Journey Through Time 6 PDF Textbook

journey through time A history textbook 6 Name: Roll No: Class: Section: Copyright © 2020 by Shikshan Books & Stationery Pvt. Ltd. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any written, electronic, recording, or photocopy form without written permission of the publisher Shikshan Books & Stationery Pvt. Ltd. The exception would be in the case of brief quotations embodied in the critical articles or reviews and pages where permission is specifically granted by the publisher or author. You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer. Publishing of key to any form of questions or exercises in this book in any manner is strictly prohibited. Books may be purchased in quantity and/or special sales by contacting the publisher and author at: Shikshan Books & Stationery Pvt. Ltd, 85, Post Office Lane, Dr. B. Ambedkar Road, Parel East, Mumbai-400012, by phone - 022-24703442 or by email at [email protected] Acknowledgements Although every precaution has been taken to verify the accuracy of the information contained herein, the author and publisher assume no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for damages that may result from the use of information contained within. Inspite of repeated attempts the publisher has not been able to trace or contact the rightful owners of the copyright resources included in this book. The publisher would be highly grateful for any information about the same and make the required acknowledgements at the first opportunity. New Edition, 2020 Printed in India by Shikshan Books & Stationery Pvt. Ltd, Mumbai Published by Shikshan Books & Stationery Pvt. Ltd, Mumbai Publisher’s Note Education aims at the holistic development of a child and prepares the children of today for the challenges of tomorrow. It is a socially oriented activity. Being so, it plays a vital role in building the society. It aims to foster peace, humanness, tolerance and an inclusive outlook among children to live in a multicultural society. Education, therefore, is vital in promoting and nourishing a wide range of skills and capacities in children. The textbook adheres to the latest curricular guidelines. The language of the textbook is simple, lucid and comprehensible. The content is age-appropriate and well-supported by illustrations, diagrams, maps and quizzes. Utmost emphasis has been given on the recent trends in teaching-learning of the subject. The book has been creatively designed to connect the children to their immediate environment. It provides scope to make learning a joyful experience by moving away from rote learning and giving children opportunities to learn by actively participating in hands-on-experiments. The exercises provide ample scope to assess children on different kinds of skill sets. Principles of critical pedagogy overarch the textbook so that a scientific temper and a scientific outlook develop in the students as the necessary learning outcome. We have taken a special effort to ensure that the textbook is free from any bias and presents an accurate view of the topics covered. We welcome valuable suggestions for improvement of the textbook. Mumbai Publisher 01 January 2020 R Hello friends! I am obittoo, the robot. I will be your friend and guide you through this book. I will take you on an adventure every time you begin a new chapter, until you master it. Sometimes, you will see me helping you understand the chapter. And at other times, I will test your knowledge. But at all times, I will ensure that you enjoy the journey of learning. Before we get on board, let me help you understand the key elements of this book. Tune In Tune In has creative activities or questions to introduce the lesson to the learners which invokes their curiosity and gives them a chance to Let’s Learn express their thoughts and ideas. L t’ Learn Let’s L contains t i essential ti l concepts that will be learnt and the Tickle Your Brain students will be able to display the Thought providing questions same at the end of a lesson. are given to develop interpretive thinking of students. Source Study Did You Know Source study will help the children Did You Know covers interesting to be critical and analytical. It will facts related to the content in help them develop investigative the chapter. qualities towards the subject by understanding how the historians develop facts by scrutinizing various sources. Timeline Rapid Round Timelines depict the chronology of Rapid Round includes questions events in a manner that is visually that are placed at regular appealing to the learner. It helps the intervals through the chapter to students to understand and analyse assess student’s understanding historical events better. intermittently. Key Elements Global Connection Global Connection helps students to make more sense of the period of history that they are studying by WEBLINKS providing an overview of another contemporary event. Weblinks consists of links to different websites which will help the students to enrich their knowledge further. Word Galaxy People Who Made History Word Galaxy contains new, important People Who Made History provides words and their meanings to improve information about people of great the vocabulary of the students historical importance that has impacted the world in a positive way though their work and achievements. HOTS Concept Map HOTS comprises of questions of Concept Map summarises the Higher Order Thinking Skills that are chapter in the form of a graphic related to the content and enable organiser which will help the the students to critically evaluate and student to understand the analyse the content. content better. Let’s Exercise Let’s Exercise consists of creatively designed questions and activities that aim to evaluate the learner’s understanding of the concept learnt through different techniques. Pledge India is my country. All Indians are my brothers and sisters. I love my country and I am proud of its rich and varied heritage. I shall always strive to be worthy of it. I shall give my parents, teachers and all elders respect and treat everyone with courtesy. To my country and my people, I pledge my devotion. In their well being and prosperity alone, lies my happiness. CONTENTS HISTORY 1. Reconstructing History........................................................................ 01 2. The Early Humans................................................................................ 11 3. Indus Valley Civilization...................................................................... 22 4. The Vedic Age...................................................................................... 33 5. From Janas to Mahajanapadas.......................................................... 43 6. Villages and Towns in Ancient India................................................. 52 7. Jainism and Buddhism........................................................................ 59 8. The Rise and Decline of the Mauryan Empire................................. 69 9. The Deccan and the South Indian Kingdoms................................... 79 10. India and the World............................................................................. 88 11. The Rise and the Decline of the Guptas............................................ 95 12. Cultural and Scientific Development in Ancient India................... 103 CIVICS 13. India – A Kaleidoscope of Cultures.................................................. 110 14. Deciphering the Stereotypical Society............................................ 120 15. The Government and its Formation................................................. 124 16. Democracy and its Features.............................................................. 129 17. Village Administration..................................................................................135 18. District Administration.................................................................................141 19. Municipal Administration............................................................................147 20. Rural Livelihoods............................................................................................154 21. Urban Livelihoods..........................................................................................159 1. Reconstructing History Let’s Learn  What is History?  How did India get its name?  Why do we study History?  Influence of geography  Prehistory, Protohistory and History on History of India  Periodization of History  Sources of History  Calculating time Tune In 2.8 million year old lower jaw bone and five teeth have been discovered on a hillside in Ethiopia. These are the oldest remains ever found which belong to the lineage that ultimately led to modern humans.  