Pragmatics & Discourse Analysis Notes PDF

**CHAPTER 10. PRAGMATICS** In many ways, **pragmatics** is the study of "invisible" meaning, or how we recognize what is meant even when it isn't actually said or written. For this to happen, speakers (or writers) rely on shared assumptions and expectations when they communicate. The investigation of these assumptions and expectations provides insights into how more is always being communicated than is said. For example, driving by a parking garage, you might see a sign that says "Heated Attendant Parking." While the words could literally be interpreted as referring to an attendant who has been heated or a place to park a "heated attendant," you would normally understand that the sign refers to a heated area where you can park your car, and an attendant will assist. This understanding comes from using the meanings of the words, the context, and your pre-existing knowledge to interpret the intended message. In another example, a sign advertising "Babies & Toddlers" might suggest a sale for baby and toddler clothes, even though the word \"clothes\" isn't mentioned. Based on the context and common expectations, you interpret the message correctly without needing every word spelled out. Pragmatics is thus about how we actively create an interpretation of what we read and hear, beyond the literal words. **Pragmatics** is the study of how context influences the interpretation of meaning in communication. It goes beyond the literal meanings of words to consider the social, cultural, and situational factors that affect understanding. **CONTEXT AND MEANING** The meaning of an utterance is often context-dependent. The speaker's intention, the relationship between the speaker and listener, and the situational context are all crucial in interpreting meaning. For instance, the sentence "Can you close the window?" can be understood as a request, not a literal inquiry about ability, depending on the context. - Linguistic context (or co-text) refers to the surrounding words or phrases that help interpret meaning. - Physical context refers to the situation, time, and place in which the communication occurs. - Context of situation includes the participants, their relationship, and the goal of the conversation. Certain common words, such as here, there, this, that, now, then, yesterday, today, and tomorrow, as well as pronouns like you, me, she, him, it, and them, cannot be interpreted without understanding the specific context, particularly the physical context of the speaker. Sentences may become nearly impossible to comprehend without knowing who is speaking, about whom, and when and where the conversation is taking place. For example, the sentence \"You'll have to bring it back tomorrow because she isn't here today\" relies on contextual information to be understood. **Deixis** refers to words and phrases that cannot be fully understood without additional contextual information. These include: - **Person deixis**: Words like "I," "you," "he," and "they" depend on who is speaking. - **Spatial deixis**: Words like "here," "there," "this," and "that" depend on the location of the speaker and listener. - **Temporal deixis**: Words like "now," "then," "today," and "yesterday" depend on the time of speaking. Deictic expressions must be interpreted based on the person, place, or time the speaker is referring to, distinguishing between what is near (this, here, now) and what is far (that, there, then). They can also indicate movement toward (come) or away from (go) the speaker\'s location. For example, if someone is approaching, you might say, \"Here she comes!\", while if they are moving away, you would say, \"There she goes!\" This distinction also affects phrases like \"Go to bed\" versus \"Come to bed.\" Additionally, deixis can be used humorously, as seen in a bar owner\'s sign that reads \"Free Beer Tomorrow,\" allowing them to claim customers arrived a day too early for the promotion. **REFERENCE** In discussions about deixis, it\'s easy to assume that words straightforwardly refer to people, places, and times. However, it\'s important to recognize that words themselves do not refer to anything; it is people who make the references. **Reference** is an act in which a speaker uses language to identify something, like using nouns or pronouns to refer to a person or thing. Reference is often based on shared knowledge and inferences made by the listener. To reference something, we can use proper nouns (e.g., Chomsky, Jennifer, Whiskas), noun phrases (e.g., a writer, my friend, the cat), or pronouns (e.g., he, she, it). While we often think these words uniquely identify individuals or objects, they actually have a \"range of reference,\" meaning terms like Jennifer, friend, or she can refer to multiple entities. Additionally, phrases like \"the war\" do not inherently identify anything; their reference relies on the speaker\'s context. We can also use vague expressions, such as \"the blue thing\" or \"that icky stuff,\" or even create names, like referring to a fast motorcycle rider as \"Mr. Kawasaki,\" using a brand name as a reference for a person. A successful act of reference relies more on the listener\'s ability to understand the context than on their dictionary knowledge of specific words. For instance, in a restaurant, one waiter might ask, \"Where\'s the spinach salad sitting?\" and receive the reply, \"He's sitting by the door,\" demonstrating how food names can refer to people. Similarly, a linguistics student might ask, \"Can I look at your Chomsky?\" with the response, \"Sure, it's on the shelf over there,\" showing that names of people can also refer to objects. **Inference** is a listener's ability to interpret meaning by making connections between what is said and what is implied. For example, "Can I look at your Chomsky?" refers to a book by Chomsky, not the person. Anaphora refers to the subsequent reference to an entity that has already been introduced in a text. It is primarily used to maintain reference throughout a discourse. This connection is established using pronouns (e.g., \"it\"), phrases that include the antecedent noun (e.g., \"the puppy\"), or related nouns (e.g., \"The little dog ran out of the room\"). Often, the relationship between antecedents and anaphoric expressions relies on inference. **Anaphora** refers to the use of expressions (such as pronouns) to refer back to something previously mentioned in discourse. **Antecedent** is the first mention of an entity. For example, "a puppy" is the antecedent, and "it" is the anaphoric expression. When we use referring expressions like \"this,\" \"he,\" or \"Shakespeare,\" we generally assume that our listeners can identify the intended referent. This assumption is based on a larger context of what listeners are presumed to know, which is termed a presupposition. For example, saying \"Your brother is waiting outside\" presupposes that the listener has a brother. Similarly, asking \"Why did you arrive late?\" presupposes that the listener arrived late, while \"When did you stop smoking?\" presupposes that the listener used to smoke and no longer does. A **presupposition** is something that the speaker assumes to be true or known by the listener Presuppositions are useful in various contexts, such as **legal interrogations**. For instance, if a prosecutor asks, \"How fast were you going when you ran the red light?