Motivation and Emotion Chapter 8 PDF

Chapter 8 Motivation and Emotion After reading this chapter, you would be able to understand the nature of human motivation, describe the nature of some important motives, describe the...

Chapter 8 Motivation and Emotion After reading this chapter, you would be able to understand the nature of human motivation, describe the nature of some important motives, describe the nature of emotional expression, understand the relationship between culture and emotion, and know how to manage your own emotions. Contents Introduction Nature of Motivation Types of Motives Biological Motives Psychosocial Motives Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Nature of Emotions Expression of Emotions Culture and Emotional Expression Culture and Emotional Labeling Managing Negative Emotions Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (Box 8.1) Management of Examination Anxiety (Box 8.2) Enhancing Positive Emotions Emotion has taught mankind Key Terms Summary to reason. Review Questions Project Ideas – Marquis de Vauvenargues 126 Psychology 2024-25  Introduction Sunita, a girl from a little known town, puts in 10-12 hours of hard work everyday in order to get through the various engineering entrance examinations. Hemant, a physically challenged boy, wants to take part in an expedition and trains himself extensively in a mountaineering institute. Aman saves money from his scholarship so that he can buy a gift for his mother. These are just a few examples, which indicate the role motivation plays in human behaviour. Each of these behaviours are caused by an underlying motive. Behaviour is goal-driven. Goal-seeking behaviour tends to persist until the goal is achieved. For achieving their goals people plan and undertake different activities. How is Sunita going to feel if after all the hard work she has put in, she does not succeed or Aman’s scholarship money gets stolen. Sunita, perhaps, will be sad and Aman angry. This chapter will help you to understand the basic concepts of motivation and emotion, and related developments in these two areas. The basic emotions, their biological bases, overt expressions, cultural influences, their relationship with motivation, and some techniques to help you manage your emotions better will also be dealt with. drives, needs, goals, and incentives come under NATURE OF MOTIVATION the broad cluster of motivation. The concept of motivation focuses on The Motivational Cycle explaining what “moves” behaviour. In fact, the term motivation is derived from the Latin Psychologists now use the concept of need to word ‘movere’, referring to movement of describe the motivational properties of activity. Most of our everyday explanation of behaviour. A need is lack or deficit of some behaviour is given in terms of motives. Why necessity. The condition of need leads to drive. do you come to the school or college? There may be any number of reasons for this behaviour, such as you want to learn or to Need make friends, you need a diploma or degree to get a good job, you want to make your parents happy, and so on. Some combination Reduction of Drive of these reasons and/or others would explain arousal why you choose to go in for higher education. Motives also help in making predictions about behaviour. A person will work hard in school, in sports, in business, in music, and in many Achievement Arousal other situations, if s/he has a very strong need for achievement. Hence, motives are the general states that enable us to make Goal-directed predictions about behaviour in many different behaviour situations. In other words, motivation is one of the determinants of behaviour. Instincts, Fig.8.1 : The Motivational Cycle 127 Chapter 8 Motivation and Emotion 2024-25 A drive is a state of tension or arousal produced psychosocial per se, rather they are aroused by a need. It energises random activity. When in the individual with varying combinations. one of the random activities leads to a goal, it reduces the drive, and the organism stops Biological Motives being active. The organism returns to a The biological or physiological approach to balanced state. Thus, the cycle of motivational explain motivation is the earliest attempt to events can be presented as shown in Fig.8.1. understand causes of behaviour. Most of the Are there different types of motives? Are theories, which developed later, carry traces of there any biological bases explaining different the influence of the biological approach. The kinds of motives? What happens if your motive approach adhering to the concept of adaptive remains unfulfilled? These are some of the act holds that organisms have needs (internal questions we will discuss in the following physiological imbalances) that produce drive, sections. which stimulates behaviour leading to certain actions towards achieving certain goals, which TYPES OF MOTIVES reduce the drive. The earliest explanations of motivation relied on the concept of instinct. The Basically, there are two types of motives : term instinct denotes inborn patterns