Have you ever wondered how these findings help historians? Discuss in class. What is History? The word ‘history’ originates from the Greek word historia meaning ‘learning or knowing by inquiry’. The word ‘history’ has now been used to refer to accounts of events that are narrated in a chronological order, and deal with the past of humankind. Historians are the people who study the past in a systematic manner and reconstruct history. Why do we study History? It is important to study history. The study of history will help to understand how the present world evolved over long centuries of development. It tells us about the history of the present. We all live in a society, but it was not the way we see it. Can you imagine living in a society where fire, the cultivation of crops, railways, etc. was unknown? History makes us aware about these pasts. It takes us to another age, another world in which people lived their lives differently. Their food, clothes, buildings, society, economy, faiths, beliefs, arts and crafts were completely different. History equips us with the knowledge and understanding of the past, which is necessary for coping with the present. Subsequently, it helps us to plan for a better future. People who lived before us made several discoveries and inventions which eventually transformed many societies. The study of history explicates how such changes have taken 1 place over a period of time. These changes were apparently so small and often so gradual that their impact was not even noticed by the people at that point in time. It is only when we study about the past; we observe such changes and its impact. It is not merely about the kings, queens, great men or their conquests and policies. It is also about the lives and activities of ordinary people. One can develop important qualities and skills by studying history. Therefore it becomes essential to study history to understand how our pasts have shaped the present. Periodization of History Periodization is the division of history into periods of time for the purposes of discussion and treatment. We study history in a chronological order. Therefore, the study of history is made easier by categorising the past developments into large periods which share common characteristics. Historians have divided the past into prehistory, proto-history and history. Prehistory The prehistoric period is the time before writing was invented. Hence, there are no written records available of this period. Hence, this period is called as prehistory for example, the Stone Age. Information about prehistoric times is collected by archaeologists by excavating and studying the remains of the past. These material remains such as bones, tools, coins, jewellery, ruins of buildings, etc. help them to know about the past. Proto-history The proto-historic period is the time just before the beginning of recorded history. The Indus Valley Civilization and the Chalcolithic age are examples of proto-history. Several inscriptions, seals, etc. have been discovered belonging to this period. The people of the Indus Valley knew the art of writing but historians have not been able to read thisv script. Therefore, the period comes under the proto-historic phase. History History is the period after writing was invented, for example the Vedic Age. Historians have been able to decipher the writing of this period. Written records of this period are important for reconstruction history. Many of these records are found on rocks, stone walls, pillars, copper plates, clay tablets, bark of the birch, etc. The entire historical period is often sub-divided into three periods by historians. They are Ancient, Medieval and Modern periods. This year we shall be studying about the ancient history of India. Calculating Time Time is articulated as BC and AD in history. Dionysius Exiguus, a canonist invented the AD/ BC concept during the early 6th century. He was commissioned by the Pope to ascertain the correct date for Easter. His counting method determined Christ’s birth to be year 1 AD. The years 2 before the birth of Jesus Christ are articulated in BC, that Did You Know is, Before Christ; whereas the years after the birth of Jesus 46 BCE was called ‘the year of Christ are articulated in AD or Anno Domini, a Latin word confusion’ because, in order to which means ‘in the year of our Lord.’ However, modern get his new calendar on track, historians use BCE instead of BC, and CE instead of AD. Julius Caesar proclaimed the This is done to write history in a secular and an impartial year 46 BCE to have 442 days. way. BCE stands for Before the Common Era and CE stands for Common Era. When an exact date of an event is not known, then the word ‘circa’ is used along with the date. Circa is a Latin word which means approximately. Historians arrange the events of history in a chronological order. A timeline is used to show the sequence in which events happen. How did India get its name? India and Bharat are the two terms we often use for addressing our country. The word India is derived from the river Indus or Sindhu (the Sanskrit name of the river). About 2500 years ago, the Iranians and the Greeks came to India through the Northwest side. They were familiar with the river Indus. They called it the Hindos or the Indos and the region to the east of the river Indus was called India. The name Bharata was used to refer a group of people who lived in Northwest part of India. Their reference can be found in Rig Veda which is the earliest composition in Sanskrit, dated to around 3500 years ago. Subsequently, this name was used for the country. Rapid Round 1. Which period of history would Indus Valley Civilization fall into? 2. When is the word circa used in history? 3. What do BCE and CE mean? Influence of Geography on History of India The geography of a country plays a significant role in shaping its history. The Southern, peninsular part of the Indian sub-continent is surrounded by seas, while the Himalayas in the North and mountain ranges of the East and West separate North India from the rest of Asia. Nevertheless, the Bolan, Gomal and Khyber passes in the Northwest, allowed the early migration of various races from Central and West Asia to invade India. Passes along the Northern Mountains linked with Central Asia and Tibet, assisted in the spread of Buddhism into these regions. In the northeast mountains, there are fewer passes, which effectively kept China separated from India. However, the importance of the Himalayas and mountain ranges has more to do with the fact that the two great perennial river systems, the Indus and the Ganga, arise from them. Both these systems gave rise to the fertile northern plains on which arose the ancient civilisation. 3 The navigability of the northern rivers helped internal trade and commerce; Ancient river ports such as Kanauj, Banaras (present-day Varanasi), Pataliputra (present-day Patna) and Prayag (present-day Prayagraj) became centres of trade. This, along with the productivity of the fertile plains, helped the growth of large kingdoms. To the south of the Gangetic plain are the Vindhya Ranges. They cut across the middle of the subcontinent, thus, acting as a barrier between the northern and the southern parts of the subcontinent. This led to the creation of two distinct cultures – the Vedic culture of the North and the Dravidian culture of the South. Sources of History Historians piece together what had happened from a range of sources for reconstructing history. A source is anything that provides information about the past; it can be an actual artefact, or it could be an account of the past. The source plays a vital role in the reconstruction of history. Generally, sources of history can be divided into two groups – archaeological sources and literary sources. Archaeological sources Archaeological sources have been classified into five categories: inscriptions, artefacts, monuments, fossils and coins. Inscriptions Inscriptions are writings inscribed on hard surfaces such as metal, stone or pottery. A study of the inscriptions throws light on the language of the rulers, the years when they ruled, and the religious and social conditions of the people. For instance, the Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Harisena gives description of the Fig. 1.1: Inscription conquests of Samudragupta. A series of these collections called Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum has been published on the inscriptions relating to the ancient Indian history. Artefacts Artefacts are objects made by man, typically one of cultural or historical interest. They have a substantial connection to the past cultures. They reveal connections between the life in the past and now. Artefacts can be buttons, pots, jewellery or tools. The most ordinary objects can be a piece of historical evidence providing valuable information about the period. Fig. 1.2: Pot Monuments Historic monuments are living examples of ancient times. Various monuments such as palaces, forts, temples, victory pillars, tombs, etc. tell us about our glorious past. Excavations have been 4 carried out at Harappa, Taxila, Nalanda and Mohenjodaro. They help the historians in gathering information on social life, religious beliefs, economic prosperity, artistic skills and town planning of that era. Fossils Fossils are remains or impressions of prehistoric plants or animals embedded in rock and preserved in a solidified Fig. 1.3: Sanchi Stupa form. The study of fossils gives us details about plants and animals found in the ancient times, as well as about our human ancestors. Coins Coins are regarded as an important source material for reconstruction of ancient Indian history. Coins give us information which perhaps no other source does. For instance, the metal used in the coins indicates the advancement made in metallurgy during the period. They also throw light on the economic history of the era. Coins tell us about the territorial extent of the ruler as well as Fig. 1.4: Gold coins of Chandragupta II the chronology of a ruling dynasty. The images on the coins help us in interpreting the religious and cultural state of various ages. For example, the coins of Chandragupta II bear the figure of Goddess Lakshmi, whereas gold coins of his successor Kumargupta I show him as a devotee of God Kartikeya. Tickle Your Brain Archaeologists have found an ancient temple with carved puzzles and mind benders. One of the archaeologists claimed to have found some gold coins with 52 BCE written on it. Do you think he was telling the truth? Support your answer with appropriate reasons. Literary sources Written records are the most reliable sources of history. They tell us about the period and people to which they belong. Literary sources can be in two forms: as manuscripts or as textual literature. A manuscript is a document that is written by hand. Manuscripts give information about the lives of Fig. 1.5: Palm leaf manuscripts kings, religious beliefs and practices, medicine and science, etc. Manuscripts were written on metal, bark, palm leaf, cloth etc. Literary sources are broadly classified into religious literature and secular literature. 