Class 11th History (Tamilnadu) PDF

HISTORY Higher Secondary - First Year Prepared as per recommendation of the Textbook Development Committee, this New Textbook is prepared according to the Syllabus published in 2003-04. A Publication under Government of Tamilnadu Distribution of F...

HISTORY Higher Secondary - First Year Prepared as per recommendation of the Textbook Development Committee, this New Textbook is prepared according to the Syllabus published in 2003-04. A Publication under Government of Tamilnadu Distribution of Free Textbook Programme (Not for Sale) Untouchability is a sin Untouchability is a crime Untouchability is inhuman TAMILNADU TEXT BOOK CORPORATION College Road, Chennai - 600 006. © Government of Tamilnadu First Edition - 2007 Chairperson Dr. C. Thiruvenkadam Reader in History, Pachaiyappa’s College, Chennai - 600 030. Reviewer Dr. K.Vijaya Lecturer in History, (Selection Grade) Quaid-e-Milleth Govt. College for Women Chennai - 600 002. Authors Tmt. M.Muthumari Thiru V. Zafar Ahmed P.G. Asst. (History) P.G. Asst. Headmaster (History) Perum Thalivar Kamarajar Govt. The Muslim Hr. Sec.School Girls Higher Secondary Shcool, Triplicane, Ambattur, Chennai - 600 053. Chennai - 600 005. Price : Rs. This book has been prepared by the Directorate of School Education on behalf of the Government of Tamil Nadu. This book has been printed on 60 GSM Paper  FOREWORD Academics, parents and the educational media have represented to the Government of Tamil Nadu, to reform the Plus one and Plus two text books, which were introduced in the academic year 2005-06. Our beloved Chief Minister, who has always been evincing keen interest in educational development, immediately constituted a “Text Book Development Committee” under the Chairmanship of the Vice-Chairman, State Planning Commission, Government of Tamil Nadu. The Text Book Development Committee solicited opinion from lecturers and professors from Higher Secondary Schools, Colleges and Universities, Chairpersons and authors of text books. After perusing the opinions, the Text Book Development Committee, decided not to change ths syllabi, but recommended suitable changes in the text books. In particular, it was proposed to rewrite the History text book, and accepting this proposal, this text book is rewritten by experienced and efficient teachers. We are pleased to place on record our sincere gratitude to our beloved Chief Minister. Our thanks are due to Hon’ble Minister for School Education, Secretary and Director, Department of School Education, Government of Tamil Nadu for their valuable support and suggestions. We thank, lecturers and Professors from Higher Secondary Schools, Colleges and Universities, Chairpersons and authors of text books, non-teaching staff of edcuation department and State Planning Commission for their help at various stages in this endeavor. We wish the students to learn and perform well in the examinations. Prof. M. Naganathan Chairman Text Book Development Committee Government of Tamil Nadu iii  PREFACE In the curriculum of schools, the subject history forms part of the Social Science up to Tenth Standard. At that level the main trends and developments in the history of India have been introduced to the pupils. When they reach the Higher Secondary stage, a systematic study of history is required in order to understand the cultural heritage of India, to inherit secular values and to develop a positive outlook on the future. Therefore, this book intends to provide the political, social, economic and cultural aspects of Indian history. It is written as per the syllabus prescribed for Standard XI. It covers both ancient and medieval India up to the coming of the Europeans. While providing historical facts, much care has been taken and standard historical works written by eminent historians have been consulted. Latest historical information has also been included in the lessons. In the process of learning, the pupils will also be benefited by the maps and figures, which illustrate the political geography and cultural greatness of our country. The model questions provided at the end of each chapter are based on the Public Examination Question Paper pattern. Questions on the same model will be asked in the examination and therefore, the pupils must read the entire text to answer such questions. I am thankful to the members of the committee for their cooperation in bringing out this book. C. THIRUVENKADAM Chairperson XI History iv  STANDARD XI - HISTORY SYLLABUS Periods Unit I 1. The Impact of Geography on Indian History - Unity in Diversity 5 2. The Stone Age - The Old Stone Age (Paleolithic Age) - New Stone Age (Neolithic Age) - Metal Age - Salient features of Harappan culture. 5 3. Vedic Period - Sources - Early Vedic Period (Rig Vedic Period) - Later Vedic Period - Epic age - Social, Economic and Cultural life 5 Unit II 4. Condition of India in the 6th Century B.C. - Magadhan empire and other kindgoms. 5 5. Rise of Jainism - Mahavira - Principles of Jainism - Digambaras and Swedambaras - Spread of Jainism - Contributions. 5 6. Rise of Buddhism - Buddha - Principles of Buddhism - Hinayana and Mahayana sects - Spread of Buddhism - Contributions. The Similarities and dissimilarities of these two religions. 5 Unit III 7. India of the Pre-Mauryan period - Nandas - Persian invasion - Alexander’s invasion - Results. 5 v  8. The Mauryan period - Sources - Chandragupta Maurya - Asoka - Mauryan Administration - Asoka’s Dharma - Development of Art and Architecture - Decline of Mauryas. 10 Unit IV 9. India after the Mauryas - the Sungas - Kanvas - Satavahanas Kushnas - Kanishka - Gandhara Art. 10 10. Sangam Age in Tamil Nadu - Sources - Brief History of Kingdoms - Social, Religious and Economic life of the people. 5 Unit V 11. India of Gupta period - Administration - Social, Economic and Cultural conditions - Hun invasions and decline of the Guptas. 10 12. Harshavardhana - Sources - Social, Religious and Cultural life. 5 Unit VI 13. South Indian Empires 15 A. Pallavas - Sources - Administration - Social, Economic and Cultural conditions. B. Chalukyas - Development of Arts. C. Rashtrakutas - Contribution to Arts. D. Cholas - Social, Economic and Cultural conditions. 14. The Cultural Relations between India and the Asian countries 5 vi Unit VII 15. Indian During Arab Invasions - Rajput kingdoms - Arab Invasions-Mahmud of Ghazni-Muthammad of Ghor. 10 16. Delhi Sultans - Mameluk, Khilji, Tughluq, Sayyid and Lodi Dynasties. 20 17. Social, Economic and Cultural conditions under the Sultanate of Delhi Unit VIII 18. Bhakti Movement in Medieaval India - Ramananda, Kabir - Vallabhacharya - Chaitanya - Gurunanak - Meerabai - Sufism 10 19. Vijayanagar and Bahmani kingdoms - Social, Economic and Cultural conditions. 10 Unit IX 20. Mughal empire - Brief History of Mughal, Sur dynasty rulers. 15 21. Mughal Administration - Emperor - Central Government Officials - Provincial Governments - Officials - Duties - Decline of the Mughals. 22. Social, Economics, Religious and Cultural conditions under the Mughals. 10 Unit X 23. Rise of Marathas - Administration of Shivaji - Peshwas. 10 24. Coming of the Europeans to India - Establishment of British Rule in India 10 vii  CONTENTS INDIAN HISTORY Sub. Page No. No. 1. India - Geographical Features and their 1 Impact on History 2. Pre-Historic India and the Harappan Culture 11 3. The Vedic Culture 27 4. Jainism and Buddhism 37 5. The Rise of Magadha and Alexander’s Invasion 47 6. The Mauryan Empire 59 7. Post - Mauryan India 74 8. Sangam Age 85 9. Gupta Empire 96 10. Harshavardhana (606 - 647 A.D) 113 11. South Indian Kingdoms - I Pallavas 122 12. South Indian Kingdoms - II Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas 132 13. Imperial Cholas 141 14. The Spread of Indian Culture in other Asian Countries 154 15. Early Medieval India 163 16. Delhi Sultanate 172 17. India under the Delhi Sultanate 190 18. Bhakti Movement in Medieval India 200 19. Vijayanagar and Bahmani Kingdoms 209 20. The Mughal Empire 221 21. India under the Mughals 239 22. The Marathas 249 23. The Coming of Europeans 258 viii  LESSON 1 INDIA- GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES AND THEIR IMPACT ON HISTORY Learning Objectives Students will acquire knowledge about 1. The geographical features of India. 2. The Himalayan Mountains and their impact on Indian history. 3. The Gangetic plains and their role in Indian history. 4. The Southern Peninsula and its effects on South Indian history. 5. India’s unity in diversity It is generally said that history has two eyes – one is chronology and the other is geography. In other words time and space are significant factors in determining the historical process. In particular, a country’s geography largely determines its historical events. The history of India is also influenced by its geography. Hence, the study of Indian geographical features contributes to the better understanding of its history. The Indian subcontinent is a well-defined geographical unit. It may be divided into three major regions: the Himalayan Mountains, the Indo-Gangetic Plains and the Southern Peninsula. There are five countries in the subcontinent – India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan. India is the largest among them and it comprises twenty-eight states and six Union Territories. According to the 2001 Census, the population of India is over one hundred crores. 1 The Himalayan Mountains The Himalayan Mountains are situated on the north of India. Starting from the Pamir in the extreme northwest of India, the mighty Himalayan range extends towards northeast. It has a length of nearly 2560 kilometres with an average breadth of 240 to 320 kilometres. The highest peak of the Himalayas is known as Mount Everest with its height being 8869 metres. It acts as a natural wall and protects the country against the cold arctic winds blowing from Siberia through Central Asia. This keeps the climate of northern India fairly warm throughout the year. The Himalayan region is mostly inhospitable in winter and generally covered with snow. It was considered for a long time that the Himalayas stood as a natural barrier to protect India against invasions. But, the passes in the northwest mountains such as the Khyber, Bolan, Kurram and Gomal provided easy routes between India and Central Asia. These passes are situated in the Hindukush, Sulaiman and Kirthar ranges. From prehistoric times, there was a continuous flow of traffic through these passes. Many people came to India through these passes as invaders and immigrants. The Indo-Aryans, the Indo-Greeks, Parthians, Sakas, Kushanas, Hunas and Turks entered India through these passes. The Swat valley in this region formed another important route. Alexander of Macedon came to India through this route. Apart from invading armies, missionaries and merchants came to India using these routes. Therefore, these passes in the northwest mountains had facilitated trade as well as cultural contacts between India and the Central Asia. In the north of Kashmir is Karakoram Range. The second highest peak in the world, Mount Godwin Austen is situated here. This part of the Himalayas and its passes are high and snow-covered in the winter. The Karakoram highway via Gilgit is connected to Central Asia but there was little communication through this route. 