of biological and psychosocial. Biological motives behaviour that are biologically determined are also known as physiological motives as they rather than learned. Some common human are guided mostly by the physiological instincts include curiosity, flight, repulsion, mechanisms of the body. Psychosocial motives, reproduction, parental care, etc. Instincts are on the other hand, are primarily learned from innate tendencies found in all members of a the individual’s interactions with the various species that direct behaviour in predictable environmental factors. ways. The term instinct most approximately However, both types of motives are refers to an urge to do something. Instinct has interdependent on each other. That is, in some an “impetus” which drives the organism to do kind of situations the biological factors may something to reduce that impetus. Some of the trigger a motive whereas in some other basic biological needs explained by this situations, the psychosocial factors may trigger approach are hunger, thirst, and sex, which the motive. Hence, you should keep in mind are essential for the sustenance of the that no motive is absolutely biological or individual. Types of Motives Biological Motives Psychosocial Motives Focus on the innate, biological causes Focus on psychological and social of motivation like hormones, (as well as environmental) factors and neurotransmitters, brain structures how they interact with each other to (hypothalamus, limbic system, etc.). produce motivation. For example, For example, hunger, thirst and need for achievement, affiliation, power, sex motives. curiosity and exploration, and self- actualisation motives. Fig.8.2 : Types of Motives 128 Psychology 2024-25 Hunger Sex When someone is hungry, the need for food One of the most powerful drives in both animals dominates everything else. It motivates people and human beings is the sex drive. Motivation to obtain and consume food. Of course we to engage in sexual activity is a very strong must eat to live. But, what makes you feel factor influencing human behaviour. However, hungry? Studies have indicated that many sex is far more than a biological motive. It is events inside and outside the body may trigger different from other primary motives (hunger, hunger or inhibit it. The stimuli for hunger thirst) in many ways like, (a) sexual activity include stomach contractions, which signify is not necessary for an individual’s survival; that the stomach is empty, a low concentration (b) homeostasis (the tendency of the organism of glucose in the blood, a low level of protein as a whole to maintain constancy or to attempt and the amount of fats stored in the body. to restore equilibrium if constancy is disturbed) The liver also responds to the lack of bodily is not the goal of sexual activity; and (c) sex fuel by sending nerve impulses to the brain. drive develops with age, etc. In case of lower The aroma, taste or appearance of food may animals, it depends on many physiological also result in a desire to eat. It may be noted conditions; in case of human beings, the sex that none of these alone gives you the feeling drive is very closely regulated biologically, that you are hungry. All in combination act sometimes it is very difficult to classify sex with external factors (such as taste, colour, purely as a biological drive. by observing others eating, and the smell of food, etc.) to help you understand that you Psychosocial Motives are hungry. Thus, it can be said that our food intake is regulated by a complex feeding- Social motives are mostly learned or acquired. Social groups such as family, neighbourhood, satiety system located in the hypothalamus, liver, and other parts of the body as well as friends, and relatives do contribute a lot in acquiring social motives. These are complex the external cues available in the environment. forms of motives mainly resulting from the individual’s interaction with her/his social Thirst What would happen to you, if you were environment. deprived of water for a long time? What makes Need for Affiliation you feel thirsty? When we are deprived of water for a period of several hours, the mouth and Most of us need company or friend or want to throat become dry, which leads to dehydration maintain some form of relationship with of body tissues. Drinking water is necessary others. Nobody likes to remain alone all the to wet a dry mouth. But a dry mouth does not time. As soon as people see some kinds of always result in water drinking behaviour. In similarities among themselves or they like each fact processes within the body itself control other, they form a group. Formation of group thirst and drinking of water. Water must get or collectivity is an important feature of human into the tissues sufficiently to remove the life. Often people try desperately to get close dryness of mouth and throat. to other people, to seek their help, and to Motivation to drink water is mainly become members of their group. Seeking other triggered by the conditions of the body: loss human beings and wanting