5 Religious literature Information about the social, political, cultural and religious life of people is known through the study of scriptures. They provide us with information about the social conditions and religious beliefs during Vedic and later Vedic period. The four Vedas – the Rig Veda, the Yajur Veda, the Sama Veda, and the Atharva Veda belong to the ancient religious texts. Other ancient texts comprise of the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas, the Upanishads, the Epics – Ramayana and Mahabharata, and the Puranas. The Jain texts composed in 6th century CE impart with the information on political history of present-day eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The religious books of the Buddhists provide information about the historical personalities and incidents. They throw light on the life of the Gautam Buddha and some of his contemporaries. Did You Know The Siribhoovalaya written by the Jain monk Kumudendu Muni, is probably the only literary work in numerals. It is written in the form of frames, each carrying 729 squares to represent alphabet in nearly 18 scripts and over 700 languages. Secular literature A large volume of secular literature also throws light on the socio-political life of ancient India. Secular sources include historical dramas, historical works, folk tales, accounts of foreign travellers, memoirs, biographies and autobiographies. Historical dramas, historical works and folk tales Traditions have modulated and synthesised the Indian life. Songs and drama are an integral part of the society. Folk tales are stories or legends based on common people’s life. Some of the famous folk tales are the Panchatantra, the Hitopadesha and the Jataka. The Arthashastra is one such source which depicts the state of society and economy during the age of Mauryas. The compositions of the writers such as Bhasa, Sudraka, and Kalidasa not only show the literary richness of the period, but also throw light on the social and cultural aspects of the society of the period. Panini’s Ashtadhayayi refers to republics and political events in ancient India. The Sangam literature was written in Tamil. It was produced over a period of three to four centuries by the poets who were patronised by the chiefs and the kings. It provides us with information on the various dynasties, their rulers, their territories as well as the wars and battles fought in the southern part of the Indian sub-continent. Accounts of foreign travellers Accounts written by the foreign travellers form important sources of history of India. Indika written by Megasthenes, Greek ambassador in the Mauryan court depicts the social and political situation of India during the period of Chandragupta Maurya. With the spread of Buddhism 6 in China, many Chinese pilgrims and travellers such as Fa Hien and Hiuen Tsang visited India. They have left important historical records which depict the history of India. However, the works written by foreign travellers have to be read with some caution, as some of the travellers made certain observations about India which are not correct. Possibly, in some instances, the foreigners failed to evaluate rightly the Indian way of life owing to their lack of knowledge about Indian languages and customs and hence the misrepresentation. Memoirs, Autobiographies and Biographies Memoirs are a written collection of one’s memories. An autobiography is a written account of one’s self while a biography is a detailed account of one’s life written by someone else. For instance, Harshacharita is the biography of Emperor Harshavardhan by Banabhatta. Vedic Neolithic Age Gupta Age Civilization 500000 BCE– 80000 BCE– 2700 BCE– 1500 BCE– 321 BCE– 600 BCE 10000 BCE 4000 BCE 1750 BCE 500 BCE 185 BCE Palaeolithic Indus Valley Rise of Age Civilization Mahajanapadas Global Connection The World’s Oldest Inscription The world’s oldest inscription was found in the Jiroft city, in the province of Kerman in Eastern Iran. It is believed to be around 5000 years old. The inscription is carved on a baked mud brick whose lower left corner has survived. The inscription is formed by geometric shapes. No linguist around the world has been Fig. 1.6: World’s oldest inscription able to decode it yet. Archaeologists are of the opinion that it is the most ancient written script discovered so far. It is also believed that the Elamite written language has its roots in Jiroft, where the writing system developed first. It was from Jiroft that the writing system spread across the country. These discoveries have led many people to believe that the Jiroft Civilization may predate the Sumerian Civilization. Word Galaxy canonist – an expert in canon law modulate – to change something, such as an action or a process, to make it more suitable for its situation 7 Concept Map ÌÞǣǼŸǋÞOĶ_ǋŎǣʰ ǋsĶÞ¶ÞŸȖǣ ÌÞǣǼŸǋÞOĶɠŸǋĨǣ ĶÞǼsǋǼȖǋs ĶÞǼsǋǋɴ ɠÌǼÞǣÌÞǣǼŸǋɴʷ Ř_¯ŸĶĨǼĶsǣ ǣŸȖǋOsǣ ǣsOȖĶǋ OOŸȖŘǼǣŸ¯ ɠÌɴ_Ÿɠs ĶÞǼsǋǼȖǋs ¯ŸǋsÞ¶ŘǼǋɚsĶĶsǋǣ ǣǼȖ_ɴÌÞǣǼŸǋɴʷ ŎsŎŸÞǋǣʰ ŘOÞsŘǼ ƼǋsÌÞǣǼŸǋɴʰ ȖǼŸEÞŸ¶ǋƼÌÞsǣ ƼsǋÞŸ_ÞʊǼÞŸŘ ƼǋŸǼŸ˚ÌÞǣǼŸǋɴʰÌÞǣǼŸǋɴ Ŏs_ÞsɚĶ Ř_EÞŸ¶ǋƼÌÞsǣ ǊsOŸŘǣǼǋȖOǼÞŘ¶ Ÿ¯ÌÞǣǼŸǋɴ ËÞǣǼŸǋɴ ŎŸ_sǋŘ ÞŘǣOǋÞƼǼÞŸŘǣ OĶOȖĶǼÞŘ¶ǼÞŎs ǋǼs¯OǼǣ ǋOÌsŸĶŸ¶ÞOĶ ŎŸŘȖŎsŘǼǣ ǣŸȖǋOsǣ ÌŸɠ_Þ_ÝŘ_Þ¶sǼÞǼǣŘŎsʷ ¯ŸǣǣÞĶǣ ÞŘ¯ĶȖsŘOsŸ¯¶sŸ¶ǋƼÌɴ OŸÞŘǣ ŸŘÌÞǣǼŸǋɴŸ¯ÝŘ_Þ Let’s Exercise 1. Choose the appropriate option. a) are the people who study the past in a systematic manner and reconstruct history. i) Historians ii) Mathematicians iii) Geographers iv) Scientists b) The Sangam literature was written in. i) Tamil ii) Telugu iii) Malayalam iv) Odiya c) Coins of bear the figure of Goddess Lakshmi. i) Chandragupta II ii) Kumargupta I iii) Panini iv) Megasthenes 2. Fill in the blanks. a) A series of collection of inscriptions called have been published related to ancient Indian history. b) are a written collection of one’s memories. c) The name was used to refer a group of people who lived in Northwest part of India. 8 3. Match the columns. Column A Column B a) Harshacharita i) Kumudendu Muni b) Indika ii) Panini c) Siribhoovalaya iii) Megasthenes d) Astadhayayi iv) Banabhatta 4. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words. a) Define history. b) Name the four Vedas. c) What information do the Jain texts provide? d) What are manuscripts? 5. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words. a) Write a brief note on periodization of history. b) How did India get its name? c) How did the rivers help to grow the large kingdoms? 6. Give reasons. a) It is important to study history. b) The works by foreign travellers have to be read with some caution. c) Coins are regarded as an important source material for reconstruction of ancient Indian history. 7. Picture Study a) Identify the monument. b) How do monuments help in the reconstruction of history? 8. If you get the opportunity to study a source,  Which source will you select to study? Why?  How will you plan and organise your findings? 9. Life Skills Many foreign travellers visited India during the ancient times. What values does it depict about the society of those times? 9 Do it to know it! 10. Creative Writing: Write an Acrostic Poem using the word ‘History’. An acrostic poem is where you choose a word for every alphabet of the given ‘word’. These words report or tell us about the ‘word’. 11. Field Trip: Plan a class visit to museum. Ask the students to make notes of the exhibits they see in the museum and share the experience in the class. 