\" there is a presupposition that the defendant did run the red light. Responding only to the speed aspect implies acceptance of this presupposition. A method to identify presuppositions involves negating a sentence and checking if the underlying presupposition still holds true. For instance, both \"My car is a wreck\" and \"My car is not a wreck\" imply the presupposition \"I have a car,\" demonstrating **constancy under negation**. Similarly, in the statement \"I used to regret marrying him, but I don't regret marrying him now,\" the presupposition \"I married him\" remains valid despite the change in the verb from affirmative to negative. **SPEECH ACTS** We interpret the meaning of an utterance by considering the speaker\'s intended message and the type of action being performed through that utterance. This understanding allows us to recognize the function of what is said, such as whether it is a request, command, question, or statement. The term speech act refers to the action performed by the speaker when making an utterance. For example, if someone says, \"I\'ll be there at six,\" they are not merely stating a fact; they are performing the speech act of \"promising.\" **Speech acts** are actions performed via utterances. They can be classified into three types: 1. **Locutionary act**: The literal meaning of the words. 2. **Illocutionary act**: The intention behind the words (e.g., requesting, commanding, questioning). 3. **Perlocutionary act**: The effect the utterance has on the listener (e.g., persuading, frightening, amusing). Certain syntactic structures are commonly used to perform specific functions, as illustrated in a table. For example: - **Interrogative**: \"Did you eat the pizza?\" (Question) - **Imperative**: \"Eat the pizza (please)!\" (Command/Request) - **Declarative**: \"You ate the pizza.\" (Statement) When interrogative structures like \"Did you\...?\" or \"Can we\...?\" are used to ask a question, this is called a **direct speech act**. For instance, \"Can you ride a bicycle?\" seeks information directly. However, in the case of \"Can you pass the salt?\" the speaker is not inquiring about ability but rather making a request, which exemplifies an **indirect speech act**. Similarly, a declarative structure like \"You left the door open\" typically makes a statement. Yet, if said to someone who just entered a cold room, the speaker may be indirectly requesting that the door be closed, demonstrating another example of an indirect speech act. Misunderstandings can arise when one person does not recognize another\'s indirect speech act. For instance, if a lost visitor asks a passerby, \"Do you know where the Ambassador Hotel is?\" and the passerby simply responds, \"Oh sure, I know where it is,\" they fail to recognize that the visitor is actually requesting directions. Indirect speech acts, such as \"Could you open that door for me?\" are often perceived as more polite than direct commands like \"Open that door for me,\" due to complex social norms regarding politeness and imposition. **POLITENESS** **Politeness** involves showing awareness and consideration of another person's \"face,\" or public self-image. In pragmatics, **face-threatening acts** occur when a speaker\'s statement threatens another person's self-image. For example, a direct command like \"Give me that paper!\" is a face-threatening act. An **indirect speech act** (e.g., \"Could you pass me that paper?\") is a more polite way to make a request, as it removes the assumption of social power. - **Negative face** refers to the need for independence and freedom from imposition. - **Positive face** refers to the need to belong and be appreciated within a social group. A **face-saving act** can be used to minimize threats to either negative or positive face. For example, "I'm sorry to bother you, but\..." shows concern for negative face by reducing imposition, while "Let's do this together\..." shows concern for positive face by emphasizing group solidarity. **CHAPTER 11. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS** In the study of language, interesting insights arise not only from examining language components but also from observing how language is used, including pauses, as seen in Jerry Seinfeld's commentary. This builds on pragmatics, where we explore how language users interpret others\' intentions. Discourse analysis takes this further by examining how we make sense of what we read, recognize well-constructed versus incoherent texts, understand speakers who convey more than they say, and participate in complex conversations. **Discourse Analysis Overview** - **Discourse** refers to \"language beyond the sentence.\" The study of discourse looks at how language functions in texts and conversations. - **Goal of discourse analysis**: To understand how language is structured in real communication, going beyond just identifying grammatical correctness. **Interpreting Discourse** - Language users can interpret fragmented or grammatically incorrect texts, making sense of incomplete or unconventional language structures. - **Example**: A newspaper headline like "Trains collide, two die" allows the reader to understand the cause-effect relationship even without explicit conjunctions. - **Example**: The notice "No shoes, no service" suggests a conditional relation: "If you aren't wearing shoes, you won't receive service." Even texts that contain many grammatical errors can be understood by language users. - **Example**: The student essay "My Town" contains errors, but the overall meaning is clear. Although the grammar is flawed, readers easily infer that the writer is describing their small hometown near Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. **Cohesion in Discourse** - **Cohesion**: The ties and connections between words and phrases within a text that help maintain reference to the same people, objects, or concepts. - **Example**: In the text "My father once bought a Lincoln convertible. He did it by saving every penny he could," the cohesive ties include: - **Reference**: \"father -- he -- he -- he\" (referring to the same person), and \"Lincoln convertible -- that car -- the convertible\" (referring to the same car). - **Lexical chains**: Terms sharing common meanings, like "money" (bought, saving, penny, worth a fortune, sold, pay) and "time" (once, nowadays, sometimes). Cohesion helps link ideas in a text, but it is not enough on its own to ensure comprehension. - **Example of a highly cohesive but incoherent text**: "My father bought a Lincoln convertible. The car driven by the police was red. That color doesn't suit her. She consists of three letters. However, a letter isn't as fast as a telephone call." Though words like "Lincoln," "car," "red," "letter" create cohesive links, the overall meaning is difficult to interpret due to the unrelated ideas. **Coherence in Discourse** - **Coherence**: The sense of \"everything fitting together well\" in a text or conversation. It is not based solely on linguistic structures but on readers' or listeners' ability to relate the content to their own experiences and knowledge. - **Example**: In the nonsensical text above (with the Lincoln convertible and the red car), readers might still attempt to make sense of the information by trying to connect it to some meaningful situation. However, coherence relies on logical, conceptual connections that make sense to the reader or listener. Coherence is essential in everyday conversation, where much of what is communicated is implicit. - **Example**: In the dialogue: - **HER**: \"That's the telephone.