2 The valley of Kashmir is surrounded by high mountains. However, it could be reached through several passes. The Kashmir valley remains unique for its tradition and culture. Nepal is also a small valley under the foot of the Himalayas and it is accessible from Gangetic plains through a number of passes. In the east, the Himalayas extend up to Assam. The important mountains in this region are Pat Koi, Nagai and Lushai ranges. These hills are covered with thick forests due to heavy rains and mostly remain inhospitable. The mountains of northeast India is difficult to cross and many parts of this region had remained in relative isolation. The Indo-Gangetic Plain The Indo-Gangetic plain is irrigated by three important rivers, the Ganges, Indus and Brahmaputra. This vast plain is most fertile and productive because of the alluvial soil brought by the streams of the rivers and its tributaries. The Indus river rises beyond the Himalayas and its major tributaries are the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej and Beas. The Punjab plains are benefited by the Indus river system. The literal meaning of the term ‘Punjab’ is the land of five rivers. Sind is situated at the lower valley of the Indus. The Indus plain is known for its fertile soil. The Thar Desert and Aravalli hills are situated in between the Indus and Gangetic plains. Mount Abu is the highest point (5650 ft.) in the Aravalli hills. The Ganges river rises in the Himalayas, flows south and then towards the east. The river Yamuna flows almost parallel to the Ganges and then joins it. The area between these two rivers is called doab – meaning the land between two rivers. The important tributaries of the Ganges are the Gomati, Sarayu, Ghagra and Thar Desert Gandak. 3  In the east of India, the Ganges plain merges into the plains of Brahmaputra. The river Brahmaputra rises beyond the Himalayas, flows across Tibet and then continues through the plains of northeast India. In the plains, it is a vast but a slow-moving river forming several islands. The Indo-Gangetic plain has contributed to the rise of urban centres, particularly on the river banks or at the confluence of rivers. The Harappan culture flourished in the Indus valley. The Vedic culture prospered in the western Gangetic plain. Banares, Allahabad, Agra, Delhi and Pataliputra are some of the important cities of the Gangetic plain. The city of Pataliputra was situated at the confluence of Son river with the Ganges. In the ancient period Pataliputra had remained the capital for the Mauryas, Sungas, Guptas and other kingdoms. The most important city on the western side of the Gangetic plain is Delhi. Most of the decisive battles of Indian history such as the Kurukshetra, Tarain and Panipat were fought near Delhi. Also, this plain had always been a source of temptation and attraction for the foreign invaders due to its fertility and productive wealth. Important powers fought for the possession of these plains and valleys. Especially the Ganga-Yamuna doab proved to be the most coveted and contested area. The rivers in this region served as arteries of commerce and communication. In ancient times it was difficult to make roads, and so men and material were moved by boat. The importance of rivers for communication continued till the days of the East India Company. The Southern Peninsula The Vindhya and Satpura mountains along with Narmada and the Tapti rivers form the great dividing line between northern and southern India. The plateau to the south of the Vindhya Mountains is known as the Deccan plateau. It consists of volcanic rock, which is different from the northern mountains. As these rocks are easier 4 to cut into, we find a number of rock-cut monasteries and temples in the Deccan. The Deccan plateau is flanked by the Eastern Ghats and Western Ghats. The Coramandal Coast stands between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. The Western Ghats runs along the Arabian sea and the lands between these are known as Konkan up to Goa and beyond that as Kanara. The southernmost part is known as Malabar Coast. The passes in the Western Ghats like Junnar, Kanheri and Karle linked the trade routes to the western ports. The Deccan plateau acted as a bridge between the north and south India. However, the dense forests in the Vindhya Mountains makes this region isolated from the north. The language and culture in the southern peninsula are preserved in tact for a long time due to this geographical isolation. In the southern end remains the famous Palghat Pass. It is the passage across the Ghats from the Kaveri valley to the Malabar Coast. The Palghat Pass was an important trade route for the Indo- Roman trade in the ancient times. The Anaimudi is the highest peak in the southern peninsula. Doddapetta is another highest peak in the Western Ghats. The Eastern Ghats are not very high and have several openings caused by the eastward flow of the rivers into the Bay of Bengal. The port cities of Arikkamedu, Mamallapuram and Kaveripattanam were situated on the Coramandal coast. The major rivers of the southern peninsula are almost running parallel. Mahanadhi is at the eastern end of the peninsula. Narmadha and Tapti run from east to west. Other rivers like the Godavari, Krishna, Tungabhadra and Kaveri flow from west to east. These rivers make the plateau into a fertile rice producing soil. Throughout history, the region between Krishna and Tungabhadra (Raichur Doab) remained a bone of contention between the major kingdoms of the south. The deltaic plains formed by these two rivers at their 5 mouths became famous under the Satavahanas. A number of towns and ports flourished in these plains in the beginning of the Christian era. The Kaveri delta constitutes a distinct geographical zone in the far south. It became the seat of the Chola power. The Kaveri basin with its rich tradition, language and culture has flourished from the ancient times. As the southern peninsula is gifted with a long coastline, the people of this region took keen interest in the maritime activities. A great deal of trade and commerce went on through the seaways from the earliest times. In the east, mariners reached countries like Jawa, Sumatra, Burma and Cambodia. Apart from trade, they spread Indian art, religion and culture in these parts of the world. The commercial contacts between south India and the Greco-Roman countries flourished along with cultural relations. India – A Land of Unity in Diversity The history of ancient India is interesting because India proved to be a melting pot of numerous races. The pre-Aryans, the Indo- Aryans, the Greeks, the Scythians, the Hunas, the Turks, etc., made India their home. Each ethnic group contributed its might to the making of Indian culture. All these peoples mixed up so inextricably with one another that at present none of them can be identified in their original form. Different cultures mingled with one another through the ages. Many pre-Aryan or Dravidian terms occur in the Vedic texts. Similarly, many Pali and Sanskritic terms appear in the Sangam literature. Since ancient times, India has been the land of several religions. Ancient India witnessed the birth of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. But all these cultures and religions intermingled with one another. Although Indians people speak different languages, practice different 6 religions, and observe different social customs, they follow certain common styles of life throughout the country. Therefore, our country shows a deep underlying unity in spite of great diversity. In fact, the ancients strove for unity. They looked upon this vast subcontinent as one land. The name Bharatavarsha or the land of Bharata was given to the whole country, after the name of an ancient tribe called the Bharatas. Our ancient poets, philosophers and writers viewed the country as an integral unit. This kind of political unity was attained at least twice during the Mauryan and Gupta Empires. The unity of India was also recognized by foreigners. They first came into contact with the people living on the Sindhu or the Indus, and so they named the whole country after this river. The word Hind is derived from the Sanskrit term Sindhu, and in course of time the country came to be known as ‘India’ in Greek, and ‘Hind’ in Persian and Arabic languages. Efforts for the linguistic and cultural unity of the country were made through the ages. In the third century B.C., Prakrit language served as the lingua franca of the country. Throughout the major portion of India, Asoka’s inscriptions were written in the Prakrit language. Also, the ancient epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, were studied with the same zeal and devotion throughout the country. Originally composed in Sanskrit, these epics came to be presented in different local languages. Although the Indian cultural values and ideas were expressed in different forms, the substance remained the same throughout the country. Hence, India has emerged a multi-religious and multi-cultural society. However, the underlying unity and integrity and the plural character of Indian society remain the real strength for the development of the country. 7 Learning Outcome After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain 1. The geographical features of India. 2. The details of the Himalayan Mountains, the passes in the northwest and how they were used by the foreign invaders, traders and migrants. 3. The river systems of the Indo-Gangetic Gangetic valley and their impact on the historical events such as battles and emergence of urban centres. 4. The southern peninsula, the long coasts which contributed to a lot of maritime activities. 5. How India emerged as a multicultural society and the same is successfully sustained over the centuries. 8  MODEL QUESTIONS I. Choose the correct answer. 1. Alexander of Macedon came to India through (a) Deccan Plateau (b) Kharakoram range (c) Swat valley (d) Aravalli hills 2. The region between two rivers is called (a) Plateau (b) Peninsula (c) Doab (d) Peak II. Fill in the blanks. 1. The river Ganges rises in ……. 2. The highest peak in the southern peninsula is …… III. Match the following. 1. Mount Everest a) Aravalli hills 2. Mount Abu b) Kharakoram 3. Doddabetta c) Himalayas 4. Godwin Austin d) Western Ghats IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is right. a) Narmada river runs from east to west. b) Kaveri river runs from south to north. c) Yamuna river merges with Tapti. d) Maha Nadhi river irrigates the Punjab region. 9 V. State whether the following statements are true or False. 1. The city of Pataliputra was situated at the confluence of Ganges with Brahmaputra. 2. The long coast line in the southern peninsula contributed to the growth of maritime trade. 3. The Palghat Pass is situated on the Western Ghats. 4. India is a multi-cultural society. VI. Write short notes (Any three points). 