12. KWL Chart: Complete the table after reading the chapter. What do You Know about What do You Want to Know What did You Learn about Sources of History? about Sources of History? Sources of History? People Who Made History Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni was the first Indian to be qualified in the modern archaeological excavation techniques. He was chosen for the archaeological scholarship introduced by Lord Curzon, who wanted best Indian scholars for archaeological work. He became an assistant under Sir John Marshall, who was on the mission of carrying out systematic campaign of excavations in India. He carried out important excavations at many sites like Avantipur, Parihaspur and Rai Bahadur Hushkur in Kashmir, the Hindu and Buddhist monuments in United Daya Ram Sahni Provinces and Punjab. He, later, led a chain of excavations at Harappa. This served as the basis of our knowledge of one of the earliest cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. He was bestowed the title of CIE (Companions of the Order of the Indian Empire) in 1935. WEBLINKS http://www.historydiscussion.net/history-of-india/sources-of-ancient-indian-history- history/6482 https://www.youthkiawaaz.com/2017/05/india-bharat-and-hindustan-meanings-and- connotations/ As on 30/04/2019 10 2. The Early Humans Let’s Learn  Prehistoric humans  Stone Age  Anthropologists and archaeologists  From stone to metals  Dating techniques  Megaliths  Migration of early humans Tune In Read the poem and state what the poem is about. Aaid maanava Kaojata AnaajaÊ ifr Aagao baZ, calata vah baZ,ta calato calato. vaatavarNa kao dUiYat na krko. na[- jagah pr Éka ek plaÊ Aaja ka maanava Apnao AhM maoMÊ doK fsalaoM jaI Bar ko. BaUla cauka hO Apnaa kla. ApnaI saarI AavaSyakta kI kla ]sao isaKayaa qaa ijasanao Barpa[- krkoÊ CaoTI samasyaaAaoM ka hla. Prehistoric Humans Human evolution is a very long process of change by which people evolved from ape-like non-human primates. Evidence reveals that physical and behavioural characteristics shared by all humanes originated from ape like ancestors and developed over million years. The British naturalist, Charles Darwin, has written books, On the Origin of Species (1859), and The Descent of Man (1871) on the nature of our evolutionary relationships. Anthropologists and Archaeologists The primary resources for describing the human evolution process are fossil specimens. The fossils of early human and archaeological remains are the crucial evidence of the early past. It includes tools, bones and other evidence such as footprints left by early humans. Generally, these remains are buried naturally and preserved for many years. They are either discovered on the surface or by digging in the ground. Size and shape of a bone and markings left by muscles help the anthropologists in knowing how the early people moved and held tools. They also determine the physical structure, the size of the early humans’ brains and how it changed over time by studying fossilized bones. Archaeological evidences are those things that are made by the early people and the places where archaeologists discover them. By carefully studying 11 such evidences, archaeologists can find out how the early humans made and used tools and lived in their surroundings. Did You Know In India, the oldest fossil has been recovered from the rocks in the Narmada Valley which is around 7,00,000 years old. Dating Techniques The layers that contain fossils and archaeological clues can be dated by various techniques. The important ones are Radio-Carbon dating, Thermo Luminescence dating, Potassium-Argon dating and Electron Spin Resonance dating.  The Radio-Carbon dating technique is used for dating those remains which are associated with all living things.  The Thermo Luminescence dating technique is used for materials such as pottery and terracotta that have been baked.  The Potassium-Argon dating technique is used for volcanic rocks.  The Electron Spin Resonance dating technique is employed for dating bones and shells. Fig. 2.1: Stages in Evolution of Human Migration of Early Humans Humans not only first evolved in Africa but much of human evolution also took place there. The fossilized remains of early people who lived between 6 million and 2 million years ago are entirely found in Africa. They first wandered out of Africa into Asia possibly sometime between 2 million and 1.8 million years ago. They came to Europe between 1.5 million and 1 million years ago. Subsequently species of modern humans lived in different parts of the world much later. For example, they first entered Australia possibly within the past 60,000 years and America within the past 30,000 years or so. 12 Did You Know ‘Ardi’ is the name given to a skeleton excavated from the Ethiopian desert. According to scientists, Ardi lived more than a million years before ‘Lucy’, 3.2 million-year-old fossil of an early human ancestor. Ardi lived 4.4 million years ago in the East African forest. She was about 121.9 cm tall and weighed 49.89 kg. She had long arms, short legs, and her big toe helped her in scaling the branches. She did most of her work on trees such as eating, sleeping and even raising her young ones. Stone Age Gradually, man used tools, started living in caves, hunted animals, lived in settlements and finally became the man of the modern age. On the basis of stone tools used by man, the Stone Age is divided into three periods: Palaeolithic Age, Mesolithic Age and Neolithic Age. Palaeolithic Age Neolithic Age 500000 BCE–10000 BCE 10000 BCE–8000 BCE 8000 BCE–4000 BCE Mesolithic Age Palaeolithic Age Mesolithic Age Neolithic Age or Old Stone Age or Middle Stone Age or New Stone Age Period 500000 BCE–10000 BCE 10000 BCE–8000 BCE 8000 BCE–4000 BCE Stone Palaeolithic human used Mesolithic human used Neolithic human used Tools crude and unpolished advanced flint tools improved stone tools. The stone tools. Large known as microliths. tools were well shaped stones were shaped The tools were sharper, and polished. The tools into hammers and axe smaller and more were used for cutting head. Tools were used effective than those plants, fruits and meat. for Cutting trees, killing used in Palaeolithic Age. Tools such as sickle blades and skinning animals, Animal bones and horns and grinding stones were chopping and digging were used to make used for harvesting and up roots. tools. processing of crops. 13 Palaeolithic Age Mesolithic Age Neolithic Age or Old Stone Age or Middle Stone Age or New Stone Age Stone Tools Food Palaeolithic human was Hunting and food Cultivated cereal crops a food gatherer and gathering continued to such as wheat and barley. hunter. He hunted wild be the main source of Domesticated animals animals, collected wild food. such as goats, cattle and fruits and did fishing sheep provided them for meeting his food with a regular supply of requirements. milk and meat. Place of Palaeolithic human did Lived in simple houses Lived in houses made up Shelter not build houses. He made up of straws. of sun dried and burnt lived either on treetops brick houses. or caves. Clothing Palaeolithic human wore Wore barks of trees, Developed the art of barks of trees, leaves and leaves and animal skin spinning and weaving. animal skin to protect to protect themselves Clothes made of woolen themselves from heat, from heat, cold and rain. and linen were used. cold and rain. Social Life Palaeolithic human Mesolithic human made Neolithic human lived moved in small groups a move to live a settled a settled life. He lived in and led a nomadic life. life. small tribes of 150–2000 people. Economic Hunting and Food Hunting and food Agriculture was started in Life Gathering. gathering. The period Neolithic Age. Bullocks, marked the beginning donkeys and horses were of animal husbandry. used to plough the fields. 14 Palaeolithic Age Mesolithic Age Neolithic Age or Old Stone Age or Middle Stone Age or New Stone Age Special Fire was discovered by Animals such as goats, Wheel was invented Features the Palaeolithic human. It sheep and dogs were during this period, which proved to be a significant domesticated. New marked a major milestone discovery for the early things such as fishing in the evolutionary history humans. Fire provided tackles and bows were of humankind. The wheel light and kept them invented to make their was used to make pottery, warm. It was also used lives easier. transportation of heavy to scare wild animals. It objects as well as humans. further helped to cook Clay pots were made and food. Cave painting even decorated with floral was yet another special or geometrical designs. feature of the Palaeolithic These pots were used to Age. Palaeolithic human store grains, water and produced works of art for cooking food. such as animal carvings, cave paintings and rock paintings. Source Study Human beings practised the oldest art forms such as painting and drawing to express themselves. They used cave walls as their canvas. Paintings depicting human figures, human activities, religious symbols and animals and hunting scenes have been found on the cave walls.  What information can you obtained from the given cave painting? Discuss in class. Rapid Round 1. By which techniques are the layers containing fossils and archaeological clues dated? 2. How is the Stone Age period classified? 3. In which age was the wheel invented? 15 From Stones to Metals Chalcolithic Age The Chalcolithic Age replaced the Neolithic Age. The Chalcolithic Age was distinguished by the use of stone and copper tools. Hence the name, Chalcolithic, was given meaning the copper-stone age. It is often referred to as ‘proto-historic’ as it was different from the Stone Age which lacked the knowledge of metal Fig. 2.2: Stone and copper tools and script. The use of copper led to the making of metal artefacts. Houses were either circular or rectangular on plain. The houses usually had only one room but multi-roomed houses also existed as is evident at Inamgaon near Pune. The houses used to be plastered with cow dung and lime. Sketch Map not to Scale, An Artist's Impression Fig. 2.3: Prehistoric Sites in India 16 Farming, hunting and fishing were some of the different occupations followed by the Chalcolithic people. They reared cattle, sheep, goats, buffaloes and pigs, which were also slaughtered for food. Crops such as wheat, rice, bajra, jowar, millets, ragi, green pea, lentil, green gram and black gram were grown. Painted pottery was an important feature of the Chalcolithic period. The pottery ranges from red ware, deep red ware to deep brown and black, pictographic red and black and polished red ware found from the Chalcolithic sites. The burial practice was yet another remarkable feature. The dead were buried in a particular direction all over a particular area. Megaliths The practice of erecting Megaliths, literally meaning big stones, started around 3000 years ago. People carefully put together the stone boulders to mark burial sites. This practice was prevalent in the north-east, Deccan, Kashmir and South India. The megaliths are often found underground but some can also be seen on the surface. Archaeologists discovered a circle of boulders or a large stone standing on the ground indicates that there are burials Fig. 2.4: Megalithic Burial beneath. These burials have certain common features. Usually, the dead were buried with pots called as black and red ware. Several tools, skeletons of horses, weapons of iron and ornaments of stone and gold have also been found. Did You Know The practice of Megalithic culture of buildings continued well into the historic period and survives even to present-day in a symbolic form among the Lingayat community in Karnataka. Case Studies Palaeolithic site in India Hunsgi Palaeolithic remains have been found in Hunsgi region in Gulbarga district in Karnataka. The site is situated on the banks of the Hunsgi, a tributary of the Krishna. The tools found in Hunsgi are mostly made up of various kinds of stones including limestone, sandstone, quartzite, dolerite and chert. In one of the excavated sites, huge granite blocks were arranged around 63 square metre areas. 