sensation: Epithelial cells often contain sensory nerve endings to detect stimuli. ○ Secretion: Glandular epithelial cells produce secretions like mucus, sweat, and hormones. (Apical surface) Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue: Cellularity: Epithelia are composed almost entirely of tightly packed cells with little extracellular material. Polarity: Epithelial cells have distinct apical (top) and basal (bottom) surfaces. Attachment: The basal surface of epithelial cells is attached to a basement membrane that anchors them to underlying tissues. Avascularity: Epithelial tissues lack blood vessels and obtain nutrients through diffusion. Regeneration: Epithelial tissues regenerate rapidly, which is important for maintaining their protective role. Sheets/Layers: Epithelia can be organized into sheets of one or more layers. Classification of Epithelia: Simple Epithelium: A single layer of cells that facilitates absorption, diffusion, and filtration. Stratified Epithelium: Multiple layers of cells that protect against mechanical and chemical stress. Types of Epithelia: ○ Squamous Epithelia: Thin, flat cells; found in areas like alveoli (lungs) and the surface of the skin. ○ Cuboidal Epithelia: Cube-shaped cells; common in glandular ducts like those in the kidney. ○ Transitional Epithelia: Cells that can change shape; found in the urinary bladder, allowing it to stretch. ○ Columnar Epithelia: Tall, column-like cells; often involved in secretion and absorption, as in the intestines. Connective Tissue (p. 60-68) Connective Tissue Overview: Main Components: ○ Specialized Cells: Include fibroblasts, macrophages, and other cells that maintain tissue health. ○ Extracellular Protein Fibers: Collagen, elastic, and reticular fibers provide structural support. ○ Ground Substance: Fills spaces between cells and fibers, providing a medium for nutrient and waste exchange. Matrix: The collective term for the ground substance and fibers, making up the majority of connective tissue. Functions of Connective Tissue: Structural Framework: Supports the body and its organs. Transport: Moves fluids and dissolved materials (like nutrients, waste, and hormones) throughout the body. Protection: Cushions organs and absorbs impacts. Support and Binding: Surrounds and connects other tissues. Energy Storage: Stores energy in the form of fat. Defense: Protects against pathogens through immune cells found within the tissue. Types of Connective Tissue: Connective Tissue Proper: ○ Loose Connective Tissue: Provides support and binds other tissues together, forming fascia and sheaths. Its fibers are loosely packed, allowing flexibility. ○ Dense Connective Tissue: Contains tightly packed collagen fibers, providing strength. Found in tendons and ligaments, it resists stretching in one direction. (Whether that may be vertical or horizontal). Fluid Connective Tissue: ○ Blood: Consists of plasma (the matrix) and formed elements like red and white blood cells. ○ Lymph: Collects excess fluid from tissues and returns it to the bloodstream. Supporting Connective Tissue: ○ Cartilage: A firm yet flexible tissue with limited blood supply, leading to slow healing.  Hyaline Cartilage: The most common type, found in the nose, trachea, and at the ends of long bones. Provides smooth surfaces for movement. (Network of collagen fibers) Fibrocartilage: Reinforced with fibers, designed to withstand tension and compression. Found in intervertebral discs and menisci of the knee. (Adapted to withstand tension and compression forces) Elastic Cartilage: Contains elastic fibers, making it more flexible. Found in structures like the external ear. ( Elastin gives a less homogeneous yellowish appearance ). ○ Bone: A hard tissue rich in calcium salts, providing structural support for the body. It will be covered in detail in later chapters. Blood and Fluid Connective Tissue: Blood: ○ A fluid connective tissue composed of a plasma matrix and formed elements (red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets). ○ Its primary role is to transport oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste products. Lymph: ○ Formed from interstitial fluid, lymph travels through lymphatic vessels and is filtered by lymph nodes. It eventually drains back into the bloodstream. Supporting Connective Tissues: Bone and Cartilage Bone: ○ A supporting connective tissue that is highly vascularized and mineralized, making it strong yet lightweight. ○ Functions as the body’s primary structural support, providing leverage for muscles and protecting vital organs. ○ Bone tissue is constantly remodeled by osteoblasts (build bone) and osteoclasts (break down bone). Cartilage: ○ Hyaline Cartilage: Smooth, glassy cartilage found on joint surfaces, nose, and respiratory passages. ○ Fibrocartilage: Strong and rigid, adapted to resist compression, making it ideal for intervertebral discs and knee menisci.  ○ Elastic Cartilage: Flexible and resilient due to abundant elastic fibers, found in the ear and larynx. Muscle Tissue (Later Chapters): Muscle tissue types, their function, and anatomy will be covered in greater detail in subsequent chapters. These include skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. Neural Tissue (Later Chapters): Neural tissue, responsible for transmitting electrical impulses, will also be explained further in later chapters. This includes neurons and their supporting glial cells. Chapter 5: The Skeletal System What you need to know Structures of bones: Bones are made up of various structural components, including compact bone, spongy bone, and the periosteum, which helps in bone growth and repair. Each bone has distinct parts such as the epiphyses (ends), diaphysis (shaft), and metaphysis (region connecting the two). Types of bones (functions): Bones are classified into categories like long, short, flat, and irregular bones, each serving specific functions such as movement, protection, and mineral storage. Markings/features: Bones have distinctive surface markings (e.g., foramina, fossae) that serve as attachment points for muscles and passages for nerves and blood vessels. Composition: Bones are primarily composed of osseous tissue, calcium phosphate, and collagen fibers, providing both rigidity and flexibility. WON'T BE TESTED ON: Bone growth: Bones grow in two primary ways—intramembranous ossification (from fibrous membranes) and endochondral ossification (from cartilage). Appositional growth increases bone diameter.  Bone repair: Following injury, bones undergo a repair process involving blood clot formation, fibrocartilage callus formation, bony callus formation, and remodeling to restore bone integrity. Functions of the Skeletal System Support: Bones provide a structural framework for the body, supporting soft tissues. Mineral Storage: Bones store essential minerals like calcium and phosphorus. Hemopoiesis: Bones contain bone marrow, responsible for blood cell production. Protection: Bones protect vital organs (e.g., the skull protects the brain, the rib cage protects the heart and lungs). Body Movement: Bones act as levers that muscles pull on to produce movement. Fat and Stem Cells: Yellow bone marrow stores fat, and red bone marrow contains stem cells crucial for generating blood cells. Cells of Mature Bone Osteocytes: Mature bone cells responsible for maintaining bone tissue. Osteoblasts: Active, immature cells that produce the bone matrix (osteoid) and are involved in bone formation. Osteoprogenitor Cells: Stem cells that differentiate into osteoblasts for bone growth or repair. Osteoclasts: Large cells responsible for bone resorption (osteolysis), breaking down bone tissue to release stored minerals. Bone Development and Growth Intramembranous Ossification: Bone develops directly from mesenchymal tissue, primarily forming flat bones (e.g., skull, clavicles). Endochondral Ossification: Bone develops by replacing hyaline cartilage, responsible for the formation of long bones. Calcification: The process of calcium salt deposition in tissues, critical for bone hardening. Bones (Chapter 7: p. 185-195) Pelvic Girdle:  Functions: ○ Supports and protects lower organs. ○ Supports the developing fetus in females. ○ The pelvic bones are larger and heavier compared to the upper limbs. Structure: ○ Two Ossa Coxae: Formed by the union of three bones at the acetabulum. ○ Pelvic Girdle Formation: The ossa coxae unite at the symphysis pubis and sacrum. Pelvic Differences: Male vs Female: ○ Male Pelvis: Heavier with more prominent markings due to larger muscle attachments. ○ Female Pelvis: Enlarged pelvic outlet (due to wider ischial spines). Less curvature of the sacrum/coccyx. Wider, more circular pelvic inlet. Broader, lower pelvis with a pubic angle greater than 100°. Lower Limb Bones: Femur (Thigh Bone): ○ Anterior View: Large, round head with a shallow pit for ligamentum teres (ligament of the femoral head). ○ Posterior View: Linea aspera serves as an attachment point for muscles. Patella (Kneecap): A sesamoid bone that protects the knee joint. Tibia and Fibula: ○ Fibula: Slender, provides muscle attachments but little weight support. ○ Tibia: Proximal end features articular condyles, and the tibial tuberosity is where the patellar ligament attaches. Joints (Chapter 8: p. 223-228) Hip Joint:  Key Ligaments: ○ Pubofemoral Ligament: Stabilizes the hip joint. Knee Joint: Key Ligaments: ○ MCL (Medial Collateral Ligament): Prevents valgus (inward) stress. ○ LCL (Lateral Collateral Ligament): Prevents varus (outward) stress. ○ ACL (Anterior Cruciate Ligament): Prevents anterior displacement of the tibia. ○ PCL (Posterior Cruciate Ligament): Prevents posterior displacement of the tibia. ○ Other Ligaments: Oblique/arcuate popliteal, transverse ligament, and patellar ligament. Muscles (Chapter 11: p. 303-308) Muscles of the Lower Limbs: Larger and More Powerful than those in the upper limbs due to the demands of walking, running, and supporting body weight. Muscles That Move the Thigh: Posterior (Gluteal) Group: ○ Gluteus Maximus: Powerful hip extensor, forms the roundness of the buttock. ○ Gluteus Medius and Minimus: Located deeper, responsible for hip abduction and medial rotation. Deep (Lateral Rotator) Group:  ○ Six deep lateral rotators, most inserting on the greater trochanter. ○ Piriformis: Sciatic nerve emerges beneath it. Anterior (Iliopsoas) Group: ○ Iliacus: Occupies the iliac fossa. ○ Psoas Major and Minor: Originate from the lumbar vertebrae, attaching to