1. Himalayan Mountains. 2. Deccan Plateau. 3. Rivers of southern peninsula 4. Multi-cultural society. VII. Answer briefly (100 words). 1. Write a note on the impact of the Indo-Gangetic Plains on the history of India. 2. Briefly describe the geography of South India. VIII. Answer in detail (200 words). 1. Assess the impact of geography on the history of India. 2. ‘India is a land of unity in diversity’ – Elucidate. 10  LESSON 2 PRE-HISTORIC INDIA AND THE HARAPPAN CULTURE Learning Objectives Students will acquire knowledge about 1. The Pre-historic period. 2. Origin and evolution of the Harappan Civilization. 3. Socio-economic condition of the Harappan people. 4. Cultural life of the Harappans. 5. The Decline of the Harappan Civilization. The history of human settlements in India goes back to prehistoric times. No written records are available for the pre- historic period. However, plenty of archaeological remains are found in different parts of India to reconstruct the history of this period. They include the stone tools, pottery, artifacts and metal implements used by pre-historic people. The development of archaeology helps much to understand the life and culture of the people who lived in this period. In India, the prehistoric period is divided into the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), Neolithic (New Stone Age) and the Metal Age. However, these periods were not uniform throughout the Indian subcontinent. The dating of the pre- historic period is done scientifically. The technique of radio-carbon dating is commonly used for this purpose. It is based on measuring the loss of carbon in organic materials over a period of time. Another dating method is known as dendro-chronology. It refers to the 11  PRE HISTORY INDIA s Rubar du In Kalibangan Mohenjadaro Lothal Aribian Sea Sisupalgarh Bay of Bengal Maski Prahmagiri Anandapur Pallavaram Adichanallur Indian Ocean 12 number of tree rings in wood. By counting the number of tree rings in the wood, the date of the wood is arrived at. Paleolithic or Old Stone Age The Old Stone Age sites are widely found in various parts of the Indian subcontinent. These sites are generally located near water sources. Several rock shelters and caves used by the Paleolithic people are scattered across the subcontinent. They also lived rarely in huts made of leaves. Some of the famous sites of Old Stone Age in India are: a. The Soan valley and Potwar Plateau on the northwest India. b. The Siwalik hills on the north India. c. Bhimpetka in Madhya Pradesh. d. Adamgarh hill in Narmada valley. e. Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh and f. Attirampakkam near Chennai. In the Old Stone Age, food was obtained by hunting animals and gathering edible plants and tubers. Therefore, these people are called as hunter-gatherers. They used stone tools, hand-sized and flaked-off large pebbles for hunting animals. Stone implements are made of a hard rock known as quartzite. Large pebbles are often found in river terraces. The hunting of large animals would have required the combined effort of a group of people with large stone axes. We have Old Stone Age Tools little knowledge about their language and communication. Their way of life became modified with the passage of time since they made attempts to domesticate animals, make crude pots and grow some plants. A few Old Stone Age paintings have 13 also been found on rocks at Bhimbetka and other places. The period before 10000 B.C. is assigned to the Old Stone Age. Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age The next stage of human life is called Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age which falls roughly from 10000 B.C. to 6000 B.C. It was the transitional phase between the Paleolithic Age and Neolithic Age. Mesolithic remains are found in Langhanj in Gujarat, Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh and also in some places of Rajasthan, Utter Pradesh and Bihar. The paintings and engravings found at the rock shelters give an idea about the social life and economic activities of Mesolithic people. In the sites of Mesolithic Age, a different type of stone tools is found. These are tiny stone artifacts, often not more than five centimeters in size, and therefore called microliths. The hunting-gathering pattern of life continued during this period. However, there seems to have been a shift from big animal hunting to small animal hunting and fishing. The use of bow and arrow also began during this period. Also, there began a tendency to settle for longer periods in an area. Therefore, domestication of animals, horticulture and primitive cultivation started. Animal bones are found in these sites and these include dog, deer, boar and ostrich. Occasionally, burials of the dead along with some microliths and shells seem to have been practiced. Neolithic Age A remarkable progress is noticed in human civilization in the Neolithic Age. It is approximately dated from 6000 B.C to 4000 B.C. Neolithic remains are found in various parts of India. These New Stone Age Tools include the Kashmir valley, Chirand in Bihar, Belan valley in 14 Uttar Pradesh and in several places of the Deccan. The important Neolithic sites excavated in south India are Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur and Kodekal in Karnataka, Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu and Utnur in Andhra Pradesh. The chief characteristic features of the Neolithic culture are the practice of agriculture, domestication of animals, polishing of stone tools and the manufacture of pottery. In fact, the cultivation of plants and domestication of animals led to the emergence of village communities based on sedentary life. There was a great improvement in technology of making tools and other equipments used by man. Stone tools were now polished. The polished axes were found to be more effective tools for hunting and cutting trees. Mud brick houses were built instead of grass huts. Wheels were used to make pottery. Pottery was used for cooking as well as storage of food grains. Large urns were used as coffins for the burial of the dead. There was also improvement in agriculture. Wheat, barely, rice, millet were cultivated in different areas at different points of time. Rice cultivation was extensive in eastern India. Domestication of sheep, goats and cattle was widely prevalent. Cattle were used for cultivation and for transport. The people of Neolithic Age used clothes made of cotton and wool. Metal Age The Neolithic period is followed by Chalcolithic (copper-stone) period when copper and bronze came to be used. The new technology of smelting metal ore and crafting metal artifacts is an important development in human civilization. But the use of stone tools was not given up. Some of the micro-lithic tools continued to be essential items. People began to travel for a long distance to obtain metal ores. This led to a network of Chalcolithic cultures and the Chalcolithic cultures were found in many parts of India. 15  Generally, Chalcolithic cultures had grown in river valleys. Most importantly, the Harappan culture is considered as a part of Chalcolithic culture. In South India the river valleys of the Godavari, Krishna, Tungabhadra, Pennar and Kaveri were settled by farming communities during this period. Although they were not using metals in the beginning of the Metal Age, there is evidence of copper and bronze artifacts by the end of second millennium B.C. Several bronze and copper objects, beads, terracotta figurines and pottery were found at Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu. The Chalcolithic age is followed by Iron Age. Iron is frequently referred to in the Vedas. The Iron Age of the southern peninsula is often related to Megalithic Burials. Megalith means Large Stone. The burial pits were covered with these stones. Such graves are extensively found in South India. Some of the important megalithic sites are Hallur and Maski in Karnataka, Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh and Adichchanallur in Tamil Nadu. Black and red pottery, iron artifacts such as hoes and sickles and small weapons were found in the burial pits. The Harappan Civilization The earliest excavations in the Indus valley were done at Harappa in the West Punjab and Mohenjodaro in Sind. Both places are now in Pakistan. The findings in these two cities brought to light a civilization. It was first called the ‘The Indus Valley Civilization’. But this civilization was later named as the ‘Indus Civilization’ due to the discovery of more and more sites far away from the Indus valley. Also, it has come to be called the ‘Harappan Civilization’ after the name of its first discovered site. Important Sites Among the many other sites excavated, the most important are Kot Diji in Sind, Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Rupar in the Punjab, 16 Harappan Culture elum Zh avi R Harappa Rupar dus Kalipangan In Mohenjadaro Chanhudro Lothal Aribian Sea 17 Banawali in Haryana, Lothal, Surkotada and Dholavira, all the three in Gujarat. The larger cities are approximately a hundred hectares in size. Mohenjodara is the largest of all the Indus cities and it is estimated to have spread over an area of 200 hectares. Origin and Evolution The archaeological findings excavated for the last eight decades reveal the gradual development of the Harappan culture. There are four important stages or phases of evolution and they are named as pre-Harappan, early-Harappan, mature-Harappan and late Harappan. The pre-Harappan stage is located in eastern Baluchistan. The excavations at Mehrgarh 150 miles to the northwest of Mohenjodaro reveal the existence of pre-Harappan culture. In this stage, the nomadic people began to lead a settled agricultural life. In the early-Harappan stage, the people lived in large villages in the plains. There was a gradual growth of towns in the Indus valley. Also, the transition from rural to urban life took place during this period. The sites of Amri and Kot Diji remain the evidence for early-Harappan stage. In the mature-Harappan stage, great cities emerged. The excavations at Kalibangan with its elaborate town planning and urban features prove this phase of evolution. In the late-Harappan stage, the decline of the Indus culture started. The excavations at Lothal reveal this stage of evolution. Lothal with its port was founded much later. It was surrounded by a massive brick wall as flood protection. Lothal remained an emporium of trade between the Harappan civilization and the remaining part of India as well as Mesopotamia. 18 Date of the Harappan Culture In 1931, Sir John Marshall estimated the duration of the occupation of Mohenjodaro between 3250 and 2750 B.C. Subsequently, as and when new sites were discovered, the dating of the Harappan culture is modified. The advent of the radiocarbon method paves way for fixing almost accurate dates. By 1956, Fairservis brought down the dating of the Harappan culture to between 2000 and 1500 B.C. on the basis of radiocarbon dates of his findings. In 1964, D.P. Agarwal came to the conclusion that the total span of this culture should be between 2300 and 1750 B.C. Yet, there is further scope of modification of these dates. Salient Features of the Harappan Culture Town Planning The Harappan culture was distinguished by its system of town- planning on the lines of the grid system – that is streets and lanes cutting across one another almost at right angles thus dividing the city into several rectangular blocks. Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan each had its own citadel built on a high podium of mud brick. Below the citadel in each city lay a lower town containing brick houses, which Great Bath at Mohenjodaro were inhabited by the common people. The large-scale use of burnt bricks in almost all kinds of constructions and the absence of stone buildings are the important characteristics of the Harappan culture. Another remarkable feature was the underground drainage system connecting all houses to the street drains which were covered by stone slabs or bricks. 19  The most important public place of Mohenjodaro is the Great Bath measuring 39 feet length, 23 feet breadth and 8 feet depth. Flights of steps at either end lead to the surface. There are side rooms for changing clothes. The floor of the Bath was made of burnt bricks. Water was drawn from a large well in an adjacent room, and an outlet from one corner of the Bath led to a drain. It must have served as a ritual bathing site. The largest building in Mohenjodaro is a granary measuring 150 feet length and 50 feet breadth. But in the citadel of Harappa we find as many as six granaries. Economic life There was a great progress in all spheres of economic activity such as agriculture, industry and crafts and trade. Wheat and barley were the main crops grown besides sesame, mustard and cotton. Surplus grain is stored in granaries. Animals like sheep, goats and buffalo were domesticated. The use of horse is not yet firmly established. A number of other animals were hunted for food including deer. Specialized groups of artisans include goldsmiths, brick makers, stone cutters, weavers, boat-builders and terracotta manufacturers. Bronze and copper vessels are the outstanding examples of the Harappan metal craft. Gold and silver ornaments are found in many places. Pottery remains plain and in some places red and black painted pottery is found. Beads were manufactured from a wide variety of semi-precious stones. Internal trade was extensive with HARAPPAN SEAL other parts of India. Foreign trade was mainly conducted with Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and 20 Iran Gold, copper, tin and several semi-precious stones were imported. Main exports were several agricultural products such as wheat, barely, peas, oil seeds and a variety of finished products including cotton goods, pottery, beads, terracotta figures and ivory products. There is much evidence to prove the trade links between the Indus and Sumerian people. Many seals of Indus valley have been found in Mesopotamia. Trade was of the barter type. The seals and the terracotta models of the Indus valley reveal the use of bullock carts and oxen for land transport and boats and ships for river and sea transport. Social Life Much evidence is available to understand the social life of the Harappans. The dress of both men and women consisted of two pieces of cloth, one upper garment and the other lower garment. Beads were worn by men and women. Jewelleries such as bangles, bracelets, fillets, girdles, anklets, ear-rings and finger- rings were worn by women. These ornaments were made of gold, silver, copper, bronze and semi precious ORNAMENTS USED BY THE HARAPPANS stones. The use of cosmetics was common. Various household articles made of pottery, stone, shells, ivory and metal have been found at Mohenjodaro. Spindles, needles, combs, fishhooks, knives are made of copper. Children’s toys include little clay carts. Marbles, balls and dice were used for games. Fishing was a regular occupation while hunting and bull fighting were other pastimes. There were numerous specimens of weapons of war such as axes, spearheads, daggers, bows, arrows made of copper and bronze. 21 Arts The Harappan sculpture revealed a high degree of workmanship. Figures of men and women, animals and birds made of terracotta and the carvings on the seals show the degree of proficiency attained by the sculptor. The figure of a dancing girl from Mohenjodaro made of bronze is remarkable for its workmanship. Its right hand rests on the hip, while the left arm, covered with bangles, hangs loosely in a relaxed posture. Two stone statues from Harappa, one representing the back view of a man and the other of a dancer are also specimens of their sculpture. TERRACOTTA FIGURINE The pottery from Harappa is another specimen of the fine arts of the Indus people. The pots and jars were painted with various designs and colours. Painted pottery is of better quality. The pictorial motifs consisted of geometrical patterns like horizontal lines, circles, leaves, plants and trees. On some pottery pieces we find figures of fish or peacock. Script The Harappan script has still to be fully deciphered. The number of signs is between 400 and 600 of which 40 or 60 are basic and the rest are their variants. The script was mostly written from right to left. In a few long seals the boustrophedon method – writing in the reverse direction in alternative lines - was adopted. Parpola and his Scandinavian colleagues came to the conclusion that the HARAPPAN SCRIPT language of the Harappans was Dravidian. A group of Soviet scholars accepts this view. Other scholars provide different view connecting the Harappan script with that of Brahmi. The mystery of the Harappan script still 22 exists and there is no doubt that the decipherment of Harappan script will throw much light on this culture. Religion From the seals, terracotta figurines and copper tablets we get an idea on the religious life of the Harappans. The chief male deity was Pasupati, (proto-Siva) represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture with three faces and two horns. He is surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino, and buffalo each facing a different direction). Two deer appear on his feet. The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess represented in terracotta figurines. In latter times, Linga worship was prevalent. Trees and animals were also worshipped by the Harappans. They believed in ghosts and evil forces and used amulets as protection against them. Burial Methods The cemeteries discovered around the cities like Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal and Rupar throw light on the burial practices of the Harappans. Complete burial and post-cremation burial were popular at Mohenjodaro. At Lothal the burial pit was lined with burnt bricks indicating the use of coffins. Wooden coffins were also found at Harappa. The practice of pot burials is found at Lothal sometimes with pairs of skeletons. However, there is no clear evidence for the practice of Sati. Decline of the Harappan Culture There is no unanimous view pertaining to the cause for the decline of the Harappan culture. Various theories have been postulated. Natural calamities like recurring floods, drying up of rivers, decreasing fertility of the soil due to excessive exploitation and occasional earthquakes might have caused the decline of the Harappan cities. According to some scholars the final blow was 23 delivered by the invasion of Aryans. The destruction of forts is mentioned in the Rig Veda. Also, the discovery of human skeletons huddled together at Mohenjodaro indicates that the city was invaded by foreigners. The Aryans had superior weapons as well as swift horses which might have enabled them to become masters of this region. Learning Outcome After learning this lesson the students will be to explain 1. The findings of the Paleolithic, Neolithic and Metal Age and the socio-economic life of the people during these periods. 2. The origin and evolution of the Harappan culture and the important sites of excavations. 3. The salient features of the Harappan civilization such as town planning, social life and economic condition of the Harappans. 4. The date of the Harappan culture as well as the religious beliefs and the art of the Harappans. 5. Different views on the decline of the Harappan civilization. 24  MODEL QUESTIONS I. Choose the correct answer. 1. The Chalcolithic age was followed by (a) Old Stone age (b) New Stone age (c) Iron age (d) Mesolithic age 2. The port city of the Harappan culture (a) Kalibangan (b) Lothal (c) Banawali (d) Rupar II. Fill in the blanks. 1. The most important Megalithic site in Tamil Nadu is ….. 2. The chief female deity of the Harappan culture was …… III. Match the following. 1. Kot Diji a) Haryana 2. Dholavira b) Rajasthan 3. Kalibangan c) Sind 4. Banawali d) Gujarat IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is right. a) There are three stages in the evolution of Harappan culture. b) Parpola concluded that the language of Harappan people is Sanskrit. c) Sir John Marshal used the radio-carbon dating method. d) The Harappan people believed in ghosts and used amulets as protection against them. 25 V. State whether the following statements are true or False. 1. The Old Stone Age people practiced agriculture. 2. Microliths were used by the Mesolithic people. 3. Trade links existed between the Indus and Sumerian people. 4. The Harappan people did not know the art of writing. VI. Write short notes (Any three points). 1. Chalcolithic Age 2. Megaliths. 3. Great Bath. 4. Date of the Harappan Culture. VII. Answer briefly (100 words). 1. Write a note on the Old Stone Age. 2. Trace the origin and evolution of the Harappan Culture. 3. Name the important sites of the Harappan Culture. 4. Mention the probable causes for the decline of the Harappan culture. VIII. Answer in detail (200 words). 1. Write a brief essay on the pre-historic period in India. 2. Describe the socio-economic condition of the Harappan civilization. 26  LESSON 3 THE VEDIC CULTURE Learning Objectives Students will acquire knowledge about 1. The original home of the Aryans. 2. The Vedic Literature and their importance. 3. The Rig Vedic Age and its culture. 