17 Neolithic sites in India Sarutaru Sarutaru is a small town situated at 25 km southeast of Guwahati and the Neolithic site lies on the top of a small hillock about 125 m high. Archaeological remains reveal different artefacts such as the ground stone celts and potsherds. Numerous potsherds have been retrieved from the site. Handmade pottery made of clay and quartz particles have been found. Burzahom Burzahom is located 16 km northeast of Srinagar and situated about 1800 m above sea-level. Archaeologists have also found traces of pit-houses that sheltered people in cold weather. These were dug into the soil below ground level with steps leading into them. Cooking hearths were found both inside and outside the houses. It suggests that people used to cook food either indoors or outdoors depending on the weather. Other finds include different types of earthen pots. These were used for cooking food and storing things. At times, these were decorated. Besides, people used variety of materials such as cotton to weave cloth. Chalcolithic site in India Inamgaon The ancient site at Inamgaon is located on the right bank of the river Ghod, a tributary of the Bhima. It is a widespread site, consisting of five mounds forming a rough semicircle, spread over an area of 65 acres. The Inamgaon excavations have lessened the gap between the Chalcolithic phase and the early historic period by almost three centuries. According to archaeological evidence, the first cultural contact to the site was of the people from Central India, called the Malwa people. The adults were buried in a small pit just large enough for the purpose and were oriented in a North-South direction. A bowl and a spouted vessel were found along with the burial. Vessels containing food and water were also placed in the pit. The burials were found within the habitation area, either inside or in the courtyard of the house. Global Connection The Aborigines of Australia According to archaeologists, the first humans went across the ocean from South-East to Australia around 70,000 years ago. At that time the sea level was 50 metres lower than it is now. The aborigines could travel over to Australia as there was less water. The word ‘aborigines’ mean ‘the first or the earliest known’. The word is used to describe people who lived there, natives or old habitants. The aborigines usually lived in the desert, inland non-desert areas, the coast and Tasmania. The aborigines who lived in the desert or inland ate fruits, insects, birds, reptiles and mammals. The aborigines lived on the coastal area ate roots, fruit, small animals, reptiles, fish and shellfish. 18 Aborigines were natives to Australia and Tasmania. Their skin and hair were both dark. Aboriginal tribes were nomadic, moving to watering places and setting up camp there. Aborigines lived in family groups and clans. Each clan had a place on their land where their spirits were believed to return when they die. The men were custodians, tool-makers, and hunters. The women not only took care of the children but also gathered and made their food. Word Galaxy evolution – the way in which living things change and develop over millions of years habitation – the act of living in a building potsherd – a broken piece of ceramic material, especially one found on an archaeological site primates – any animal that belong to the group which include human and animal monkey without a tail Concept Map Megaliths prehistoric humans Chalcolithic Age anthropologists and from stone archaeologists to metals The Early Humans Palaeolithic Age dating techniques Mesolithic Age stone age migration of early humans Neolithic Age Let’s Exercise 1. Choose the appropriate option. a) dating technique is used for materials that have been baked, such as pottery and terracotta. i) Radio-Carbon ii) Thermo Luminescence iii) Potassium-Argon iv) Electron Spin Resonance b) is the name given to a skeleton excavated from the Ethiopian desert. i) Lucy ii) Habidu iii) Ardi iv) Dolly 19 c) The ancient site at is located on the right bank of the river Ghod, a tributary of the Bhima. i) Sarutaru ii) Burzahom iii) Hunsgi iv) Inamgaon 2. Fill in the blanks. a) Age was distinguished by the use of stone and copper tools. b) Fire was discovered by the human. c) Mesolithic Age marked the beginning of. d) The practice of erecting started around 3000 years ago. 3. Match the columns. Column A Column B a) Sarutaru i) Palaeolithic site b) Hunsgi ii) Chalcolithic site c) Inamgaon iii) Neolithic site 4. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words. a) Where has the oldest fossil been recovered in India? b) Write about the clothing of the Mesolithic humans? c) Where did the Neolithic humans live? d) List the crops grown during the Chalcolithic Age. 5. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words. a) How do the anthropologists help in the study about early humans? b) Discuss the different types of dating techniques. c) Explain the migration of early humans. d) Distinguish between the stone tools of Palaeolithic Age and Mesolithic Age. e) State the special features of the Neolithic Age. 6. Picture Study a) Identify the picture. b) Why was this erected? c) Write a brief note on it. 20 7. According to Martin Luther King Jr., “Human progress is neither automatic nor inevitable... Every step towards the goal of justice requires sacrifice, suffering, and struggle.” Explain the statement in the context with the progress done by the early humans. 8. Life Skills “If there is no struggle, there is no progress.” Recollect any incident from your life which supports the statement. Write what did you learn from the incident. Do it to know it! 9. Art Frenzy: Create a storyboard illustrating the life of an early human. 10. Research Work: Find out if there is any prehistoric site near your city or town. Make a fact file on the same. People Who Made History Charles Robert Darwin Charles Robert Darwin was born on 12 February 1809 in Shrewsbury, England. The British naturalist’s theory of evolution by natural selection became the foundation of modern evolutionary studies. He suggested that animals and humans shared a common descent. Darwin was an atheist who put forth this theory first in 1837–1839. After two decades, he wrote it down in his book ‘On the Origin of Species’. The book left a deep impression on modern western society and thought. Charles Robert Darwin WEBLINKS https://www.inrap.fr/en/periods http://history-world.org/stone_age.htm As on 30/04/2019 21 3. Indus Valley Civilization Let’s Learn  What is Civilization?  Main features  Why the ancient civilizations  Case Study – Towns in Gujarat grow near the river banks?  Probable causes for the decline  Location and extent of the civilization Tune In  You have joined a new social club. You come across two individuals in the club. One is wearing well ironed clothes, with neatly combed hair and polished shoes; while the other one is wearing shabby, dirty clothes, with uncombed hair and dirty shoes. Whom would you like to get acquainted with? Why? What is Civilization? The term ‘civilization’ is derived from Latin words civitas meaning courteousness and civilis meaning relating to a citizen. Civilization can be defined as ‘the stage of human social development and organization which is considered most advanced’. According to Sir Edward Tylor, civilization is the result of progress in the society from hunting and collecting, through simple farming to a complex society. A society is called civilization if it has the following characteristics: large urban centres; unique art and architecture styles; written language; systems for administering territories; specialisation of labour; and class structured society. Why did the Ancient Civilizations grow near the river banks? The early civilizations sprung up near river banks; hence they came to be known as River Valley Civilizations or Riverine Civilizations. These civilizations developed near the river banks for various reasons.  Large populations migrated to river valleys, as the area had surplus food and water.  River banks were used for fishing and hunting as the wild animals used to come to river banks to drink water. People got the opportunity to do jobs other than farming.  Annual floods near the rivers spread silt across the valleys. Silt makes the valleys fertile for crops to grow in.  Rivers were used for irrigation. Irrigation brought water to dry areas and led to surplus farming.  