\" - **HIM**: \"I'm in the bath.\" - **HER**: \"O.K.\" Even without cohesive ties, the participants make sense of the exchange. The implicit meaning is that she will answer the phone because he cannot. **Speech Events** - The structure of speech events varies depending on the roles of the speaker and listener, their relationship (e.g., friends or strangers, equal or unequal status), and the context of the conversation. - Analyzing speech events involves understanding these contextual factors, as well as the specific structure of the conversation itself, such as who speaks when and how they interact. **Conversation Analysis** - **Turn-taking:** English conversation typically involves two or more participants taking turns to speak. Usually, only one person speaks at a time, and silence between turns is often avoided. - Example: If more than one person speaks simultaneously, one will usually stop. In the dialogue below, Speaker A stops when Speaker B starts talking: - Speaker A: \"Didn't you \[ know wh-\" - Speaker B: \"\[ But he must've been there by two.\" - Speaker A: \"Yes but you knew where he was going.\" - The small square bracket \[ is conventionally used to show overlapping or simultaneous speech. - Completion points: Speakers indicate they have finished their turn by signaling a completion point. Some common signals include: 1. Asking a question. 2. Pausing at the end of a sentence or a syntactic structure (such as a phrase or clause). - Example: A speaker might end their turn by completing a sentence and pausing briefly, signaling that the next speaker can take over. - **Participants' cues:** When another participant wants to take a turn, they can signal this in several ways: 1. Making short, repeated sounds, such as *mm-hmm* or *uh-huh*, while the current speaker is talking. 2. Using non-verbal cues like body shifts or facial expressions to show that they want to speak or have something to add. - **Conversational style**: Different people and cultures have varied expectations regarding conversational participation, which can sometimes be misinterpreted. - **Example**: One speaker might be seen as \"rude\" for cutting in on another speaker, or as \"shy\" for waiting too long to take a turn. In both cases, the individuals may simply be adhering to different conventions of turn-taking rather than intentionally behaving inappropriately. - Some speakers adopt strategies to keep speaking, or \"hold the floor,\" preventing others from taking their turn. These strategies are commonly used when the speaker is trying to think while speaking. - **Example**: Long-winded speakers often avoid normal completion points (such as the end of a sentence followed by a pause) by: - Using **connectors** like *and, so, but* to link sentences and prevent pauses. - Pausing at places where the sentence is clearly incomplete (e.g., before or after verbs). - Using **hesitation markers** like *er, em, uh* to fill pauses and keep the conversation flowing. - **Example 1**: In the conversation below, note how the speaker pauses before and after verbs, making it harder for others to interrupt because the message seems incomplete. - **Speaker A**: "That's their favorite restaurant because they... enjoy French food and when they were... in France they couldn't believe it that... you know that they had... that they had had better meals back home." - **Example 2**: In the following dialogue, Speaker X uses hesitation markers (*em, er, you know*) to recover control after almost losing the turn to Speaker Y. - **Speaker X**: "Well that film really was..." - **Speaker Y**: "\[ When di-\" - **Speaker X**: "I mean his other... em his later films were much more... er really more in the romantic style and that was more what what he was...you know...em best at doing." - **Speaker Y**: "So when did he make that one?" - **Turn-taking strategies**: While techniques such as holding the floor may seem domineering or undesirable, they are a natural part of most people's conversational behavior. These strategies help organize turns and manage the flow of conversation. - **The Cooperative Principle**: A significant feature of conversation is its cooperative nature. Even when participants seem to interrupt or hold the floor, they are typically adhering to conversational rules that facilitate smooth interaction. **The Cooperative Principle and Gricean Maxims** - According to Grice's **Cooperative Principle**, participants in a conversation are expected to make their contributions appropriate and informative. - **Gricean Maxims**: - **Quantity**: Provide the right amount of information. - **Quality**: Don't provide false or unsupported information. - **Relation**: Be relevant. - **Manner**: Be clear and orderly. - **Example**: When one woman asks another, "How do you like the sandwich?" and gets the reply, "A sandwich is a sandwich," the response follows the Quantity maxim in being as informative as necessary (implicitly saying the sandwich isn't special). **Hedges** - **Hedges**: Expressions used to show uncertainty or caution when following the maxims. - **Example**: "His hair was kind of long" (hedging the description to show uncertainty), or phrases like "As far as I know\..." and "I'm not absolutely sure, but\..." soften the speaker's claim, particularly in relation to the Quality maxim (truthfulness). **Implicatures** occur when a speaker implies something without explicitly stating it. These implied meanings can be understood by analyzing how hedges (words like \"maybe\" or \"sort of\") work and by using principles like the **co-operative principle** and the **Gricean maxims**. **Example 1: \"A sandwich is a sandwich\"** - **Implied Meaning**: When the woman says \"a sandwich is a sandwich,\" she's implying that the sandwich isn't worth discussing. This interpretation goes beyond the literal meaning and is understood through context. **Example 2:** - **Conversation**: - **CAROL**: Are you coming to the party tonight? - **LARA**: I've got an exam tomorrow. **Lara\'s statement** does not directly answer Carol's question. She doesn't say \"Yes\" or \"No,\" but Carol will likely interpret Lara's response as \"No\" or \"Probably not.\" This understanding comes from Carol assuming that Lara is being **relevant** and **informative**, following the maxims of **Relation** (be relevant) and **Quantity** (provide enough information). - **How Implicature Works**: - **Background knowledge** is crucial for understanding implicatures. In this case, Carol knows that having an exam tomorrow means Lara probably needs to study tonight, which in turn suggests that Lara won't attend the party. - If Lara had responded with something irrelevant, like \"Roses are red,\" Carol wouldn't be able to derive the same meaning. **Importance in Discourse Analysis:** - Discourse analysis looks at how people use background knowledge to arrive at interpretations in conversation. This involves recognizing that speakers don't always state things outright but often rely on shared knowledge and the co-operative principle to convey additional meanings through implicature. Understanding how people make sense of texts often involves using **background knowledge** to draw inferences that go beyond the literal meaning of the words. Sanford and Garrod (1981) provided a great example of this process by showing how readers interpret texts based on what they know about the world. **Example:** - **Text**: \"John was on his way to school last Friday. He was really worried about the math lesson.