to be close to them of water from cells and reduction of blood both physically and psychologically is called volume. When water is lost by bodily fluids, affiliation. It involves motivation for social water leaves the interior of the cells. The contact. Need for affiliation is aroused when anterior hypothalamus contains nerve cells individuals feel threatened or helpless and also called ‘osmoreceptors’, which generate nerve when they are happy. People high on this need impulses in case of cell dehydration. are motivated to seek the company of others 129 Chapter 8 Motivation and Emotion 2024-25 and to maintain friendly relationships with socio-cultural influences. Persons high in other people. achievement motivation tend to prefer tasks that are moderately difficult and challenging. Need for Power They have stronger-than-average desire for feedback on their performance, that is to know Need for power is an ability of a person to produce intended effects on the behaviour and how they are doing, so that they can adjust their goals to meet the challenge. emotions of another person. The various goals of power motivation are to influence, control, Curiosity and Exploration persuade, lead, and charm others and most importantly to enhance one’s own reputation Often people engage in activities without a clear in the eyes of other people. goal or purpose but they derive some kind of David McClelland (1975) described four pleasure out of it. It is a motivational tendency general ways of expression of the power to act without any specific identifiable goal. The motive. First, people do things to gain feeling tendency to seek for a novel experience, gain of power and strength from sources outside pleasure by obtaining information, etc. are themselves by reading stories about sports signs of curiosity. Hence, curiosity describes stars or attaching themselves to a popular behaviour whose primary motive appears to figure. Second, power can also be felt from remain in the activities themselves. sources within us and may be expressed by What will happen if the sky falls on us? building up the body and mastering urges and Questions of this kind (What will happen if…) impulses. Third, people do things as stimulate intellectuals to find answers. individuals to have an impact on others. For Studies show that this curiosity behaviour is example, a person argues, or competes with not only limited to human beings, animals too another individual in order to have an impact show the same kind of behaviour. We are or influence on that person. Fourth, people driven to explore the environment by our do things as members of organisations to have curiosity and our need for sensory stimulation. an impact on others as in the case of the leader The need for varied types of sensory of a political party; the individual may use the stimulations is closely related to curiosity. It party apparatus to influence others. However, is the basic motive, and exploration and for any individual, one of these ways of curiosity are the expressions of it. expressing power motivation may dominate, Our ignorance about a number of things but with age and life experiences, it varies. around us becomes a powerful motivator to explore the world. We get easily bored with Need for Achievement repetitive experiences. So we look for something You might have observed some students work new. very hard and compete with others for good In the case of infants and small children, marks/grades in the examination, as good this motive is very dominant. They get marks/grades will create opportunities for satisfaction from being allowed to explore, higher studies and better job prospects. It is which is reflected in their smiling and the achievement motivation, which refers to babbling. Children become easily distressed, the desire of a person to meet standards of when the motive to explore is discouraged, as excellence. Need for achievement, also known you have read in Chapter 3. as n-Ach, energises and directs behaviour as well as influences the perception of situations. MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS During the formative years of social development, children acquire achievement There are various views on human motivation, motivation. The sources from which they learn the most popular among these is given by it, include parents, other role models, and Abraham H. Maslow (1968; 1970). He 130 Psychology 2024-25 attempted to portray a picture of human satisfied, the higher needs occupy the behaviour by arranging the various needs in individual’s attention and effort. However, it a hierarchy. His viewpoint about motivation is must be noted that very few people reach the very popular because of its theoretical and highest level because most people are applied value which is popularly known as the concerned more with the lower level needs. “Theory of Self-actualisation” (see Fig.8.3). Activity 8.1 Actual actions sometimes contradict the hierarchy of needs. Soldiers, police officers, and Self- fire personnels have been known to protect others actualisation