Transportation became easier. 22  Rivers also served as a natural barrier since it protected the area from surprise invasion from across the river.  The period of the River Valley Civilizations is also known as the Bronze Age as most of the material used during this period was made up of bronze. This played an important role in the growth of the civilizations. The main River Valley Civilizations were Mesopotamian Civilization, Egyptian Civilization, Indus Civilization and Chinese Civilization. We shall study about the Indus Valley Civilization in this chapter. Location and Extent Sketch Map not to Scale, An Artist's Impression Fig. 3.1: Important sites of the Indus Valley Civilization 23 The Indus Valley Civilization thrived on the banks of river Indus located in the present-day Pakistan and North-Western India. In 1921, R. B. Daya Ram Sahni discovered ancient ruins of Harappa and in 1922, Mohenjodaro or the ‘Mound of the Dead’ was discovered by R. D. Banerjee. Since, the first city to be excavated was city of Harappa, Indus Valley Civilization is also known as the Harappan Civilization. According to archaeological excavations, Indus Valley Civilization extended over a large part which included the present-day states of India such as Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, Western Uttar Pradesh as well as Pakistan. Some important sites of this civilization are: Harappa in present-day Pakistan; Mohenjodaro in Sind (Pakistan); Ropar in Punjab, Kalibangan in Rajasthan; Lothal, Surkotada and Dholavira in Gujarat; Banawali and Rakhigarhi in Haryana and Alamgirpur in Uttar Pradesh. Rapid Round 1. List the river valley civilizations. 2. Who discovered Harappa? 3. Which city of the Indus Valley Civilization means ‘Mound of the Dead’? The Indus Valley Civilization 2700 BCE 1750 BCE Main Features Town planning Harappan cities demonstrated a good sense of civil planning and organisation. The city was divided into two parts namely the Citadel and the Lower Town. Each part was surrounded by walls of baked bricks. The Citadel accommodated significant civic and religious public buildings such as Great Bath, residences of the ruling classes, etc. The Lower Town had a larger residential area and was meant for the common people. The houses were arranged in a grid pattern with streets cutting across one another almost at right angles. Thus, the city was divided into many rectangular blocks. The main roads were very wide. The discovery of wooden fossils indicates that probably lamp posts were installed on the roads. Houses Each Block consisted of twenty to thirty houses. The houses were constructed on both sides of the roads. The presence of a staircase indicates the existence of a second storey. Most houses were spacious. They had courtyards and attached bathrooms. Some houses had wells situated in the backyard of the houses. The houses were built at a certain distance from each other to ensure sufficient ventilation. They were erected on raised plinths to protect against the flooding of rivers. 24 Drainage system The Indus Valley Civilization had a very well-planned underground drainage system. It was constructed to dispose of the waste and rain water out of town. Drains in houses were connected to the street drains which were equipped with manholes at regular intervals for cleaning. Bricks and stone slabs were used to cover the drains. This shows that the Harappan people paid great attention to health and cleanliness. Fig. 3.2: Drainage system Fig. 3.3: Great Bath Important structures Great Bath The most important public place in Mohenjodaro was the Great Bath, comprising the tank situated in the Citadel. The tank itself measured 39 feet long, 23 feet broad and about 8 feet deep. It was constructed with bricks, coated with plaster and a layer of natural tar that made it water-tight. There were steps at either end leading down to the bath. Rooms were constructed on sides for changing clothes. Water was probably drawn from a well to fill the bath. There were provisions made to drain out used water. It is believed that the Great Bath was intended used for religious ceremonies. Granary Excavations suggest that granaries played a vital role in the Indus Valley Civilization. The largest building at Harappa is the Granary. It measures 169 feet by 135 feet which include two similar blocks with an aisle between them. Each block comprised six halls. Discovery of circular brick platforms near the granaries shows that these were used to thresh grains such as wheat and barley. Economic conditions The Indus people cultivated crops such as wheat, barley, Did You Know legumes, rice, etc. No ploughshare has been discovered The Indus people were the earliest but furrows discovered at Kalibangan indicate that fields people to produce cotton. were ploughed. Perhaps, Harappans used the wooden plough drawn by oxen, and camels. Gabarbands or nalas enclosed by dams were used for 25 storing water. These were found in parts of Baluchistan and Afghanistan. Buffaloes, oxen, sheep, goat, were some of the animals domesticated by the people of Indus valley. Trade contacts The importance of trade in the life of the Indus people is supported by the number of seals, weights, measures, granaries and uniform script found at Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Lothal. The Harappans had trade relations with Afghanistan and Iran. Harappan seals have been discovered in Mesopotamia. Mesopotamian texts from about 2350 BCE indicate trade relations between the two civilizations. They did not use metal money and perhaps carried exchanges through barter system. Tin, silver and gold were brought from Afghanistan. Did You Know The rise of towns in the Indus was based on agricultural surplus, the making of bronze tools, various crafts and widespread trade and commerce. This is known as the first urbanisation in India. Art and craft The Harappan artisans made beautiful images of metal, the most famous being a dancing girl made of bronze. There were many figurines made of terracotta. They were either used as toys or objects of worship. They represented birds, dogs, sheep, cattle and monkeys. The statue of Priest king made of steatite exhibits the artistic skills of the Harappan artisans. Fig. 3.4: Dancing girl Fig. 3.5: Pashupati seal Fig. 3.6: Priest king Seals Seals are most distinct relic of Indus Valley Civilization. They were made of steatite and faience and generally square and rectangular in shape. They had animal motifs, different signs and symbols on it. The most famous Harappan seals are ‘Unicorn seal’ and ‘Pashupati seal’ discovered at Mohenjodaro. The latter depicts a horned deity, probably Shiva Pashupati, sitting in a yogic posture. He is surrounded by animals – an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros, a buffalo. Two antelopes can be seen under the throne. Bead making Variety of beads have been discovered from different Harappan sites in abundance. Beads made of gold, copper, silver, shell and semi-precious stones were known. Beads were made 26 from locally available raw materials. Plenty of shell objects were excavated from coastal sites such as Lothal, Balakot and Nageshwar, among others. The material used for making beads were cut in different shapes and sizes such as disc shaped, spherical, cylindrical, barrel shaped, segmented with the help of specific stone tools. Pottery Harappan pottery is one of the finest specimens of Harappan art. They were chiefly made of wheel bright or dark red in colour and well baked. Both plain and painted potteries were found. Plain varieties of pottery were more common. Different types of pottery such as polychrome, glazed, perforated, incised and knobbed were known to Harappan people. Generally flora, fauna, geometrical Fig. 3.7: Pieces of pottery designs and scenes from forest life were illustrated on the potteries. Social life Food Wheat was the staple food but barley and palm-dates were also eaten. People also consumed mutton, pork, fish and eggs. Dress and ornaments Clothes made of cotton fabrics were commonly used but wool was also used. Both men and women of all classes wore ornaments. The men wore something similar to dhoti and women wore skirt. Both men and women wore shawls on the upper body. The art of stitching may be known to them as a needle and thread were discovered at Harappa. Ornaments such as necklaces, armlets, fillets, finger-rings and bangles were worn by both men and women; whereas nose studs, girdles, anklets and ear-rings by women alone. These ornaments were made of gold, ivory, silver, copper and both precious and semi-precious stones such as crystal, jade, agate, carnelian and lapis lazuli. Fig. 3.8: Jewellery in Indus Valley Fig. 3.9: Mother Goddess figurine 27 Religion The archaeological evidences at Mohenjodaro tell us about the religious beliefs of the Indus people. Many figurines of the Mother Goddess have been found. It shows that the cult of the Divine Mother was prevalent. One seal found has an image similar to Lord Shiva (Pashupati). Animism was also practiced by the people of Indus Valley. Animism means worshipping animals, trees and stones believing that they possess spirit or soul. Scripts The earliest known system of writing is found on the seals used by the people of Indus Valley Civilization dating to about circa 2600 BCE. However, this script is not yet deciphered and hence the contents of these inscriptions are unknown. Rapid Round 1. What was the most important public place in Mohenjodaro? 