\" - **Inference**: Most readers infer that John is likely a schoolboy, even though this isn\'t explicitly stated. The inference is based on conventional knowledge about \"going to school.\" However, readers may also imagine other possible scenarios (e.g., John walking, riding a bus), though interpretations like John swimming or being on a boat are generally ruled out as unlikely. As the text progresses, new information alters these inferences: - **Text**: \"Last week he had been unable to control the class.\" - **New inference**: Now, readers might decide that John is a teacher, and the idea of him being a schoolboy is abandoned. - **Text**: \"It was unfair of the math teacher to leave him in charge.\" - **Revised inference**: John reverts to being a schoolboy, and the earlier interpretation is dropped. - **Final Text**: \"After all, it is not a normal part of a janitor's duties.\" - **Surprise**: The new inference is that John is a janitor. This example shows how readers build interpretations based on background knowledge and adjust them as new information arises. The process is dynamic and involves constantly revising assumptions as new details are revealed. **Schemas and Scripts** - **Schema**: A **schema** refers to a general knowledge structure in memory. For instance, in the earlier example, readers were using their **classroom schema**---knowledge of what typically happens in a classroom---to interpret the text. Schemas help us make sense of experiences and what we read. - Example: When someone describes a visit to a supermarket, you don't need to be told what is typically found there (food on shelves, aisles, shopping carts, etc.). You already have a **supermarket schema**. - **Script**: A **script** is a dynamic schema involving a series of conventional actions. It represents the typical sequence of events in particular situations. - Example: You have a **script** for \"Going to the dentist\" or \"Eating in a restaurant.\" For example, consider this text: - \"Trying not to be out of the office for long, Suzy went into the nearest place, sat down, and ordered an avocado sandwich. It was quite crowded, but the service was fast, so she left a good tip. Back in the office, things were not going well.\" - **Restaurant Script**: Without being told, you can assume Suzy entered the restaurant, ordered her food, ate it, paid, and left. Even though these details aren't explicitly stated, your **restaurant script** helps fill in the gaps. **Cough Syrup Example:** - **Text**: \"Fill measure cup to line and repeat every 2 to 3 hours.\" - **Script**: While the instructions don't explicitly tell you to drink the cough syrup, your **medicine-taking script** tells you that you should consume it, not rub it on your neck or hair. This demonstrates that understanding text involves not just processing the language structures (words and sentences) but also applying **knowledge structures** (schemas and scripts) from our experiences. **CHAPTER 12. LANGUAGE AND THE BRAIN** **Overview** - Neurolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the brain, with research beginning in the 19th century. - The field explores how language is processed and located within the brain\'s structure. **Phineas Gage Incident (1848)** - Phineas Gage survived a severe brain injury where a rod passed through the front of his brain, with no impact on his language abilities. - This incident suggested that language functions are not located in the frontal part of the brain. **Key Language Areas in the Brain** 1. **Broca's Area (Anterior Speech Cortex)** - Located in the left hemisphere. - Discovered by Paul Broca in the 1860s; linked to speech production. - Damage to Broca's area results in difficulty producing speech but not in comprehension. 2. **Wernicke's Area (Posterior Speech Cortex)** - Located in the left hemisphere. - Discovered by Carl Wernicke in the 1870s; associated with understanding speech. - Damage to Wernicke's area affects language comprehension, not speech production. 3. **Motor Cortex** - Controls muscle movements, including those for articulation (face, jaw, tongue, and larynx). - Electrical stimulation studies by Penfield and Roberts in the 1950s indicated its role in speech articulation. 4. **Arcuate Fasciculus** - A bundle of nerve fibers connecting Broca's and Wernicke's areas. - Essential for coordinating speech comprehension and production. **The Localization View** - This theory suggests specific brain regions are responsible for different language functions: 1. Wernicke's area processes and comprehends words. 2. Signals are then sent via the arcuate fasciculus to Broca's area to prepare for speech production. 3. Finally, the motor cortex activates muscles for speech articulation. - This pathway-based view provides a simplified model for understanding language processing but may not fully capture the brain\'s complexity. **Metaphors in Neurolinguistics** - **Pathway Metaphor**: Language processing is often described as a pathway to make sense of how signals move within the brain, but this is a simplification. - Historical metaphors, like Freud's "steam engine" or Aristotle's "sponge," highlight our reliance on analogies due to the indirect nature of studying brain function. **Challenges** - Direct evidence of language processing in the brain is limited, so neurolinguistics relies on indirect observations, often through cases of brain damage or malfunction. **Tongue Tips and Slips** We\'ve all experienced moments when our thoughts and words don\'t align perfectly. These common \"slips\" may offer insights into how the brain organizes language. **Aphasia: Disorders of Language Processing** More serious and permanent language issues are classified as **aphasia**, often due to brain damage, like from a stroke. Aphasia can affect both comprehension and speech production, with various types distinguished by specific symptoms. This exploration of slips, malapropisms, and aphasia sheds light on both typical and atypical language functioning, revealing the brain's organized yet vulnerable language system. **Dichotic Listening** - **Definition**: The dichotic listening test is an experimental technique that demonstrates left hemisphere dominance for syllable and word processing. - **Basic Principle**: - Sensory input from the right side of the body is processed in the left hemisphere, and input from the left side is processed in the right hemisphere. - Example: A stroke in the right hemisphere can lead to paralysis of the left leg. - **Experimental Setup**: - Participants wear headphones and receive two different auditory signals simultaneously, one in each ear. - Example: - One earphone plays the syllable **\"ga\"** or the word **\"dog.\"** - The other earphone plays the syllable **\"da\"** or the word **\"cat.