Introduction to Psychology Preliminary Examination Reviewer PDF

Introduction to Psychology Preliminary Examination Reviewer Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior. The science of psychology benefits society and enhances our lives. Psychologists examine the relationships between brain function and behavior, and the environment and behavior,...

Introduction to Psychology Preliminary Examination Reviewer Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior. The science of psychology benefits society and enhances our lives. Psychologists examine the relationships between brain function and behavior, and the environment and behavior, applying what they learn to illuminate our understanding and improve the world around us. Pure research: studies conducted without concern for immediate application. Applied research: designed to find solutions to specific personal or social problems. Practicing psychology refers to applying psychological knowledge to help individuals change their behavior. Clinical psychologists help people with psychological disorders adjust to the demands of life. Counseling psychologists are similar to clinical psychologists, but their clients typically have adjustment problems and not serious psychological disorders. Meditation is the act of focusing on a single target (such as the breath or a repeated sound) to increase awareness of the moment. Developmental Psychologists study the changes (physical, cognitive, social, and personality) that occur throughout the lifespan. Messages travel in the brain by means of electricity. Neurotransmitters are chemical substances that communicate from one neuron to another. Gustav Theodore Fechner was the first to study the relationship between the strength of a stimulus and a person’s ability to detect the stimulus. Social psychologists are primarily concerned with an individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior in social situations. Narcolepsy is a chronic sleep disorder characterized by overwhelming daytime drowsiness and sudden attacks of sleep. We have approximately 1,000 types of odor receptor cells. Sleep Apnea is a potentially serious sleep disorder in which breathing repeatedly stops and starts. Humans possess powerful sensory capacities that allow us to sense the kaleidoscope of sights, sounds, smells, and tastes that surround us. Psychophysics is the branch of psychology that studies the effects of physical stimuli on sensory perceptions and mental states. Aristotle argued that human behavior is subject to rules and laws. Democritus suggested that we could think of behavior in terms of a body and mind (interaction of biological and mental processes). Behavior is influenced by external stimulation. Socrates believed that we should rely on rational thought and introspection to achieve self-knowledge. People are social creatures who influence each other. Sigmund Freud believed that much of our lives are governed by unconscious ideas and impulses that originate in childhood conflicts. B.F. Skinner believed that organisms learn to behave in certain ways because they have been reinforced for their actions. Behavior that has a positive outcome will tend to be repeated. Wilhelm Wundt established his psychology laboratory at the University at Leipzig in 1879. He saw the mind as a natural event that could be studied scientifically.He believed that the mind functions by combining objective and subjective elements of experience. William James was the first North American psychologist who espoused a different perspective on how psychology should operate. He was introduced to Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection and accepted it as an explanation of an organism’s characteristics. The brain is a complex organ that controls thought, memory, emotion, touch, motor skills, vision, breathing, temperature, hunger and every process that regulates our body. Together, the brain and spinal cord that extends from it make up the central nervous system. Cerebrum comprises gray matter (the cerebral cortex) and white matter at its center. It is the largest part of the brain, and it initiates and coordinates movement and regulates temperature. Other areas enable speech, judgment, thinking and reasoning, problem-solving, emotions and learning. Other functions relate to vision, hearing, touch and other senses. Brainstem is the middle of the brain which connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord. It includes the midbrain, the pons and the medulla. Endocrine systems, also referred to as hormone systems, are found in all mammals, birds, fish, and many other types of living organisms. Neurons are specialized cells of the nervous system that conduct impulses. Glial cells remove dead neurons and waste products from the nervous system. Cell body contains the nucleus that generates energy. Dendrites receive incoming messages from adjourning cells (roots). Axons carry messages away from the cell body (trunk). Acetylcholine controls muscle contractions; it can be both excitatory and inhibitory. Dopamine affects voluntary movements, learning, memory, and arousal. Electroencephalograph (EEG) detects minute amounts of electrical activity in the brain. Sensation is the process by which our senses gather information and send it to the brain. Absolute Threshold is the point where something becomes noticeable to our senses. It is the softest sound we can hear or the slightest touch we can feel. Anything less than this goes unnoticed. It is therefore the point at which a stimulus goes from undetectable to detectable to our senses. Difference Threshold is the amount of change needed for us to recognize that a change has occurred. This change is referred to as the Just Noticeable Difference. Perception refers to interpretation of what we take in through our senses. Consciousness refers to your individual awareness of your unique thoughts, memories, feelings, sensations, and environments. William James compared consciousness to a stream—unbroken and continuous despite constant shifts and changes. Sigmund Freud focused on understanding the importance of the unconscious and conscious mind. Insomnia is a consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep, and is the most common of the sleep disorders. Ethanol referred to as alcohol, is in a class of psychoactive drugs known as depressants. A depressant is a drug that tends to suppress central nervous system activity. Stimulants tend to increase overall levels of neural activity. Many of these drugs act as agonists of the dopamine neurotransmitter system. Hypnosis is a state of extreme self-focus and attention in which minimal attention is given to external stimuli. In the therapeutic setting, a clinician may use it in an attempt to alter the thoughts and perceptions of a patient. Meditation is the act of focusing on a single target (such as the breath or a repeated sound) to increase awareness of the moment. II. Essay Test 1. One of the Elaborate Phase activities.