4. The Later Vedic Age and its culture. The cities of the Harappan Culture had declined by 1500 B.C. Consequently, their economic and administrative system had slowly declined. Around this period, the speakers of Indo-Aryan language, Sanskrit, entered the north-west India from the Indo-Iranian region. Initially they would have come in small numbers through the passes in the northwestern mountains. Their initial settlements were in the valleys of the north-west and the plains of the Punjab. Later, they moved into Indo-Gangetic plains. As they were mainly a cattle- keeping people, they were mainly in search of pastures. By 6th century B.C., they occupied the whole of North India, which was referred to as Aryavarta. This period between 1500 B.C and 600 B.C may be divided into the Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period (1500 B.C -1000 B.C) and the Later Vedic Period (1000B.C - 600 B.C). Original Home of the Aryans The original home of the Aryans is a debatable question and there are several views. Different scholars have identified different 27 regions as the original home of the Aryans. They include the Arctic region, Germany, Central Asia and southern Russia. Bala Gangadhara Tilak argues that the Aryans came from the Arctic region on astronomical calculations. However, the theory of southern Russia appears to be more probable and widely accepted by historians. From there, the Aryans moved to different parts of Asia and Europe. They entered India in about 1500 B.C. and came to be known as Indo-Aryans. They spoke the Indo-Aryan language, Sanskrit. Vedic Literature The word ‘Veda’ is derived from the root ‘vid’, which means to know. In other words, the term ‘Veda’ signifies ‘superior knowledge’. The Vedic literature consists of the four Vedas – Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva. The Rig Veda is the earliest of the four Vedas and it consists of 1028 hymns. The hymns were sung in praise of various gods. The Yajur Veda consists of various details of rules to be observed at the time of sacrifice. The Sama Veda is set to tune for the purpose of chanting during sacrifice. It is called the book of chants and the origins of Indian music are traced in it. The Atharva Veda contains details of rituals. Besides the Vedas, there are other sacred works like the Brahmanas, the Upanishads, the Aranyakas and the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata. The Brahmanas are the treatises relating to prayer and sacrificial ceremony. The Upanishads are philosophical texts dealing with topic like the soul, the absolute, the origin of the world and the mysteries of nature. The Aranyakas are called forest books and they deal with mysticism, rites, rituals and sacrifices. The author of Ramayana was Valmiki and that of Mahabharata was Vedavyas. Rig Vedic Age or Early Vedic Period (1500 - 1000 B.C.) During the Rig Vedic period, the Aryans were mostly confined to the Indus region. The Rig Veda refers to Saptasindhu or the land 28 of seven rivers. This includes the five rivers of Punjab, namely Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej along with the Indus and Saraswathi. The political, social and cultural life of the Rig Vedic people can be traced from the hymns of the Rig Veda. Political Organization The basic unit of political organization was kula or family. Several families joined together on the basis of their kinship to form a village or grama. The leader of grama was known as gramani. A group of villages constituted a larger unit called visu. It was headed by vishayapati. The highest political unit was called jana or tribe. There were several tribal kingdoms during the Rig Vedic period such as Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus and Purus. The head of the kingdom was called as rajan or king. The Rig Vedic polity was normally monarchical and the succession was hereditary. The king was assisted by purohita or priest and senani or commander of the army in his administration. There were two popular bodies called the Sabha and Samiti. The former seems to have been a council of elders and the latter, a general assembly of the entire people. Social Life The Rig Vedic society was patriarchal. The basic unit of society was family or graham. The head of the family was known as grahapathi. Monogamy was generally practiced while polygamy was prevalent among the royal and noble families. The wife took care of the household and participated in all the major ceremonies. Women were given equal opportunities as men for their spiritual and intellectual development. There were women poets like Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra during the Rig Vedic period. Women could even attend the popular assemblies. There was no child marriage and the practice of sati was absent. 29  Both men and women wore upper and lower garments made of cotton and wool. A variety of ornaments were used by both men and women. Wheat and barley, milk and its products like curd and ghee, vegetables and fruits were the chief articles of food. The eating of cow’s meat was prohibited since it was a sacred animal. Chariot racing, horse racing, dicing, music and dance were the favourite pastimes. The social divisions were not rigid during the Rig Vedic period as it was in the later Vedic period. Economic Condition The Rig Vedic Aryans were pastoral people and their main occupation was cattle rearing. Their wealth was estimated in terms of their cattle. When they permanently settled in North India they began to practice agriculture. With the knowledge and use of iron they were able to clean forests and bring more lands under cultivation. Carpentry was another important profession and the availability of wood from the forests cleared made the profession profitable. Carpenters produced chariots and ploughs. Workers in metal made a variety of articles with copper, bronze and iron. Spinning was another important occupation and cotton and woolen fabrics were made. Goldsmiths were active in making ornaments. The potters made various kinds of vessels for domestic use. Trade was another important economic activity and rivers served as important means of transport. Trade was conducted on barter system. In the later times, gold coins called nishka were used as media of exchange in large transactions. Religion The Rig Vedic Aryans worshiped the natural forces like earth, fire, wind, rain and thunder. They personified these natural forces into many gods and worshipped them. The important Rig Vedic gods were Prithvi (Earth), Agni (Fire), Vayu (Wind), Varuna (Rain) 30 and Indra (Thunder). Indra was the most popular among them during the early Vedic period. Next in importance to Indra was Agni who was regarded as an intermediary between the gods and people. Varuna was supposed to be the upholder of the natural order. There were also female gods like Aditi and Ushas. There were no temples and no idol worship during the early Vedic period. Prayers were offered to the gods in the expectation of rewards. Ghee, milk and grain were given as offerings. Elaborate rituals were followed during the worship. Later Vedic Period (1000 – 600 B.C.) The Aryans further moved towards east in the Later Vedic Period. The Satapatha Brahmana refers to the expansion of Aryans to the eastern Gangetic plains. Several tribal groups and kingdoms are mentioned in the later Vedic literature. One important development during this period is the growth of large kingdoms. Kuru and Panchala kingdoms flourished in the beginning. Parikshat and Janamejaya were the famous rulers of Kuru kingdom. Pravahana Jaivali was a popular king of the Panchalas. He was a patron of learning. After the fall of Kurus and Panchalas, other kingdoms like Kosala, Kasi and Videha came into prominence. The famous ruler of Kasi was Ajatasatru. Janaka was the king of Videha with its capital at Mithila. His court was adorned by scholar Yajnavalkya. Magadha, Anga and Vanga seem to be the easternmost tribal kingdoms. The later Vedic texts also refer to the three divisions of India – Aryavarta (northern India), Madhyadesa (central India) and Dakshinapatha (southern India). Political Organization Larger kingdoms were formed during the later Vedic period. Many jana or tribes were amalgamated to form janapadas or rashtras in the later Vedic period. Hence the royal power had 31 increased along with the increase in the size of kingdom. The king performed various rituals and sacrifices to strengthen his position. They include Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), Asvamedha (horse sacrifice) and Vajpeya (chariot race). The kings also assumed titles like Rajavisvajanan, Ahilabhuvanapathi, (lord of all earth), Ekrat and Samrat (sole ruler). In the later Vedic period, a large number of new officials were involved in the administration in addition to the existing purohita, senani and gramani. They include the treasury officer, tax collector and royal messenger. At the lower levels, the administration was carried on by the village assemblies. The importance of the Samiti and the Sabha had diminished during the later Vedic period. Economic Condition Iron was used extensively in this period and this enabled the people to clear forests and to bring more land under cultivation. Agriculture became the chief occupation. Improved types of implements were used for cultivation. Besides barley, rice and wheat were grown. Knowledge of manure was another improvement. Industrial activity became more varied and there was greater specialization. Metal work, leather work, carpentry and pottery made great progress. In addition to internal trade, foreign trade became extensive. The Later Vedic people were familiar with the sea and they traded with countries like Babylon. A class of hereditary merchants (vaniya) came into existence. Vaisyas also carried on trade and commerce. They organized themselves into guilds known as ganas. Besides nishka of the Rig Vedic period, gold and silver coins like satamana and krishnala were used as media of exchange. Social Life The four divisions of society (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras) or the Varna system was thoroughly established during 32 the Later Vedic period. The two higher classes - Brahmana, and Kshatriya enjoyed privileges that were denied to the Vaisya and Sudra. A Brahmin occupied a higher position than a Kshatriya but sometimes Kshatriyas claimed a higher status over the Brahmins. Many sub-castes on the basis of their occupation appeared in this period. In the family, the power of the father increased during the Later Vedic period. There was no improvement in the status of women. They were still considered inferior and subordinate to men. Women also lost their political rights of attending assemblies. Child marriages had become common. According the Aitreya Brahmana a daughter has been described as a source of misery. However, the women in the royal household enjoyed certain privileges. Religion Gods of the Early Vedic period like Indra and Agni lost their importance. Prajapathi (the creator), Vishnu (the protector) and Rudra (the destroyer) became prominent during the Later Vedic period. Sacrifices were still important and the rituals connected with them became more elaborate. The importance of prayers declined and that of sacrifices increased. Priesthood became a profession and a hereditary one. The formulae for sacrifices were invented and elaborated by the priestly class. Therefore, towards the end of this period there was a strong reaction against priestly domination and against sacrifices and rituals. The rise of Buddhism and Jainism was the direct result of these elaborate sacrifices. Also, the authors of the Upanishads, which is the essence of Hindu philosophy, turned away from the useless rituals and insisted on true knowledge (jnana) for peace and salvation. 33 Learning Outcome After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain 1. The Vedic Literature such as the four Vedas and the Brahmanas and other later Vedic literature. 2. The Rig Vedic polity, society and economy. 