\"** - **Findings**: - When asked to report what they heard, subjects often correctly identify sounds from the **right ear**, demonstrating the **right ear advantage** for linguistic sounds. - **Processing Pathway**: - Signals from the left ear go to the right hemisphere and then must be relayed to the left hemisphere (language center). - This non-direct route takes longer than signals from the right ear, which go directly to the left hemisphere. - **Specializations of Hemispheres**: - **Left Hemisphere**: Specializes in language sounds, engaged in analytic processing (recognizing smaller details in sounds, words, and phrases). - **Right Hemisphere**: Primarily processes non-linguistic sounds (e.g., music, traffic noises) and engages in holistic processing (identifying broader structures). **The Critical Period** - **Lateral Dominance**: - The left hemisphere's specialization for language is described in terms of **lateral dominance** or **lateralization**. - The lateralization process begins in early childhood during language acquisition. - **Critical Period**: - Generally believed to last from **birth until puberty**. - Children who miss this period may find it nearly impossible to learn language later. - **Case Study: Genie**: - **Background**: - Genie was discovered in 1970, having experienced severe isolation and neglect. - Her father punished her for making noise, leading to a deprivation of language input. - **Initial Findings**: - Upon entering care, Genie could not use language but quickly began to respond to speech and imitate sounds. - Her syntax remained simple despite her progress. - **Implications**: - Genie's limited ability to form grammatically complex sentences supports the idea that the left hemisphere is crucial for language acquisition during childhood. - **Neurological Tests**: - Tests indicated Genie had no functional language center in the left hemisphere. - Remarkably, she appeared to utilize her right hemisphere for language functions. - Dichotic listening tests showed a left ear advantage for both verbal and non-verbal signals. - **Conclusion**: - Genie\'s case suggests that language ability might not be restricted to specific areas but could involve complex connections throughout the brain. - As she began to speak, Genie exhibited stages of normal language acquisition, which will be further explored in the next chapter. **CHAPTER 15. GESTURES AND SIGN LANGUAGES** **Language Acquisition** - **Focus**: The natural acquisition of language, primarily through speech. - **Examples**: - Children of English or Spanish-speaking parents acquire their respective languages. - Deaf children of deaf parents naturally acquire Sign Language. **Sign Language Acquisition** - **Observation**: As noted by Oliver Sacks, deaf children may use Sign even while sleeping. - **American Sign Language (ASL)**: - Typically acquired by deaf children in American homes. - Estimated signing population: **500,000 to 2 million** users in the U.S. - Historical Context: - ASL was discouraged in most educational institutions for the deaf. - Very few teachers of the deaf learned ASL or recognized it as a \"real\" language. - Many viewed Sign as \"merely gestures.\" **Distinction Between Sign and Gestures** - **Sign Language**: - Used instead of spoken language. - Functions as a primary means of communication. - **Gestures**: - Used while speaking to enhance or convey meaning. - Examples include: - Downward hand movement while discussing poor performance. - Twisting motion while describing opening a bottle. **Non-Verbal Behavior: Gestures vs. Emblems** - **Gestures**: - Movements that accompany speech. - **Emblems**: - Fixed phrases that convey specific meanings without speech. - Examples: - **Thumbs up**: Indicates things are good. - **V-sign**: Represents victory or insult, depending on orientation. **Types of Gestures** - **Iconics**: - Reflect the meaning of spoken messages. - Example: Tracing a square in the air while saying, \"I'm looking for a small box.\" - **Deictics**: - Pointing gestures used to refer to things or people. - Example: Indicating a cake while asking, \"Would you like some cake?\" - **Beats**: - Short, quick hand movements that accompany the rhythm of speech. - Used to emphasize parts of speech or mark transitions in storytelling. **Types of Sign Languages** - **Alternate Sign Languages**: - Developed for limited communication in specific contexts. - Examples: - Used by monks in silent religious orders. - Employed by Australian Aboriginal groups during periods of speech avoidance. - **Primary Sign Languages**: - First languages for groups not using spoken language. - Examples: - British Sign Language (BSL) and French Sign Language (SLF) used by deaf communities. - **Key Point**: Different primary sign languages are not mutually intelligible. - Historical Note: ASL shares some characteristics with French Sign Language. - **Significance**: - ASL is an important focus for understanding primary sign languages. - Historically, ASL was not recognized as a legitimate language. **Oralism in Deaf Education** - **Historical Context**: - Serious consideration of ASL as a natural language began in the 1960s, primarily due to William Stokoe\'s work. - Prior to this, many educators believed that sign language inhibited English language acquisition. - **Oralism**: - Dominant teaching method in deaf education throughout the 20th century. - Focused on: - Practicing English speech sounds. - Developing lip-reading skills. - **Effectiveness**: - Method was largely unsuccessful: - Less than **10%** of students could speak intelligible English. - Only around **4%** could lip-read. - Despite failure, it went largely unchallenged due to a pervasive belief that deaf children had limited potential. - **Cultural Transmission of ASL**: - While oralism failed, ASL flourished informally. - Many deaf children learned ASL from peers rather than teachers. - Only **1 in 10** deaf children had deaf parents to teach them sign language. **Signed English** - **Recent Changes**: - Shift towards emphasizing written English over spoken language. - Promotion of **Signed English** (or **Manually Coded English**, MCE): - Produces signs corresponding to English words in English word order. - Aims to facilitate communication between deaf and hearing communities. - **Advantages**: - Easier for hearing parents of deaf children to learn and communicate. - Useful for hearing teachers and interpreters, enhancing understanding during interactions. - **Challenges**: - Signed English is neither purely English nor ASL. - Takes **twice as long** to produce signed versions of English sentences compared to spoken English or ASL. - Often leads to hybrid forms, combining word-signs and incomplete English word order. - Example: Using a G letter-shape to represent "glad" instead of the actual ASL sign. **Implications of Signed English** - **Educational Goals**: - Aims to prepare deaf students for reading and writing English. - Intended to enable deaf individuals to participate in the hearing world for economic reasons. - **Cultural Impact**: - Results in ASL being treated as an underground language, primarily used in deaf-to-deaf interactions. - Myths and misunderstandings about ASL persist due to this marginalization. **Origins of ASL** - **Development**: - ASL did not originate as a gestured version of English. - Evolved from French Sign Language brought to the U.S. in the 18th century. - Laurent Clerc, a teacher from