by facing very endangering situations, seemingly needs in direct contradiction to the prominence of safety needs. Esteem needs Why does it happen? Discuss it in your group and then with your teacher. Belongingness needs NATURE OF EMOTIONS Safety needs ‘Swati is very happy. Her examination result has been declared today and she has topped Physiological needs the class. She is feeling euphoric. However, her friend Pranoy is feeling sad, as he has not done well. Among her friends some are feeling jealous Fig.8.3 : Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs of Swati’s achievement. Jeevan who has not Maslow’s model can be conceptualised as performed up to his expectation is angry with a pyramid in which the bottom of this himself; he feels unhappy that his parents hierarchy represents basic physiological or would be very disappointed’. biological needs which are basic to survival Joy, sorrow, hope, love, excitement, anger, such as hunger, thirst, etc. Only when these hate, and many such feelings are experienced needs are met, the need to be free from in the course of the day by all of us. The term threatened danger arises. This refers to the emotion is often considered synonymous with safety needs of physical and psychological the terms ‘feeling’ and ‘mood’. Feeling denotes nature. Next comes the need to seek out other the pleasure or pain dimension of emotion, people, to love and to be loved. After these which usually involves bodily functions. Mood needs are fulfilled, the individual strives for is an affective state of long duration but of esteem, i.e. the need to develop a sense of self- lesser intensity than emotion. Both these worth. The next higher need in the hierarchy terms are narrower than the concept of emotion. reflects an individual’s motive towards the Emotions are a complex pattern of arousal, fullest development of potential, i.e. self- subjective feeling, and cognitive interpretation. actualisation. A self-actualised person is self- Emotions, as we experience them, move us aware, socially responsive, creative, internally, and this process involves spontaneous, open to novelty, and challenge. physiological as well as psychological reactions. S/he also has a sense of humour and capacity Emotion is a subjective feeling and the for deep interpersonal relationships. experience of emotions varies from person to Lower level needs (physiological) in the person. In psychology, attempts have been hierarchy dominate as long as they are made to identify basic emotions. It has been unsatisfied. Once they are adequately noted that at least six emotions are experienced 131 Chapter 8 Motivation and Emotion 2024-25 and recognised everywhere. These are: anger, verbal expressions. These verbal and non- disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise. verbal expressions act as the channels of Izard has proposed a set of ten basic emotions, communication and enable an individual to i.e. joy, surprise, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, express one’s emotions and to understand the shame, guilt, interest, and excitement with feelings of others. combinations of them resulting in other emotional blends. According to Plutchik, there Culture and Emotional Expression are eight basic or primary emotions. All other The verbal channel of communication is emotions result from various mixtures of these composed of spoken words as well as other basic emotions. He arranged these emotions vocal features of speech like pitch and loudness in four pairs of opposites, i.e. joy-sadness, of the voice. These non-verbal aspects of the acceptance-disgust, fear-anger, and surprise- voice and temporal characteristics of speech anticipation. are called ‘paralanguage’. Other non-verbal Emotions vary in their intensity (high, low) channels include facial expression, kinetic and quality (happiness, sadness, fear). (gesture, posture, movement of the body) and Subjective factors and situational contexts proximal (physical distance during face-to-face influence the experience of emotions. These interaction) behaviours. Facial expression is factors are gender, personality, and the most common channel of emotional psychopathology of certain kinds. Evidence communication. The amount and kind of indicates that women experience all the information conveyed by the face is easy to emotions except anger more intensely than comprehend as the face is exposed to the full men. Men are prone to experience high view of others (see Fig.8.4). Facial expressions intensity and frequency of anger. This gender can convey the intensity as well as the difference has been attributed to the social pleasantness or unpleasantness of the roles attached to men (competitiveness) and individual’s emotional state. Facial expressions women (affiliation and caring). play an important role in our everyday lives. There has been some research evidence EXPRESSION OF EMOTIONS supporting Darwin’s view that facial expressions for basic emotions (joy, fear, Do you get to know that your friend is happy anger, disgust, sadness, and