3. Religious life of the Rig Vedic people. 4. The changes during the Later Vedic period in the sphere of polity and society. 5. The increasing rites and rituals in the religious life of the Later Vedic people. 34  MODEL QUESTIONS I. Choose the correct answer. 1. The earliest of the Vedas (a) Rig (b) Yajur (c) Sama (d) Atharva 2. Pravahana Jaivali was a popular king of (a) Videha (b) Kasi (c) Kurus (d) Panchalas II. Fill in the blanks. 1. The author of Ramayana was …… 2. The Arctic home for the Aryans was suggested by III. Match the following. 1. Nishka a) Later Vedic coin 2. Ushas b) Rig Vedic coin 3. Apala c) Goddess 4. Krishnala d) Woman poet IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is right. a) Indra and Varuna were the important gods during the Later Vedic period. b) The position of women improved during the Later Vedic period. c) The caste system was not rigid during the Later Vedic period. d) The importance of Samiti and Sabha declined during the Later Vedic period. 35 V. State whether the following statements are true or False. 1. The Aranyakas constitute the essence of Hindu philosophy. 2. The power of the kings had increased during the Later Vedic period. 3. Iron was not known to the Rig Vedic people. 4. The Varna system was thoroughly established during the Rig Vedic period. VI. Write short notes (Any three points). 1. Vedic literature. 2. Original Home of the Aryans. 3. Position of women during the Rig Vedic period. 4. Religion of Rig Vedic period. VII. Answer briefly (100 words). 1. Write a note on the Rig Vedic polity. 2. Mention the religious life of Later Vedic people. VIII. Answer in detail (200 words). 1. Give a brief account of the socio-economic life of the Rig Vedic Aryans. 2. Assess the political and social conditions during the Later Vedic period. 36  LESSON 4 JAINISM AND BUDDHISM Learning Objectives Students will acquire knowledge about 1. The causes for the rise of Buddhism and Jainism. 2. Early life of Mahavira and his teachings. 3. Early life of Buddha and his teachings. 4. The spread of Buddhism. 5. Causes for the decline of Buddhism in India, The sixth century B.C. is considered a wonderful century in history. Great thinkers like Buddha, Mahavira, Heraclitus, Zoroaster, Confucius and Lao Tse lived and preached their ideas in this century. In India, the republican institutions were strong in the 6th century B.C. This enabled rise of heterodox sects against the orthodox religion dominated by rites and rituals. Among them the most successful were Jainism and Buddhism whose impact on the Indian society was remarkable. Causes for the Rise of Jainism and Buddhism The primary cause for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism was the religious unrest in India in the 6th century B.C. The complex rituals and sacrifices advocated in the Later Vedic period were not acceptable to the common people. The sacrificial ceremonies were also found to be too expensive. The superstitious beliefs and mantras confused the people. The teachings of Upanishads, an alternative to the system of sacrifices, were highly philosophical in nature and 37 therefore not easily understood by all. Therefore, what was needed in the larger interests of the people was a simple, short and intelligible way to salvation for all people. Such religious teaching should also be in a language known to them. This need was fulfilled by the teachings of Buddha and Mahavira. Other than the religious factor, social and economic factors also contributed to the rise of these two religions. The rigid caste system prevalent in India generated tensions in the society. Higher classes enjoyed certain privileges which were denied to the lower classes. Also, the Kshatriyas had resented the domination of the priestly class. It should also to be noted that both Buddha and Mahavira belonged to Kshatriya origin. The growth of trade led to the improvement in the economic conditions of the Vaisyas. As a result, they wanted to enhance their social status but the orthodox Varna system did not allow this. Therefore, they began to extend support to Buddhism and Jainism. It was this merchant class that extended the chief support to these new religions. Jainism Life of Vardhamana Mahavira (539- 467 B.C.) Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara of the Jain tradition. He was born at Kundagrama near Vaisali to Kshatriya parents Siddhartha and Trisala. He married Yasoda and gave birth to a daughter. At the age of thirty he became an ascetic and wandered for twelve years. In the 13th year of his penance, he attained the highest spiritual knowledge called Kevala Gnana. Thereafter, he was called Mahavira and Jina. His followers were called Jains and his religion Jainism. He preached his doctrines for 30 years and died at the age of 72 at Pava near Rajagriha. 38 Teachings of Mahavira The three principles of Jainism, also known as Triratnas (three gems), are: - right faith - right knowledge - right conduct. Right faith is the belief in the teachings and wisdom of Mahavira. Right Knowledge is the acceptance of the theory that there is no God and that the world has been existing without a creator and that all objects possess a soul. Right conduct refers to the observance of the five great vows: - not to injure life - not to lie - not to steal - not to acquire property - not to lead immoral life. MAHAVIRA Both the clergy and laymen had to strictly follow the doctrine of ahimsa. Mahavira regarded all objects, both animate and inanimate, have souls and various degrees of consciousness. They possess life and feel pain when they are injured. Mahavira rejected the authority of the Vedas and objected to the Vedic rituals. He advocated a very holy and ethical code of life. Even the practice of agriculture was considered sinful as it causes injury to the earth, worms and animals. Similarly the doctrine of asceticism and renunciation was also carried to extreme lengths by the practice of starvation, nudity and other forms of self-torture. 39 Spread of Jainism Mahavira organised the Sangha to spread his teachings. He admitted both men and women in the Sangha, which consisted of both monks and lay followers. The rapid spread of Jainism was due to the dedicated work of the members of the Sangha. It spread rapidly in Western India and Karnataka. Chandragupta Maurya, Kharavela of Kalinga and the royal dynasties of south India such as the Gangas, the Kadambas, the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas patronized Jainism. By the end of the fourth century B.C., there was a serious famine in the Ganges valley. Many Jain monks led by Bhadrabagu and Chandragupta Maurya came to Sravana Belgola in Karnataka. Those who stayed back in north India were led by a monk named Sthulabahu who changed the code of conduct for the monks. This led to the division of Jainism into two sects Svetambaras (white- clad) and Digambaras (Sky-clad or Naked). The first Jain Council was convened at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu, the leader of the Digambaras, in the beginning of the 3rd century B.C. The second Jain Council was held at Valabhi in 5th century A.D. The final compilation of Jain literature called Twelve Angas was completed in this council. Buddhism Life of Gautama Buddha (567- 487 B.C.) Gautama or Siddhartha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in 567 B.C. in Lumbini Garden near Kapilavastu. His father was Suddodhana of the Sakya clan and mother Mayadevi. As his mother died at child birth, he was brought up by his aunt Prajapati GAUTAMA BUDDHA Gautami. At the age of sixteen he married 40 Yasodhara and gave birth to a son, Rahula. The sight of an old man, a diseased man, a corpse and an ascetic turned him away from worldly life. He left home at the age of twenty nine in search of Truth. He wandered for seven years and met several teachers but could not get enlightenment. At last, he sat under a bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya and did intense penance, after which he got Enlightenment (Nirvana) at the age of thirty five. Since then he became known as the Buddha or ‘the Enlightened One’. He delivered his first sermon at Sarnath near Benares and for the next forty five years he led the life of a preacher. He died at the age of eighty at Kusinagara. The most important disciples of Buddha were Sariputta, Moggallanna, Ananda, Kassapa and Upali. Kings like Prasenajit of Kosala and Bimbisara and Ajatasatru of Magadha accepted his doctrines and became his disciples. Buddha in his lifetime spread his message far and wide in north India and visited places like Benares, Rajagriha, Sravasti, Vaisali, Nalanda and Pataligrama. It should be noted that he did not involve himself in fruitless controversies regarding metaphysical questions like god, soul, karma, rebirth, etc., and concerned himself with the practical problems confronting man. Teachings of Buddha The Four Noble Truths of Buddha are: - The world is full of suffering. - The cause of suffering is desire. - If desires are get rid off, suffering can be removed. - This can be done by following the Eightfold Path. The Eightfold Path consists of right view, right resolve, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness 41 and right concentration. Buddha neither accepts god nor rejects the existence of god. He laid great emphasis on the law of karma. He argued that the condition of man in this life depends upon his own deeds. He taught that the soul does not exist. However, he emphasized Ahimsa. By his love for human beings and all living creatures, he endeared himself to all. Even under the gravest provocation he did not show the least anger or hatred and instead conquered everyone by his love and compassion. His religion was identical with morality and it emphasized purity of thought, word and deed. He was a rationalist who tried to explain things in the light of reason and not on the basis of blind faith. Though he did not make a direct attack on the caste system, he was against any social distinctions and threw open his order to all. Therefore, Buddhism was more a social than religious revolution. It taught the code of practical ethics and laid down the principle of social equality. Spread of Buddhism Buddha had two kinds of disciples – monks (bhikshus) and lay worshippers (upasikas). The monks were organized into the Sangha for the purpose of spreading his teachings. The membership was open to all persons, male or female and without any caste restrictions. There was a special code for nuns restricting their residence and movement. Sariputta, Moggallana and Ananda were some of the famous monks. The Sangha was governed on democratic lines and was empowered to enforce discipline among its members. Owing to the organised efforts made by the Sangha, Buddhism made rapid progress in North India even during Buddha’s life time. Magadha, Kosala, Kausambi and several republican states of North India embraced this religion. About two hundred years after the death of Buddha, the famous Mauryan Emperor Asoka embraced Buddhism. Through his missionary effort Asoka spread Buddhism into West Asia and Ceylon. Thus a local religious sect was transformed into a world religion. 