2. What were the seals made of? 3. List the countries having trade relationship with Harappans. Case Study – Towns in Gujarat Lothal The city of Lothal in Gujarat, close to the Gulf of Khambat was located near regions where semi-precious stones were found easily. Hence, it was a significant centre for manufacturing objects out of shell, stone and metal. Discovery of many seals and sealings show that there was even a store house situated in the city. A building that was found here was perhaps a workshop for manufacturing beads. Tools for bead making, pieces of stone, half made beads and finished beads have been found. Fig. 3.10: Lothal: General view Fig. 3.11: Dholavira: General view of of excavated remains excavated remains 28 Dholavira Dholavira was situated on Khadir beyt, an island in the Rann of Kutch in Gujarat, where fertile soil and fresh water was available. Unlike other cities of Harappa which were separated into two parts, Dholavira was separated into three parts. Massive stone walls surrounded each part, with entrances through gateways. A large open area in the settlement indicates that public ceremonies were held there. Large letters of the Indus script were some of the other findings. These were carved out of white stone and probably inlaid in wood. This is a unique discovery because usually Harappan writing has found on various small objects such as seals. Probable Causes for the Decline of the Civilization There is an ambiguity surrounding the circumstances that led to the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization. There are various theories that state the possible causes of its decline.  According to some historians, Indus Valley Civilization was destroyed due to the Aryan invasion. The Aryan invaders would have possibly destroyed the cities of the Indus Valley Civilization.  According to another theory, the climatic changes would have led to the decline of the cities. Perhaps, the rivers Indus and Ravi changed their courses due to which the cities were completely wiped out. Probably, the frequent flooding of these rivers made it difficult for the people to live. In course of time, the cities perhaps got buried under the earth. Global Connection Other River Valley Civilizations of the Bronze Age Mesopotamian Civilization Egyptian Civilization Chinese Civilization Rivers Tigris and Euphrates Nile Huang He Period Circa 3500 BCE–500 BCE 3000 BCE–1100 BCE Circa 1700 BCE–300 BCE Special Cuneiform, irrigation, wheel, Hieroglyphics, pyramids, Writing, silk, coined Features sail, plough mathematics, geometry money, cast iron and medicine Word Galaxy barter system – exchange (goods or services) for other goods or services without using money silt – sand or soil that is carried along by flowing water and then dropped, especially at a bend in a river or at a river’s opening 29 Concept Map ɟÌǼÞǣOÞɚÞĶÞʊǼÞŸŘʷ ƼǋŸEEĶsOȖǣsǣ¯ŸǋǼÌs ɟÌɴ_Þ_ǼÌsŘOÞsŘǼOÞɚÞĶÞʊǼÞŸŘǣ _sOĶÞŘsŸ¯ǼÌsOÞɚÞĶÞʊǼÞŸŘ ¶ǋŸɠŘsǋǼÌsǋÞɚsǋEŘĨǣʷ ǼŸɠŘƼĶŘŘÞŘ¶ ĶŸOǼÞŸŘ ÝŘ_ȖǣəĶĶsɴ Ř_sɮǼsŘǼ NÞɚÞĶÞʊǼÞŸŘ ÌŸȖǣsǣ ĵŸǼÌĶ NǣsǢǼȖ_ɴ˚ _ǋÞŘ¶sǣɴǣǼsŎ ǼŸɠŘǣÞŘµȖĠǋǼ ^ÌŸĶɚÞǋ ŎÞŘ¯sǼȖǋsǣ µǋsǼDǼÌ ÞŎƼŸǋǼŘǼǣǼǋȖOǼȖǋsǣ µǋŘǋɴ sOŸŘŸŎÞOOŸŘ_ÞǼÞŸŘǣ Ǽǋ_sOŸŘǼOǼǣ ǋǼŘ_Oǋ¯Ǽ ǣsĶǣʰEs_ŎĨÞŘ¶ʰ ƼŸǼǼsǋɴ ǣŸOÞĶĶÞ¯s ¯ŸŸ_ʰ_ǋsǣǣŘ_ŸǋŘŎsŘǼǣʰ ǋsĶÞ¶ÞŸŘʰǣOǋÞƼǼǣ Let’s Exercise 1. Choose the appropriate option. a) Clothes made of fabrics were commonly usedby the Indus people. i) cotton ii) linen iii) silk iv) jute b) was situated on Khadir beyt, an island in the Rann of Kutch in Gujarat. i) Lothal ii) Alamgirpur iii) Banawali iv) Dholavira c) means worshipping animals, trees and stones believing that they possess spirit or soul. i) Tribal rituals ii) Agnosticism iii) Animism iv) Atheism 2. Fill in the blanks. a) was the staple food of the Indus people. b) In 1922, R. D. Banerjee discovered or ‘Mound of the Dead.’ c) enclosed by dams were used for storing water. 30 3. Match the columns. Column A Column B a) Lothal i) Rajasthan b) Citadel ii) Great Bath c) Lower Town iii) Gujarat d) Kalibangan iv) larger residential area 4. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words. a) Define Civilization. b) Why is the Indus Valley Civilization also known as the Harappan Civilization? c) State the four features of a civilization. d) Why is the age of the River Valley Civilizations is also known as the Bronze Age? 5. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words. a) Write a brief note on the Great Bath. b) Discuss the trade in the Indus Valley Civilization. c) Write about the pottery of the Indus Valley Civilization. d) Describe the dress and the ornaments worn by the people of the Indus Valley Civilization. e) What are the various reasons of the possible decline of the Indus Valley Civilization? 6. Give reasons. a) The Ancient Civilizations grew near the river banks. b) Seals are most distinct relic of Indus Valley Civilization. 7. Indus Valley Civilization had trade relations with other foreign countries. How, according to you, would they have communicated with each other? 8. Life Skills The Indus Valley Civilization had an elaborate drainage system. What does it demonstrate about the values of the people of those times? Do it to know it! 9. Creative Writing: Imagine yourself living during the Indus Valley Civilization era. Write a letter to your friend staying in Egypt describing the beautiful art and craft artefacts found in your area. 31 10. Comparative Study: The bath in Ancient Rome was also known as the Great Bath. Find out the similarities and difference between the two Great Baths. People Who Made History Rakhal Das Banerjee Rakhal Das Banerjee, archaeologist and historian, was the Superintendent of Western and Eastern Circles of the Archaeological Survey of India from 1917 to 1926. He was the first to discover Mohenjo-daro in 1922–1923. This momentous discovery helped in tracing the history of Indian Civilization 5000 years back. His other important excavation is that of Paharpur in present-day Bangladesh, Rakhal Das Banerjee which provides information on the famous Somapur Vihar, built during 8th century CE. He held the post of Head of the Department of Ancient Indian History and Culture of Banaras Hindu University from 1928 to 1930. He is also known for his work in the field of epigraphy, paleography, numismatics, Indian art and history of India. WEBLINKS http://knowindia.gov.in/culture-and-heritage/ancient-history.php https://www.harappa.com/slideshows As on 30/04/2019 32 4. The Vedic Age Let’s Learn  The origin of the Aryans  The Early and the Later  Sources Vedic Period Tune In  Have you seen a movie or a drama based on the Ramayana or the Mahabharata?  What difference can you find in the society during those times and today’s time? The Origin of the Aryans Around 1500 BCE, the Indus Valley Civilization started declining. Around the same time, Aryans started migrating to India. According to many historians, Aryans were a group of people who migrated from Central Asia. As their population grew, they were compelled to leave their original home in search of new shelters and new grazing land. They wandered in different locations. Those who migrated to India came to be known as Indo-Aryans. The Aryans entered India through the Khyber Pass. The migration took place in several stages and over several centuries. They came into conflict with the local people called Dasyus. The Dasyus fought valiantly; however, they yielded before the superior might of the Aryans. Most of the Dasyus became dasas (slaves) of the conquerors. They were admitted into the Aryan society as the Shudras. The Aryans first settled in the Sapta Sindhu region, that is, the region of seven rivers. The seven rivers were the Indus, the Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas, the Satlaj and the Saraswati. They named this region Brahmavarta which means the Land of the gods. Later, they started moving towards the East and conquered territories till the Ganga- Yamuna plains. They then started calling the area as Aryavarta or the Land of the Aryans. The Vedic Age is divided into two periods. The period between 1500 BCE and 1000 BCE, during which the Aryans lived in the Brahmavarta is known as the Early Vedic period. The period from 1000 BCE to 500 BCE, during which the Aryans resided in the Aryavarta is known as the Later Vedic period. Sources Vedic Literature The information about the life of the Aryans is mainly derived from the various sacred books. These are collectively known as the Vedic literature. The Vedic literature includes the Vedas, the Upvedas, the Epics (the Ramayana and the Mahabharata) and Puranas. 33 The word Veda means knowledge. The Vedas are known as store house of knowledge as they contain information on political, social, economic, religious and cultural life of the Aryans. The Vedas are written in Sanskrit. There are four Vedas – Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and the Atharva Veda.  The Rig Veda is a set of hymns.  The Sama Veda is a compilation of songs mainly taken from Rig Veda.  The Yajur Veda contain of sacrificial formulae.  The Atharva Veda is a collection of spells and magical charms. The Vedas were the first oral traditions that were passed down from generation to generation for several centuries. Each of the Vedas is divided into four parts, namely, the Samhitas, the Brahmanas, the Upanishads and the Aranyakas.  The Samhitas are collection of mantras or hymns.  The Brahmanas are prose texts which contain details about the meaning of Vedic hymns and rituals.  The Upanishads are the philosophical commentaries on the Vedas.  