a Paris school, helped establish deaf education in the U.S. with Thomas Gallaudet. - **Evolution**: - ASL developed by incorporating features from indigenous natural sign languages used by American deaf individuals. - **Sign Language Diversity**: - This historical development explains why ASL and British Sign Language (BSL) are not mutually intelligible. **The Structure of Signs in ASL** - **Nature of ASL**: - ASL functions in a visual mode, designed for the eyes rather than the ears. - Signers utilize four key aspects of visual information, known as articulatory parameters: 1. **Shape** 2. **Orientation** 3. **Location** 4. **Movement** **Articulation of Signs** - **Example: THANK-YOU** - **Shape**: - Refers to the configuration of the hands (e.g., "flat hand" vs. "fist hand"). - **Orientation**: - In THANK-YOU, the hand is oriented with the palm up. - Different signs may have varying orientations, like MINE, which uses a palm towards the signer. - **Location**: - The sign starts near the mouth and ends at chest level. - Some signs can be distinguished by their location, e.g., SUMMER (above eyes) vs. UGLY (below eyes). - Two-handed signs (like MEDICINE, SHIP) involve one hand as a base while the other moves. - **Movement**: - The THANK-YOU sign moves \"out and downward\" towards the recipient. - Speed of movement can change meaning, as seen in the distinction between DEAD (quick movement) and DYING (slower movement). - **Primes and Non-Manual Components** - **Primes**: - Elements of shape and orientation (e.g., "flat hand" as a prime). - Feature analysis of signs can be compared to phonological features in spoken language. - **Non-Manual Components**: - Includes head movement, eye movement, and facial expressions. - THANK-YOU is typically accompanied by a head nod and a smile. - Questions may involve raised eyebrows and leaning forward. **ASL as a Visual Medium** - **Production**: - Signs are primarily produced around the neck and head; two-handed signs are typically made near the chest. - Visual language allows simultaneous production of distinct elements, unlike the linear nature of spoken language. **Misconceptions About ASL Signs** - **Common Misbeliefs**: - ASL signs are often thought to be simple representations of objects or actions (i.e., primitive gestures). - This belief persists because the hearing community rarely observes ASL in fluent conversation. - **Symbolic Connections**: - Non-users might perceive a symbolic connection between signs and their meanings (e.g., interpreting THANK-YOU as a representation of the action). - **Understanding ASL**: - Recognizing individual signs is challenging for non-users, and interpretation doesn't rely on pictorial representations. - ASL signs gain their meanings through recognition of linguistic forms, not through reference to images. **Example of Symbolic Interpretation** - **Interpreting Signs**: - The sign for AMERICA involves rotating both hands together in front of the chest. - Possible interpretations of its source image include stripes on a flag, a mixing pot, or a coming together. - Suggesting that signers think of these images when using the sign is as absurd as expecting English speakers to think of Amerigo Vespucci when they hear the word \"America.\" **Representing Signs in ASL** - **Visual Medium**: - ASL utilizes the visual medium, making accurate representation on paper difficult. - Lou Fant (1977) noted that true representation would require motion pictures. - **Facial Expressions**: - Important for conveying meaning but challenging to incorporate into written form. - A proposed method involves writing signed words in capital letters with facial expression indicators above them. - Example: - Facial expression for a question indicated by \"q\": - **q**\ ME BORROW BOOK - - **Subtle Meaning Conveyance**: - Facial expressions can add nuanced meanings. - In a study, a signer's expression during the phrase "MAN FISH \[continuous\]" indicated a relaxed and enjoyable fishing experience. - Non-manual signals can function similarly to adverbs or prepositional phrases in English. - A notation system (e.g., "mm") was developed to represent these expressions, leading to more accurate transcriptions: - **mm**\ MAN FISH \[continuous\] - **ASL as a Natural Language** - **Linguistic Investigations**: - Research into ASL from a linguistic perspective is relatively new but has shown it shares features with spoken languages. - **Linguistic Properties**: - ASL includes elements found in spoken languages, such as: - Phonology - Morphology - Syntax - Follows Subject Verb Object (SVO) word order, with adjectives typically placed after nouns. - **Language Acquisition**: - Children learning ASL go through developmental stages akin to those of children learning spoken languages. - Sign production may start earlier than spoken word production. - **Cultural Aspects**: - ASL supports a wide variety of humor and "sign-play." - There are regional dialects and historical changes in sign forms over the past century, preserved in old films. **Conclusion** - ASL is a resilient natural language, enduring despite prejudice and misunderstanding. - A joke among the deaf highlights societal challenges, with the traditional answer to the question, "What is the greatest problem facing deaf people?" being "Hearing people." - Increased awareness and appreciation of ASL may lead to a shift in this perspective. **CHAPTER 16. WRITING** **Definition** - **Writing**: The symbolic representation of language using graphic signs. - Unlike speech, writing requires conscious effort to learn; it is not simply acquired. - Not all languages have a written form; many people lack proficiency in their language\'s writing system. **Historical Context** - Writing is a relatively recent development in human history. - Early visual representation attempts date back over 20,000 years (e.g., cave drawings, clay tokens). - The earliest evidence of writing is **cuneiform**, marked on clay tablets about 5,000 years ago. - Inscriptions from around 3,000 years ago are closely connected to modern writing systems. - Much knowledge of ancient writing systems comes from stone or clay inscriptions; other materials have likely perished. **Pictograms** - Cave drawings may record events but are not considered linguistic messages. - Pictograms arise when pictures consistently represent particular images (e.g., a picture of the sun). - A conventional relationship between the symbol and its meaning must exist. **Ideograms** - Over time, pictograms can evolve into more abstract forms, known as ideograms, representing concepts (e.g., the sun symbol becoming associated with \"heat\" or \"daytime\"). - The distinction between pictograms and ideograms lies in their representation: - **Pictograms**: More visually representative of objects. - **Ideograms**: More abstract and conceptual. **Language Independence** - Pictograms and ideograms do not represent specific words or sounds in any particular language. - Modern pictograms can be understood across different languages due to their conventional meanings. **Evolution of Symbols** - Many modern writing system symbols likely have pictographic or ideographic origins. - Example: Egyptian hieroglyph for \"house\" derived from a diagram-like representation. - Example: Chinese character for \"river\" originally depicted a stream flowing between banks. - Despite their origins, these symbols are not direct pictures; they are abstract representations. - As the relationship between symbols and their meanings becomes more abstract, symbols start representing words in a language. **Logograms** - When symbols are used to represent specific words in a language, they are referred to as **logograms** or examples of word-writing. - Example: The ideogram for \"water\" in early Egyptian writing later evolved into a derived symbol for the actual word \"water.