42 Buddhist Councils The first Buddhist Council was held at Rajagraha under the chairmanship of Mahakasapa immediately after the death of Buddha. Its purpose was to maintain the purity of the teachings of the Buddha. The second Buddhist Council was convened at Vaisali around 383 B.C. The third Buddhist Council was held at Pataliputra under the patronage of Asoka. Moggaliputta Tissa presided over it. The final version of Tripitakas was completed in this council. The fourth Buddhist Council was convened in Kashmir by Kanishka under the chairmanship of Vasumitra. Asvagosha participated in this council. The new school of Buddhism called Mahayana Buddhism came into existence during this council. The Buddhism preached by the Buddha and propagated by Asoka was known as Hinayana. The Buddhist texts were collected and compiled some five hundred years after the death of the Buddha. They are known as the Tripitakas, namely the Sutta, the Vinaya and the Abhidhamma Pitakas. They are written in the Pali language. Causes for the Decline of Buddhism in India The revival of Brahmanism and the rise of Bhagavatism led to the fall of popularity of Buddhism. The use of Pali, the language of the masses as the language of Buddhism was given up from the 1st century A.D. The Buddhists began to adopt Sanskrit, the language of the elite. After the birth of Mahayana Buddhism, the practice of idol worship and making offerings led to the deterioration of moral standards. Moreover, the attack of the Huns in 5th and 6th centuries and the Turkish invaders in 12th century destroyed the monasteries. All these factors contributed to the decline of Buddhism in India. Contribution of Buddhism to Indian Culture Buddhism has made a remarkable contribution to the development of Indian culture. 43  - The concept of ahimsa was its chief contribution. Later, it became one of the cherished values of our nation. - Its contribution to the art and architecture of India was notable. The stupas at Sanchi, Bharhut and Gaya are wonderful pieces of architecture. Buddhism takes the credit for the chaityas and viharas in different parts of India. - It promoted education through residential universities like those at Taxila, Nalanda and Vikramasila. - The language of Pali and other local languages developed through the teachings of Buddhism. - It had also promoted the spread of Indian culture to other parts of Asia. Learning Outcome After learning this lesson the students will be to explain 1. The religious and other causes for the rise of Buddhism and Jainism. 2. Early life of Mahavira and his principles of Triratna. 3. Early life of Gautama Buddha and his important principles like the four truths and eightfold path. 4. The patrons of Buddhism and the formation of the Sangha as well as the spread of Buddhism. 5. Causes for the decline of Buddhism in India and its contribution to Indian culture. 44  MODEL QUESTIONS I. Choose the correct answer. 1. Vardhamana Mahavira was born at (a) Kapilavastu (b) Pataliputra (c) Kundagrama (d) Kusumapura 2. The Tripitakas are written in the language of (a) Sanskrit (b) Prakrit (c) Pali (d) Hindi II. Fill in the blanks. 1. The first Jain Council was convened at …… by ……. 2. The final compilation of Jain literature was called …… 3. The Buddhism preached by Asoka was known as ……. III. Match the following. 1. First Buddhist Council a) Vaisali 2. Second Buddhist Council b) Kashmir 3. Third Buddhist Council c) Rajagriha 4. Fourth Buddhist Council d) Pataliputra IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is right. 1. The Four Noble Truths were the teachings of Mahavira. 2. The adoption of Pali language led to the decline of Buddhism. 3. Idol worship was followed by the followers of Mahayana Buddhism. 45 4. Buddha involved himself into controversial philosophical arguments. V. State whether the following statements are True or False. 1. Buddha neither accepts nor rejects the existence of God. 2. Mahavira asked his followers to strictly observe four great vows. 3. The first Buddhist Council was convened by Kanishka at Kashmir. 4. Buddhism contributed to the spread of Indian culture to other parts of the world. VI. Write short notes (Any three points). 1. Triratnas 2. Split in Jainism 3. Tripitakas 4. Third Buddhist Council VII. Answer briefly (100 words). 1. Discuss the spread of Jainism in various parts India. 2. Account for the decline of Buddhism in India. VIII. Answer in detail (200 words). 1. Sketch the life and teachings of Mahavira. 2. Give a brief account of the life and teachings of Buddha. 3. How did Buddhism become a world religion? 46  LESSON 5 THE RISE OF MAGADHA AND ALEXANDER’S INVASION Learning Objectives Students will acquire knowledge about 1. The rise of Magatha under the Haryanka, Saisunaga and Nanda dynasties. 2. The achievements of Bimbisara and Ajatasatru. 3. The Persian invasions and their impact. 4. Causes and course of Alexander’s invasion. 5. Effects of Alexander’s invasion. In the beginning of the 6th century B.C., the northern India consisted of a large number of independent kingdoms. Some of them had monarchical forms of government, while some others were republics. While there was a concentration of monarchies on the Gangetic plain, the republics were scattered in the foothills of the Himalayas and in northwestern India. Some of the republics consisted of only one tribe like the Sakyas, Licchavis and Mallas. In the republics, the power of decision in all matters of state vested with the Public Assembly which was composed of the tribal representatives or heads of families. All decisions were by a majority vote. The Buddhist literature Anguttara Nikaya gives a list of sixteen great kingdoms called ‘Sixteen Mahajanapadas’. They were Anga, Magadha, Kasi, Kosala, Vajji, Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala, Matsya, Surasena, Asmaka, Avanti, Gandhara and Kambhoja. The 47 Jain texts also contain references to the existence of sixteen kingdoms. In course of time, the small and weak kingdoms either submitted to the stronger rulers or gradually got eliminated. Finally in the mid 6th century B.C., only four kingdoms – Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala and Magadha survived. Vatsa The Vatsa kingdom was situated on the banks of the river Yamuna. Its capital was Kausambi near modern Allahabad. Its most popular ruler was Udayana. He strengthened his position by entering into matrimonial alliances with Avanti, Anga and Magadha. After his death, Vatsa was annexed to the Avanti kingdom. Avanti The capital of Avanti was Ujjain. The most important ruler of this kingdom was Pradyota. He became powerful by marrying Vasavadatta, the daughter of Udayana. He patronized Buddhism. The successors of Pradyota were weak and later this kingdom was taken over by the rulers of Magadha. Kosala Ayodhya was the capital of Kosala. King Prasenajit was its famous ruler. He was highly educated. His position was further strengthened by the matrimonial alliance with Magadha. His sister was married to Bimbisara and Kasi was given to her as dowry. Subsequently there was a dispute with Ajatasatru. After the end of the conflict, Prasenajit married the daughter of Bimbisara. After the death of this powerful king, Kosala became part of the Magadha. 48 Magadha Of all the kingdoms of north India, Magadha emerged powerful and prosperous. It became the nerve centre of political activity in north India. Magadha was endowed by nature with certain geographical and strategic advantages. These made her to rise to imperial greatness. Her strategic position between the upper and lower part of the Gangetic valley was a great advantage. It had a fertile soil. The iron ores in the hills near Rajgir and copper and iron deposits near Gaya added to its natural assets. Her location at the centre of the highways of trade of those days contributed to her wealth. Rajagriha was the capital of Magadha. During the reign of Bimbisara and Ajatasatru, the prosperity of Magadha reached its zenith. Bimbisara (546 - 494 B.C.) Bimbisara belonged to the Haryanka dynasty. He consolidated his position by matrimonial alliances. His first matrimonial alliance was with the ruling family of Kosala. He married Kosaladevi, sister of Prasenajit. He was given the Kasi region as dowry which yielded large revenue. Bimbisara married Chellana, a princess of the Licchavi family of Vaisali. This matrimonial alliance secured for him the safety of the northern frontier. Moreover, it facilitated the expansion of Magadha northwards to the borders of Nepal. He also married Khema of the royal house of Madra in central Punjab. Bimbisara also undertook many expeditions and added more territories to his empire. He defeated Brahmadatta of Anga and annexed that kingdom. He maintained friendly relations with Avanti. He had also efficiently reorganized the administration of his kingdom. Bimbisara was a contemporary of both Vardhamana Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. However, both religions claim him as their supporter and devotee. He seems to have made numerous gifts to the Buddhist Sangha. 49 Ajatasatru (494 - 462 B.C.) The reign of Ajatasatru was remarkable for his military conquests. He fought against Kosala and Vaisali. His won a great success against a formidable confederacy led by the Lichchavis of Vaisali. This had increased his power and prestige. This war lasted for about sixteen years. It was at this time that Ajatasatru realised the strategic importance of the small village, Pataligrama (future Pataliputra). He fortified it to serve as a convenient base of operations against Vaisali. Buddhists and Jains both claim that Ajatasatru was a follower of their religion. But it is generally believed that in the beginning he was a follower of Jainism and subsequently embraced Buddhism. He is said to have met Gautama Buddha. This scene is also depicted in the sculptures of Barhut. According to the Mahavamsa, he constructed several chaityas and viharas. He was also instrumental in convening the First Buddhist Council at Rajagriha soon after the death of the Buddha. The immediate successor of Ajatasatru was Udayin. He laid the foundation of the new capital at Pataliputra situated at the confluence of the two rivers, the Ganges and the Son. Later it became famous as the imperial capital of the Mauryas. Udayin’s successors were weak rulers and hence Magadha was captured by Saisunaga. Thus the Haryanka dynasty came to an end and the Saisunaga dynasty came to power. Saisunaga dynasty The genealogy and chronology of the Saisunagas are not clear. Saisunaga defeated the king of Avanti which was made part of the Magadhan Empire. After Saisunaga, the mighty empire began to collapse. His successor was Kakavarman or Kalasoka. During his reign the second Buddhist Council was held at Vaisali. Kalasoka was killed by the founder of the Nanda dynasty. 