surprise) are or sad or indifferent? Does s/he understand inborn and universal. your feelings? Emotion is an internal Bodily movements further facilitate the experience not directly observable by others. communication of emotions. Can you feel the Emotions are inferred from verbal and non- difference between your body movements when Fear Anger Happy Sad Fig.8.4 : Sketches of Facial Expressions of Emotions 132 Psychology 2024-25 you feel angry and movements when you feel of contempt. The Japanese produced varied shy? Theatre and drama provide an excellent emotional labels for facial expressions of opportunity to understand the impact of body happiness (10 labels), anger (8 labels), and movements in communicating emotions. The disgust (6 labels). Ancient Chinese literature roles of gestures and proximal behaviours are cites seven emotions, namely, joy, anger, also significant. You must have seen how in sadness, fear, love, dislike, and liking. Ancient Indian classical dances like Bharatanatyam, Indian literature identifies eight such Odissi, Kuchipudi, Kathak and others, emotions, namely, love, mirth, energy, wonder, emotions are expressed with the help of anger, grief, disgust, and fear. In Western movements of eyes, legs, and fingers. The literature, certain emotions like happiness, dancers are trained rigorously in the grammar sadness, fear, anger, and disgust are uniformly of body movement and non-verbal treated as basic to human beings. Emotions communication to express joy, sorrow, love, like surprise, contempt, shame, and guilt are anger, and various other forms of emotional not accepted as basic to all. states. In brief, it might be said that there are The processes involved in emotions have certain basic emotions that are expressed and been known to be influenced by culture. understood by all despite their cultural and Cultural differences have also been found in ethnic differences, and there are certain others the gaze behaviour. It has been observed that that are specific to a particular culture. the Latin Americans and the Southern Europeans direct their gaze to the eyes of the MANAGING NEGATIVE EMOTIONS interactant. Asians, in particular, Indians and Pakistanis, prefer a peripheral gaze (looking Try living a day in which you do not feel any away from the conversational partner) during emotion. You would realise that it is difficult an interaction. even to imagine a life without emotions. Emotions are a part of our daily life and Culture and Emotional Labeling existence. They form the very fabric of our life and interpersonal relations. Basic emotions also vary in the extent of Effective emotion management is the key elaboration and categorical labels. The Tahitian to effective social functioning in modern times. language includes 46 labels for the English The following tips might prove useful to word anger. When asked to label freely, the you for achieving the desired balance of North American subjects produced 40 different emotions : responses for the facial expression of anger and 81 different responses for the facial expression B o x 8.1 Post - Traumatic Stress Disorder A disaster produces serious disruption of the Either of these conditions may lead to development functioning of human society, resulting in of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), where the widespread material or environmental loss, person tends to re-experience the event through which cannot be dealt with immediately with the flashbacks and get overwhelming thoughts about the existing resources. Disaster may be natural (like event even after a substantial period of time. This earthquake/cyclone/tsunami) or man-made (like condition makes a person emotionally disturbed and war). The trauma an individual experiences the person fails to adopt an appropriate coping during a disaster may range from mere strategy in regular activities. Emotions manifest in perception of such an event to actually uniquely recognisable patterns with maladaptive encountering it, which may be life threatening. behaviour (like depression) and autonomic arousal. 133 Chapter 8 Motivation and Emotion 2024-25  Enhance self-awareness : Be aware of Do some self-monitoring : This involves your own emotions and feelings. Try to gain constant or periodic evaluation of your past insight into the ‘how’ and ‘why’ of your accomplishments, emotional and physical feelings. states, real and vicarious experiences. A Appraise the situation objectively : It positive appraisal would enhance your faith has been proposed that emotion is in yourself and lead to enhanced feeling of preceded by evaluation of the event. If the wellness and contentment. event is experienced as disturbing, your Engage in self-modeling : Be the ideal sympathetic nervous system is activated for yourself. Repeatedly observe the best and you feel stressed. If you do not parts of your past performance and use experience the event as disturbing, then them as an inspiration and motivation to there is no stress. Hence, it is you who perform better in the future. decides whether to feel