\" - **Logograms**: Symbols that represent words or morphemes rather than sounds. - **Cuneiform Writing**: An early logographic writing system used by the Sumerians around 5,000 years ago, characterized by wedge-shaped symbols pressed into clay. - Example: The cuneiform representation of a fish has no clear indication of what it represents, illustrating the arbitrary relationship of logograms. **Contemporary Usage** - Modern logograms include symbols like \$, @, 9, and &, each representing a word. - **Chinese Writing**: A more elaborate logographic system where many characters represent meanings rather than sounds, facilitating communication among speakers of different dialects. **Advantages and Disadvantages** - Advantages: - The ability for speakers of different Chinese dialects to read the same text. - Chinese has the longest continuous history of use as a writing system (3,000 years). - Disadvantages: - A large number of different symbols are required, with official lists containing 2,500 characters and other lists up to 50,000 characters. - The memory load required to remember numerous composite word-symbols can be significant. **Rebus Writing** - **Rebus Writing**: A method where symbols representing entities are adapted to represent the sounds of spoken language. **Examples** - The English word \"eye\" might be represented by a pictogram that becomes a logogram. - Utilizing rebus principles, you could represent \"I\" as "eye," and other words like \"Crosseye\" and \"defy\" by combining symbols. **Contemporary Context** - In modern English texting, symbols like "2" and letters like "u" represent sounds in messages (e.g., \"nd2spk2u2nite\" for \"need to speak to you tonight\"). **Syllabic Writing** - **Syllabic Writing**: A writing system where each symbol represents a syllable. - No purely syllabic writing systems exist today, but Japanese writing can be considered partially syllabic, utilizing symbols for spoken syllables. **Historical Examples** - **Sequoyah's System**: A Cherokee syllabic writing system developed in the early 19th century, using symbols to represent syllables (e.g., (ho), (sa), (ge)). - Ancient Egyptian and Sumerian writing systems evolved to incorporate syllabic representation from earlier logograms. **Phoenician Syllabic System** - The Phoenicians (3,000 to 4,000 years ago) developed a fully syllabic writing system using symbols adapted from Egyptian writing. - Egyptian symbol for \"house\" became a logogram for \"beth\" (house) and later represented syllables starting with a \"b\" sound. - Egyptian symbol for \"water\" was adapted for syllables beginning with an \"m\" sound. - The Phoenician writing system was fully developed and replaced earlier logographic systems by about 3,000 years ago. **Alphabetic Writing**: - Involves a set of symbols representing single sound types or phonemes. - This concept is fundamental to alphabetic writing systems. **Consonantal Alphabets**: - Semitic languages (e.g., Arabic and Hebrew) primarily use symbols for consonant sounds. - Vowel sounds are typically supplied by the reader. **Origins**: - Early alphabetic scripts trace back to the Phoenicians, which serve as the basis for most alphabets worldwide. - Modified versions influenced writing systems in Iranian, Indian, and Southeast Asian languages. **Development of Vowel Representation**: - Greeks expanded the alphabetic system by introducing distinct symbols for vowel sounds. - This led to the development of a true alphabet, where single symbols correspond to single sounds (e.g., "alpha" for A, "beta" for B). **Spread of the Alphabet**: - The Greek alphabet influenced Western Europe through the Romans, leading to the Roman alphabet used for English. - A separate adaptation of the Greek alphabet resulted in the Cyrillic alphabet, used in Slavic languages. **Historical Influence**: - Some modern European alphabet letters can be traced back to Egyptian hieroglyphics. **Mismatch Between Written and Spoken English**: - There is often a discrepancy between written forms (e.g., \"you know\") and their spoken counterparts (e.g., \"yu no\" or /ju noʊ/). - Other languages, like Italian and Spanish, exhibit more consistent one-sound-one-symbol relationships. **English Orthography**: - English orthography (spelling) allows for significant variation in how sounds are represented. - Example variations in representing the vowel sound /i/ and the consonant sound /ʃ/: - Vowel: - i (as in \"critique\"), ie (as in \"belief\"), ei (as in \"receipt\"), ea (as in \"meat\") - Consonant: - s (as in \"sugar\"), ss (as in \"tissue\"), sh (as in \"Danish\"), ch (as in \"champagne\") **Use of Digraphs**: - English includes combinations of letters representing a single sound, called digraphs (e.g., \"ph\" for /f/ and \"sh\" for /ʃ/). **Historical Influences on Spelling**: - Spelling conventions were fixed during the introduction of printing in the 15th century, influenced by Latin and French. - Example: \"qu\" replaced the older \"cw\" in \"queen.\" - Many early printers were Dutch speakers, leading to inconsistencies in representing English pronunciations (e.g., the \"h\" in \"ghost\"). **Evolution of Pronunciation**: - Spoken English pronunciation has changed since the 15th century, leading to silent letters in words like \"knight.\" - The silent final -e affects preceding vowel sounds, resulting in different pronunciations (e.g., \"hat/hate,\" \"not/note\"). **Spelling Reforms**: - Many older English words were altered by 16th-century spelling reformers to align with presumed Latin origins (e.g., \"dette\" became \"debt\"). - Noah Webster proposed spelling revisions in American English, achieving limited success (e.g., \"honour\" became \"honor\"), but not implementing more radical changes (e.g., \"bred\" for \"bread\"). **Future Exploration**: - The next chapter will delve into the historical development of English and the evolution of languages. **CHAPTER 17. LANGUAGE HISTORY AND CHANGE** **Introduction to Family Trees** - In 1786, **Sir William Jones**, a British government official in India, observed that **Sanskrit** shared significant similarities in root verbs and grammatical forms with Greek and Latin. - He suggested that these languages, despite geographical separation, had a common ancestor. - This revolutionary idea laid the foundation for the study of linguistic ancestry. **Proto-Indo-European** - During the 19th century, the concept of a **Proto-Indo-European** language emerged: - **Proto**: Original form. - **Indo-European**: The source of modern languages across the Indian subcontinent and Europe. - Proto-Indo-European is often referred to as the \"great-great-grandmother\" of Indo-European languages. **Indo-European Language Family** - The Indo-European family has the largest population and distribution of speakers worldwide. - It has many branches, some of which include: 1. **Balto-Slavic**: Includes Baltic and Slavic languages like Latvian, Lithuanian, Russian, Polish, and Czech. 