the lesser trochanter. Medial (Adductor) Group: ○ Includes muscles that adduct the hip (e.g., adductor magnus, adductor longus, and gracilis). ○ Common origin on the pubic bone, with most inserting on the femur shaft. Muscles That Move the Leg: Extensors (Anterior): ○ Quadriceps group: Vastus lateralis, medialis, intermedius, and rectus femoris. ○ Common attachment at the patella. Flexors (Posterior): ○ Hamstrings: Extend the hip and flex the knee. ○ Biceps femoris, semitendinosus, and semimembranosus originate from the ischial tuberosity and act as antagonists to the quadriceps. Movements of the Hip and Knee: Hip Movements: ○ Flexion, Extension, Adduction, Abduction, Lateral and Medial Rotation. ○ Muscles involved: Gluteus maximus, medius, and minimus, tensor fasciae latae, sartorius, iliopsoas, adductors.  Knee Movements: ○ Flexion and Extension. ○ Muscles involved: Sartorius, rectus femoris, hamstrings (semitendinosus, semimembranosus, biceps femoris), and gracilis. Chapter 9: The Muscular System What you need to know General anatomy of skeletal muscle: Skeletal muscles are made up of muscle fibers, fascicles, and connective tissues (epimysium, perimysium, and endomysium) that protect and support the muscle. The sarcomere is the fundamental unit of muscle contraction, made up of thick (myosin) and thin (actin) filaments. Muscle contraction: Muscle contraction is driven by the sliding filament theory, where actin and myosin filaments slide past each other, shortening the muscle. This process requires ATP and is triggered by the release of calcium ions. Motor units and muscle control: A motor unit consists of a motor neuron and the muscle fibers it controls. Fewer muscle fibers per motor unit allow for finer control (e.g., in the eyes), while larger motor units provide greater strength (e.g., in the legs). Types of skeletal muscle fibers: ○ Fast fibers (white fibers): Large, quickly contracting fibers that fatigue rapidly. They have low endurance but high power output, used for short bursts of strength or speed. ○ Slow fibers (red fibers): Smaller, more fatigue-resistant fibers that use aerobic metabolism, allowing sustained contraction over longer periods. ○ Intermediate fibers: Possess characteristics between fast and slow fibers, contracting faster than slow fibers but with more endurance than fast fibers. Anatomy of Skeletal Muscles - Epimysium, perimysium, Endomysium Muscle Tissue Properties Excitability: Ability of muscle tissue to respond to stimuli, such as nerve impulses. Contractility: Ability of muscle fibers to shorten and generate force. Extensibility: Ability of muscles to stretch without being damaged. Elasticity: Ability of muscle tissue to return to its original length after contraction or extension. Muscle Fiber Organization Muscle fibers are organized into myofibrils, containing sarcomeres—the contractile units of the muscle. The sarcomere structure ensures efficient contraction when the muscle is stimulated. Sarcomere Structure The sarcomere is made up of: ○ Thick filaments: Myosin proteins that pull on actin filaments during contraction. ○ Thin filaments: Actin proteins that are pulled by myosin to shorten the sarcomere, resulting in muscle contraction. Sliding Filament Theory During contraction: ○ The H and I bands (light bands) shrink. ○ The zone of overlap between actin and myosin expands. ○ The Z lines (ends of the sarcomere) move closer together, while the A band (dark band) remains the same size. Neural Control of Muscle Contraction Neuromuscular junction: The site where a motor neuron stimulates muscle fiber. The release of acetylcholine at this junction triggers a cascade of events leading to muscle contraction. Levers in the Body First-class levers: Fulcrum is between the effort and the resistance (e.g., nodding the head). Second-class levers: Resistance is between the fulcrum and the effort, maximizing force but reducing speed (e.g., standing on tiptoes).  Third-class levers: Effort is applied between the fulcrum and resistance, favoring speed and range of motion over force (e.g., bicep curl). Coracobrachialis does all the following movements: flexion, extension, and abduction LAB - Innervation of the Upper limb (NERVES) 67 - Brachial plexus 70 - Musculocutaneous Nerve 74 - Ulnar nerve 71 - Median Nerve 80 - Radial Nerve Blood Vessels of the Upper Limb 45 - Axillary Artery 49 - Brachial Artery 59 - Ulnar Artery 55 - Radial Artery 63 - Superficial Palmar Arch 58 - Deep Palmar Arch BELLRINGER - Station 1 (Clavicle) A) Right side B) Conoid tubercle C) Sternoend Station 2 (Scapula A) Infregleniod tubercle B) Vert  C) Rhomboid major and rhomboid minor Station 3 (Arm) A) Crocobrachialis B) Shoulder flexion, Adduction at the shoulder C) Tricep Station 4 A) Pectoralis minor B) supraspinatus C) Pec major - Insertion greater tubercle Station 5 Shoulder A) Acromioclavicular ligament B) Lesser tubercle C) coracoclavicular D) Acromial cavicular Station 6 A) LEFT hand B) Thumb side to pinky name 3 bone C) Station 7 A) Ulna B) LEFT C) Radial notch (Ulnar tuberosity) Brachialis Station 8 A) palmaris longus B) Flexion at the wrist C) Medial epicondyle of the humerus, Pronator Station 9 A) Trapezius B) Spine of scapula, clavicle,  C) Levator scapulae