50 Nandas The fame of Magadha scaled new heights under the Nanda dynasty. Their conquests went beyond the boundaries of the Gangetic basin and in North India they carved a well-knit and vast empire. Mahapadma Nanda was a powerful ruler of the Nanda dynasty. He uprooted the kshatriya dynasties in north India and assumed the title ekarat. The Puranas speak of the extensive conquests made by Mahapadma. The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga refers to the conquest of Kalinga by the Nandas. Many historians believe that a considerable portion of the Deccan was also under the control of the Nandas. Therefore, Mahapadma Nanda may be regarded as a great empire builder. According to the Buddhist tradition, Mahapadma Nanda ruled about ten years. He was succeeded by his eight sons, who ruled successively. The last Nanda ruler was Dhana Nanda. He kept the Magadhan empire intact and possessed a powerful army and enormous wealth. The fabulous wealth of the Nandas is also mentioned by several sources. The enormous wealth of the Nandas is also referred to in the Tamil Sangam work Ahananuru by the poet Mamulanar. The flourishing state of agriculture in the Nanda dominions and the general prosperity of the country must have brought to the royal treasury enormous revenue. The oppressive way of tax collection by Dhana Nanda was resented by the people. Taking advantage of this, Chandragupta Maurya and Kautilya initiated a popular movement against the Nanda rule. It was during this time that Alexander invaded India. 51 PERSIAN AND GREEK INVASIONS Persian Invasions Cyrus (558 – 530 B.C) Cyrus the Great was the greatest conqueror of the Achaemenian Empire. He was the first conqueror who led an expedition and entered into India. He captured the Gandhara region. All Indian tribes to the west of the Indus river submitted to him and paid tribute. His son Cambyses had no time to pay attention towards India. Darius I (522 – 486 B.C.) Darius I, the grandson of Cyrus, conquered the Indus valley in 518 B.C. and annexed the Punjab and Sindh. This region became the 20th Satrapy of his empire. It was the most fertile and populous province of the Achaemenian Empire. Darius sent a naval expedition under Skylas to explore the Indus. Xerxes (465-456 B.C.) Xerxes utilized his Indian province to strengthen his position. He deployed Indian infantry and cavalry to Greece to fight his opponents. But they retreated after Xerxes faced a defeat in Greece. After this failure, the Achaemenians could not follow a forward policy in India. However, the Indian province was still under their control. Darius III enlisted Indian soldiers to fight against Alexander in 330 B.C. It is evident that the control of Persians slackened on the eve of Alexander’s invasion of India. Effects of the Persian Invasion The Persian invasion provided an impetus to the growth of Indo-Iranian commerce. Also, it prepared the ground for Alexander’s invasion. The use of the Kharoshti script, a form of Iranian writing became popular in northwestern India and some of 52 Asoka’s edicts were written in that script. We are able to see the influence of Persian art on the art of the Mauryas, particularly the monolithic pillars of Asoka and the sculptures found on them. The very idea of issuing edicts by Asoka and the wording used in the edicts are traced to Iranian influence. In short, the Iranian connection with India proved more fruitful than the short-lived Indo- Macedonian contact. Alexander’s Invasion of India (327-325 B.C.) Political Condition on the eve of Alexander’s Invasion After two centuries of the Persian invasion, Alexander from Macedonia invaded India. On the eve of his invasion, there were a number of small kingdoms in northwestern India. The leading kings were Ambhi of Taxila, the ruler of Abhisara and Porus who ruled the region between the rivers of Jhelum and Chenab. There were many republican states like Nysa. In short, the northwestern India remained the most disunited part of India and the rulers were fighting with one another. They never come together against common enemy. Yet, it was not easy for Alexander to overcome so many sources of opposition. Causes of the Invasion Alexander ascended the throne of Macedonia after the death of his father Philip in 334 B.C. He conquered the whole of Persia by defeating Darius III in the battle of Arbela in 330 B.C. He also aimed at further conquest eastwards and wanted to recover the lost Persian Satrapy of India. The writings of Greek authors like Herodotus about the fabulous wealth of India attracted Alexander. Moreover, his interest in geographical enquiry and love of natural history urged him to undertake an invasion of India. He believed that on the eastern side of India there was the continuation of the sea, according the geographical knowledge of his period. So, he 53  Macedonia Markanda Blac k Se a Bactria Pushkalavathi Arm enia Greece 54 India Me Mes opat dit err omi a Drangiana Se anea a n Syriya Babylon Egypt Alexander’s Campaigns thought that by conquering India, he would also conquer the eastern boundary of the world. Battle of Hydaspes In 327 B.C. Alexander crossed the Hindukush Mountains and spent nearly ten months in fighting with the tribes. He crossed the Indus in February 326 B.C. with the help of the bridge of boats. He was warmly received by Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila. From there Alexander sent a message to Porus to submit. But Porus refused and decided to fight against Alexander. Then Alexander marched from Taxila to the banks of the river Hydaspes (Jhelum). On the other side of the river he saw the vast army of Porus. As there were heavy floods in the river, Alexander was not able to cross it. After a few days, he crossed the river and the famous battle of Hydaspes was fought on the plains of Karri. It was a well-contested battle. Although Porus had a strong army, he lost the battle. Alexander was impressed by the courage and heroism of this Indian prince, treated him generously and reinstated him on his throne. Alexander continued his march as far as the river Beas encountering opposition from the local tribes. He wanted to proceed still further eastwards towards the Gangetic valley. But he could not do so because his soldiers refused to fight. Hardships of prolonged warfare made them tired and they wanted to return home. Alexander could not persuade them and therefore decided to return. He made arrangements to look after his conquered territories in India. He divided the whole territory from the Indus to the Beas into three provinces and put them under his governors. His retreat began in October 326 B.C. and the return journey was not free from ordeals. Many republican tribes attacked his army. Anyhow he managed to reach beyond the Indus. On his way he reached Babylon where he fell seriously ill and died in 323 B.C. 55 Effects of Alexander’s invasion The immediate effect of Alexander’s invasion was that it encouraged political unification of north India under the Mauryas. The system of small independent states came to an end. Alexander’s invasion had also paved the way for direct contact between India and Greece. The routes opened by him and his naval explorations increased the existing facilities for trade between India and West Asia. However, his aim of annexing the northwestern India to his empire was not fulfilled due his premature death. His authority in the Indus valley was a short-lived one because of the expansion of Mauryan Empire under Chandragupta Maurya. Learning Outcome After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain 1. The rise of Magatha and the different dynasties ruled over it. 2. The achievements of Bimbisara, Mahapadma Nanda and other kings. 3. Persian invasions and their occupation of northwest India. 4. Effects of Persian invasion and occupation. 5. Causes and course of Alexander’s invasion of India. 6. Effects of Alexander’s invasion. 56  MODEL QUESTIONS I. Choose the correct answer. 1. The capital of Magadha was (a) Rajagriha (b) Ujjain (c) Kosala (d) Kausambi 2. Nanda dynasty was preceded by (a) Mauryas (b) Sisunagas (c) Haryankas (d) Guptas II. Fill in the blanks. 1. Ajatasatru belonged to ……. dynasty. 2. The last ruler of Nanda dynasty was ….. 3. The second Buddhist Council was held at ….. 4. Alexander died at …… in the year ….. III. Match the following. 1. Udayana a) Kosala 2. Pradyota b) Avanti 3. Prasenajit c) Magadha 4. Bimbisara d) Vatsa IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is right. a) Alexander defeated Porus and annexed his kingdom. b) Alexander defeated Porus and treated him generously. c) Alexander could not win the army of Porus. d) Alexander defeated Ambhi of Taxila with the help of Porus. 57 V. State whether the following statements are true or False. 1. Xerxes was the first Greek conqueror to enter into India. 2. The battle of Hydaspes was fought on the Karri plain. 3. Alexander annexed some portions of Gangetic valley before his departure. VI. Write short notes (Any three points). 1. Sixteen Mahajanapadas. 2. Cyrus 3. Battle of Hydaspes. 4. Effects of Alexander’s invasion. VII. Answer briefly (100 words). 1. Write briefly the achievements of Bimbisara. 2. Assess the impact of Persian invasions on India. VIII. Answer in detail (200 words). 1. Describe the rise of Magadha and the achievements of its rulers. 2. Give an account of Alexander’s invasion of India. 58  LESSON 6 THE MAURYAN EMPIRE Learning Objectives Students will acquire knowledge about 1. The sources for the study of the Mauryas. 2. Chandragupta Maurya and his achievements. 3. Asoka and his achievements and the spread of Asoka’s Dhamma. 4. The salient features of the Mauryan administration. 5. Art and architecture of the Mauryas. 6. Causes for the decline of the Mauryan empire. The foundation of the Mauryan Empire opens a new era in the history of India. For the first time, the political unity was achieved in India. Moreover, the history writing has also become clear from this period due to accuracy in chronology and sources. Besides plenty of indigenous and foreign literary sources, a number of epigraphical records are also available to write the history of this period. Literary Sources Kautilya’s Arthasastra This book in Sanskrit was written by Kautilya, a contemporary of Chandragupta Maurya. Kautilya was also called ‘Indian Machiavelli’. The manuscript of Arthasastra was first discovered by R. Shama Sastri in 1904. The Arthasastra contains 15 books 59 and 180 chapters but it can be divided into three parts: the first deals with the king and his council and the departments of government; the second with civil and criminal law; and the third with diplomacy and war. It is the most important literary source for the history of the Mauryas. Visakadatta’s Mudrarakshasa The Mudrarakshasa written by Visakadatta is a drama in Sanskrit. Although written during the Gupta period, it describes how Chandragupta with the assistance of Kautilya overthrew the Nandas. It also gives a picture on the socio-economic condition under the Mauryas. Megasthenes’ Indica Megasthenes was the Greek ambassador in the court of Chandragupta Maurya. His book Indica has survived only in fragments. Yet, his account gives details about the Mauryan administration, particularly the administration of the capital city of Pataliputra and also