sad and anxious or Perceptual reorganisation and cognitive happy and relaxed. restructuring : Try viewing the events B o x 8.2 Management of Examination Anxiety For most of us an approaching examination confident and then passing with flying colours. brings about a feeling of a churning stomach and Inoculation : Inoculate yourself against anxiety. In fact, any situation which involves stress. Exposure through rehearsals and role- performing a task and the awareness of being playing prepares you physically and mentally to evaluated for the performance is an anxiety- face the examination situation better and with provoking situation for most people. A certain confidence. level of anxiety is definitely essential as it Positive thinking : Have faith in yourself. motivates and pushes us to put up our best Structure your thoughts with systematically listing performance but a high level of anxiety becomes the thoughts that worry you and then rationally an impediment in optimum performance and dealing with them one by one. Emphasise on your achievement. An anxious individual is highly strengths. Suggest to yourself to be positive and aroused physiologically and emotionally, and enthusiastic. hence is not able to perform to the best of her/ Seek support : Do not hesitate to ask for help his abilities. from your friends, parents, teachers or seniors. An examination is a potentially stress Talking about a stressful situation to a close provoking situation and like other stressful person makes one feel light and helps gain insight. situations coping involves two strategies, i.e. The situation may not be as bad as it seems. Monitoring or taking effective action, and Blunting or avoiding the situation. On the other hand, blunting strategies involve Monitoring involves taking effective and direct avoiding the stressful situation. True, avoidance is action to deal with the stressful situation. The neither desirable nor possible in an examination following strategies can be used for monitoring : situation, but the following techniques may prove Prepare well : Prepare well for the useful: examination and prepare well in advance. Relaxation : Lear n to relax. Relaxation Give yourself ample time. Familiarise yourself techniques help you calm your nerves and give with the pattern of question papers and you an opportunity to reframe your thoughts. frequently asked questions. This gives you a There are many different relaxation techniques. sense of predictability and control and In general, this involves sitting or lying down in a reduces the stress potential of the comfortable posture in a quiet place, relaxing your examination. muscles, reducing the external stimulation as well Have a rehearsal : Make yourself go through as minimising the flow of thoughts and focusing. a mock examination. Ask your friend to test Exercise : A stressful situation overactivates the your knowledge. You can also rehearse sympathetic nervous system. Exercise helps in mentally in your mind. Visualise yourself channelising the excess energy generated by this. taking the examination completely relaxed and A brief period of light exercise or active sport will help you concentrate better on your studies. 134 Psychology 2024-25  differently and visualise the other side of not magnify negative feelings. the coin. Restructure your thoughts to Do not ascribe intentions and ulterior enhance positive and reassuring feelings motives to others. and eliminate negative thoughts. Resist having irrational beliefs about people Be creative : Find and develop an interest and events. or a hobby. Engage in an activity that Try to find constructive ways of expressing interests and amuses you. your anger. Have control on the degree and Develop and nurture good relation- duration of anger that you choose to ships : Choose your friends carefully. In express. the company of happy and cheerful friends Look inward not outward for anger control. you will feel happy in general. Give yourself time to change. It takes time Have empathy : Try understanding other’s and effort to change a habit. feelings too. Make your relationships meaningful and valuable. Seek as well as provide support mutually. ENHANCING POSITIVE EMOTIONS Participate in community service : Help yourself by helping others. By doing Our emotions have a purpose. They help us community service (for example, helping an adapt to the ever-changing environment and intellectually challenged child learn an are important for our survival and well-being. adaptive skill), you will gain important Negative emotions like fear, anger or disgust insights about your own difficulties. prepare us mentally and physically for taking immediate action towards the stimulus that is Managing your Anger threatening. For example, if there was no fear we would have caught a poisonous snake in Anger is a negative emotion. It carries the mind our hand. Though negative emotions protect away or in other words, the person looses us in such situations but excessive or inappropriate use of these emotions can become life threatening to us, as it