The Aranyakas are written for the guidance of the hermits and the students living in the forests. They formed the concluding part of the Brahmanas. Did You Know The Mahabharata is the longest poem in the world. It is made up of almost 100,000 couplets. It is about seven times the length of the Iliad and the Odyssey combined. It is divided into 18 parvas or sections. The Upvedas are subsidiary Vedas. There are four Upavedas such as the Gandharva Veda (art of music), Ayurveda (Medicine), Dhanur Veda (war tactics) and Shilpa Veda (art of architecture). Indo-European languages Vedic Sanskrit belongs to the Indo-Aryan group of languages, which is the sub-sub division of Indo-European family of languages. There are ten main divisions of the Indo-European language family. They are Anatolian, Albanian, Armenian, Balto-Slavic, Celtic, Germanic, Greek, Indo-Iranian, Italic and Tocharian. The Indo-Iranian division consists two main sub divisions, Indo-Aryan and Iranian. Vedic Sanskrit is the oldest record of an Indo-Aryan division of languages. Hindi, Bengali, Sinhalese, and the many dialects of Roman are some of the examples of modern Indo-Aryan languages. The well-known ancient varieties of Iranian languages are Avestan, the sacred language of the 34 Zoroastrians, and Old Persian. Persian (Farsi), Pashto (Afghan), Kurdish, and Ossetic are some of the examples of modern Iranian languages. Archaeological sources The Grey Ware and the Painted Grey Ware pottery belonging to the Early Vedic Period were discovered at different sites such as Bhagwanpura, Dadheri, Nagar and Katpalan in Punjab and Haryana. The archaeological sources include axes made up of iron and other iron weapons belonging to the Later Vedic Period. Four types of pottery have been associated with the Later Vedic Period – Black and Red Ware, Black Slipped Ware, Painted Grey Ware and Red Ware. Fig. 4.1: Black and Red Ware Fig. 4.2: Red Ware Rapid Round 1. What does Brahmavarta mean? 2. Name the four Upvedas. 3. Who were the Dasyus? Early Vedic Period Later Vedic Period Period Period 1500 BCE–1000 BCE 1000 BCE–500 BCE Also known As Also known As Rig Vedic Period because the Rig Veda was The Epic Period because the two great epics, composed at this time. the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were written during this period. Family life Family life The family (griha or kula) was the basic The joint family system was further unit of the state. The family consisted strengthened. The birth of a son was of parents, brothers, sisters, sons and welcomed. daughters. Generally, their relations were marked by cordiality and a spirit of mutual accommodation and help. It was a patriarchal society. Many generations of the family lived under the same roof. 35 Early Vedic Period Later Vedic Period Position of women Position of women The position of women was of greater The position of women started deteriorating honour and authority as compared to that of in the Later Vedic Period. Women could the Later Vedic Period. Women were given not inherit or own properties. Women a certain amount of freedom in selecting were employed in dyeing, embroidery and their husbands. Monogamy was the usual basket making sectors. Their earnings were, practice. Women controlled household however, credited to their father or husband. affairs and participated in the sacrifices Some women received higher education. It and other domestic ceremonies and feasts. facilitated them to take a prominent part in Probably, there was no seclusion of women philosophical discussions at the royal courts. and no restrictions on their movements. Practice of widow remarriage was noticed. There have been no examples of child marriage and the marriageable age was around 16–17 years. The education of girls was not neglected. Some of them composed hymns and rose to the ranks of seers such as Visvavara, Ghosha, and Apala. Ashram system The Aryans believed that a person lived for 100 years. They divided the life of man into four equal stages or Ashrams. Brahmacharya was the first stage where a person stayed with his guru in the gurukul and received Brahmacharya Grihastha education. The second stage was the Grihastha where the person got married and led a family life as a householder. The third stage was the Vanaprastha where he gave up his worldly life and went to forest to meditate. Sanyasa Vanaprashta Fig. 4.3: Ashram system The last stage was Sanyasa where the person renounced the world and became an ascetic. 36 Early Vedic Period Later Vedic Period Religious conditions Religious conditions The Aryans worshipped different forces of The Early Vedic gods nature as gods and goddess. lost their importance;  Indra – the King of Gods while the Trinity - Brahma, the creator,  Agni – the God of fire Vishnu, the preserver  Surya – the Sun God and Shiva, the  Varuna – the God of water destroyer-became Fig. 4.4: The Trinity the important gods.  Vayu – the God of wind The mode of worship  Usha – the Goddess of dawn were became complex. Religion became worshipped. materialistic. Elaborate rituals and sacrifices Prayers were recited in the praise of these were performed. gods in the open air. Caste system Caste system The society was initially divided on the The caste system became rigid. Mobility or basis of varna meaning skin colour. The fair change of occupation was not allowed. The skinned Aryans considered the Dasas inferior. occupation of a person was based on the Gradually, society was divided on the basis of caste he was born. The Brahmans were at occupation, which later developed into the the apex of the social ladder followed by the caste system. The four castes were Brahman, Kshatriyas and the Vaishyas. The Shudras were at the lowest rung of the social ladder Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. and regarded as impure. They were not The Brahmans were the priests and the allowed to take part in religious ceremonies. teachers; the Kshatriyas were the kings and Inter caste marriages not allowed. the warrior class who protected the people; Teachers the Vaishyas were farmers, craftspersons and priests Brahman and trading class while the Shudras were the Nobility and Dasas and those Aryans who disobeyed the warriors Kshtriya Farmars social norms. The caste system was flexible traders and Vaishya as the person born in a Kshatriya family could craftsman Menial become Vaishya and vice versa. Shudra jobs Fig. 4.5: Caste system 37 Early Vedic Period Later Vedic Period Economic life Economic life During this period, great progress in agriculture was made. The improvement in the quality and size of plough as well as the use of manure lead to increase in agricultural production. There was a rise in the variety of occupations such as charioteers, hunters, Fig. 4.6: Cow was regarded as Wealth shepherds, fishermen, jewellers, washermen, dyers, cooks, astrologers, barbers, musicians. One of the most important means of living was cattle-breeding. Cow was regarded as the standard of value. Wealth and prosperity depended upon the possession of a number of cows. Animals such as horses, sheep, goats, dogs and donkeys were also domesticated. Agriculture and hunting was also practised. Trade was carried on by barter system. Rig Vedas mention artisans such as weaver, leather worker and potter. Political life Political life The grama or village was formed by a number The union of tribes led to the formation of of families that were connected with ties of bigger territorial units. Kings performed kinship. Several villages composed the vis or sacrifices or yajnas such as the ‘Vajapeya’, district. A group of vis made the jana or the the ‘Rajasuya’ and the ‘Ashvamedha’ to tribe. The Rig Vedic Aryans were divided into symbolise the degree of success achieved several tribes. Each tribe was under the rule in realizing their ambitions. As the kings of a king or a rajan. The king led the tribe expanded their influence, their titles also in a battle and ensured their protection. modified. Thus, Raja was used for ordinary The king did not raise any fixed taxes for king and Adhiraja, Rajadhiraja, Samrat, Virat, the maintenance of the state; however, the Ekarat and Sarvabhauma signified various people obeyed him or gave voluntary gifts degrees of suzerains. The position of the called bali. king was generally hereditary. It was his duty to uphold the law, the Dharma and punish the corrupt. 38 Rapid Round 1. Which animals were domesticated in the Early Vedic Period? 2. List the different occupations of the Later Vedic Period. 3. What was the role of the King in the Later Vedic Period? 1500 BCE–1000 BCE 1000 BCE–500 BCE Early Vedic Period Later Vedic Period Global Connection Zend Avesta The main characteristics of the Aryan culture are specified by the Vedic and the Iranian literary texts. The Rig Veda and the Zend Avesta help us in reconstructing the facts and other facets of the Aryan culture. The Zend Avesta is the sacred book of the Zoroastrians. The earliest parts of Zend Avesta are roughly attributed to 1400 BCE, which thus can be said to be the contemporary of the Rig Vedic period. The two texts use the same terms for several gods and even social classes. There seems to be a lot of similarity between the cultures. Both the cultures represented agriculture and pastoralism as the principal source of livelihood. They domesticated horse which was used for riding and for driving carts. The cults of fire and soma prevailed. Animal sacrifices were also performed by both the cultures. Word Galaxy ascetic – a way of life that is simple and strict, usually because of the religious beliefs ashvamedha yajna – a horse sacrifice performed by the king to establish his authorit

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