can harm Activity 8.2 our immune system and have serious consequences for our health. Think of an intense emotional experience you Positive emotions such as hope, joy, have gone through recently and explain the optimism, contentment, and gratitude energise sequence of events. How did you deal with it? us and enhance our sense of emotional well- Share it with your class. being. When we experience positive affect, we display a greater preference for a large variety of actions and ideas. We can think of more control on behavioural functions during the possibilities and options to solve whatever state of anger. The major source of anger is the problems we face and thus, we become frustration of motives. However, anger is not a proactive. reflex, rather it is a result of our thinking. Psychologists have found that people, who Neither is it automatic nor uncontrollable and were shown films depicting joy and caused by others but it is a self-induced choice contentment, came up with more ideas that the individual makes. Anger is a result of regarding things they would like to do as your thinking and hence is controllable by compared to those who were shown films your own thoughts only. Certain key points in evoking anger and fear. Positive emotions give anger management are as follows: us a greater ability to cope with adverse Recognise the power of your thoughts. circumstances and quickly return to a normal state. They help us set up long-term plans and Realise you alone can control it. goals, and form new relationships. Various Do not engage in ‘self-talk that burns’. Do 135 Chapter 8 Motivation and Emotion 2024-25 ways of enhancing positive emotions are given Positive interpretations of most daily below: events. Personality traits of optimism, hopefulness, happiness and a positive self- regard. Finding positive meaning in dire circumstances. Having quality connections with others, Key Terms and supportive network of close Anxiety, Arousal, Basic emotions, Biological relationships. needs (hunger, thirst, sex), Esteem needs, Being engaged in work and gaining Examination anxiety, Expression of mastery. emotions, Hierarchy of needs, Motivation, A faith that embodies social support, Motives, Need, Power motive, Psychosocial purpose and hope, leading a life of motives, Self-actualisation, Self-esteem purpose. Summary The process of persistent behaviour directed towards a specific goal, which results from certain driving forces, is called motivation. There are two types of motivation, namely, biological, and psychosocial motivation. Biological motivation focuses on the innate, biological causes of motivation like hormones, neurotransmitters, brain structures (hypothalamus, limbic system), etc. Examples of biological motivation are hunger, thirst, and sex. Psychosocial motivation explains motives resulting mainly from the interaction of the individual with his social environment. Examples of psychosocial motives are need for affiliation, need for achievement, curiosity and exploration, and the need for power. Maslow arranged various human needs in an ascending hierarchical order, beginning with the most basic physiological needs, and then safety needs, love and belongingness needs, esteem needs, and finally on the top of the hierarchy is the need for self-actualisation. Emotion is a complex pattern of arousal that involves physiological activation, conscious awareness of feeling, and a specific cognitive label that describes the process. Certain emotions are basic like joy, anger, sorrow, surprise, fear, etc. Other emotions are experienced as a result of combination of these emotions. Culture strongly influences the expression and interpretation of emotions. Emotion is expressed through verbal and non-verbal channels. It is important to manage emotions effectively in order to ensure physical and psychological well-being. 136 Psychology 2024-25 Review Questions 1. Explain the concept of motivation. 2. What are the biological bases of hunger and thirst needs? 3. How do the needs for achievement, affiliation, and power influence the behaviour of adolescents? Explain with examples. 4. What is the basic idea behind Maslow’s hierarchy of needs? Explain with suitable examples. 5. How does culture influence the expression of emotions? 6. Why is it important to manage negative emotions? Suggest ways to manage negative emotions. Project Ideas 1. Using Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, analyse what kind of motivational forces might have motivated the great mathematician S.A. Ramanujan and the great shehnai Maestro Ustad Bismillah Khan (Bharat Ratna) to perform exceptionally in their respective fields. Now place yourself and five more known people in terms of need satisfaction. Reflect and discuss. 2. In many households, family members do not eat without bathing first and practise religious fasts. How have different social practices influenced your expression of hunger and thirst? Conduct a survey on five people from different backgrounds and prepare a report. 137 Chapter 8 Motivation and Emotion 2024-25