2. **Indo-Iranian**: Contains Indic languages (e.g., Hindi, Urdu, Bengali) and Iranian languages (e.g., Persian, Kurdish, Pashto). 3. **Germanic**: Includes English, German, Swedish, and Danish. 4. **Celtic**: Features Irish, Welsh, Breton, and Gaelic. 5. **Italic**: Contains Romance languages derived from Latin, such as French, Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish. 6. **Hellenic**: Primarily represented by Greek. **Linguistic Diversity** - While Indo-European is significant, it is just one of about **30 language families** in the world. - Globally, there are approximately **6,912 individual languages** (Ethnologue, 2005). - **Notable points on language distribution**: - **Chinese** has the most native speakers (\~1 billion). - **English** is widely used across the globe with \~350 million native speakers. **Endangered Languages** - Many of the world\'s languages are at risk of extinction, while others continue to expand due to globalization and cultural influence. **Understanding Language Relationships** - At first glance, modern languages like **Italian** and **Hindi** seem unrelated. - Studying older languages (e.g., **Latin** and **Sanskrit**) reveals shared features, helping trace connections. **Example Comparison: Words for \"Father\" and \"Brother\"** **Language** **Father** **Brother** ------------------- ------------ ------------- **Sanskrit** pitar bhrātar **Latin** pater frāter **Ancient Greek** patēr phratēr - Similarities in **form** and **probable pronunciation** provide evidence of a shared linguistic ancestry. **Cognates** - **Definition**: Words in different languages that have similar forms and meanings. - Examples of **cognates**: - English: mother, father, friend - German: Mutter, Vater, Freund - Spanish: madre, padre, amigo - Italian: madre, padre, amico - **Conclusion**: - English and German likely share a common ancestor in the **Germanic branch**. - Spanish and Italian share an ancestor in the **Italic branch** of Indo-European. **Comparative Reconstruction** - **Goal**: Reconstruct the **proto-forms** of words in an ancestral language. - **Methodology**: - Compare sets of cognates. - Follow **two general principles**: **1. Majority Principle** - The majority form is likely the original. - Example: If three words begin with **\[p\]** and one with **\[b\]**, **\[p\]** is assumed original. **2. Most Natural Development Principle** - Certain sound changes are common and predictable: 1. **Final vowels** often disappear. - Example: *vino* → *vin* 2. **Voiceless sounds** become voiced between vowels. - Example: *muta* → *muda* 3. **Stops** become fricatives. - Example: *ripa* → *riva* 4. **Consonants** become voiceless at the end of words. - Example: *rizu* → *ris* **Comparative Reconstruction Process** - Comparative reconstruction identifies the most likely original sounds in proto-languages by analyzing patterns across related languages. - Example set from three languages (**A**, **B**, **C**) for the word \"sing\": - A: *cantare* - B: *cantar* - C: *chanter* **Observations:** 1. **Initial sounds**: - A and B: \[k\] (a stop consonant). - C: \[ʃ\] (a fricative). 2. **Principles applied**: - **Majority Principle**: \[k\] occurs more frequently in the set. - **Most Natural Development Principle**: Stops (\[k\]) typically evolve into fricatives (\[ʃ\]). **Conclusion:** - The original proto-sound was likely \[k\]. - Verified by Latin cognates (*cantare, catena, carus, caballus*), confirming \[k\] as the initial sound. **Word Reconstruction** - Example from three Amazonian languages with proto-form determination: **Languages** **1** **2** **3** **Proto-Forms** --------------- ------- ------- ------- ----------------- \"Stream\" mube mupe mup *mupe* \"Rock\" abadi apati apat *apati* \"Knife\" agana akana akan *akana* \"Diamond\" enugu enuku enuk *enuku* **Observations:** 1. **Consonant shifts** in Language 1: - \[p\] → \[b\], \[t\] → \[d\], \[k\] → \[ɡ\]. - Follows the principle that **voiceless sounds become voiced between vowels**. 2. **Final vowel loss**: - Language 3 consistently loses final vowels present in Language 2. **Conclusion:** - Language 2 has forms closest to the original proto-forms. **Principles of Sound Change** 1. **Majority Principle**: - The form appearing in most languages is likely the original. 2. **Most Natural Development Principle**: - Common sound changes include: - Stops becoming fricatives. - Voiceless sounds becoming voiced between vowels. - Loss of final vowels over time. **Notes: The History of English** The history of English is traditionally divided into four major periods: 1. **Old English (before 1100)** 2. **Middle English (1100--1500)** 3. **Early Modern English (1500--1700)** 4. **Modern English (after 1700)** **Old English (before 1100)** - **Origins**: Derived from the Germanic languages spoken by the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes who migrated to the British Isles in the 5th century. - **Key terms**: Many basic English words come from Old English, such as *mann* (\"man\"), *cild* (\"child\"), *hūs* (\"house\"), and *etan* (\"eat\"). - **Pagan influence**: Days of the week, such as *Wednesday* (Woden) and *Thursday* (Thor), reflect their gods. - **Christian influence**: From the 6th to 8th centuries, Latin terms like *angel*, *bishop*, and *church* entered the language as the Anglo-Saxons converted to Christianity. - **Old Norse influence**: Introduced by Vikings in the 8th--10th centuries, contributing words like *give*, *take*, *sky*, and *law*. **Middle English (1100--1500)** - **Norman Conquest (1066)**: French became the language of the ruling class, influencing English vocabulary with terms like *court*, *prison*, and *tax*. - **Dual vocabulary**: Peasants used Old English terms (*cow*, *sheep*), while French-derived terms (*beef*, *mutton*) referred to the same animals as food. - **Chaucer\'s English**: Reflects Middle English, with distinct pronunciation and spelling. - Example: *weef* (wife), *hoos* (house), and *weena* (wine). - **The Great Vowel Shift (1400--1600)**: A significant phonetic change where long vowels were raised, transforming pronunciation. **Early Modern English (1500--1700)** - **Printing revolution (1476)**: Standardized spelling, preserving older forms like *knee* and *gnaw*. - **Pronunciation vs. Spelling**: Spelling became fixed even as pronunciation evolved. **Modern English (after 1700)** - **Refinement**: Pronunciation and grammar stabilized. - **Legacy of historical changes**: Borrowed vocabulary and standardized orthography reflect earlier periods of influence. **Types of Language Change** 1. **External Change**: - Influences from other languages, e.g., Norman French and Old Norse. 2. **Internal Change**: - Changes within the language not caused by outside influences, such as phonetic shifts (*mōna* → *moon*). This historical trajectory demonstrates how English evolved through both internal developments and external influences, shaping the language into its modern form. **Sound Changes in the Evolution of English** **1. Sound Loss** - Many sounds present in Old and Middle English disappeared over time. - Initial **\[h\]**: *hlud* → *loud*, *hlaford* → *lord*. - Silent letters: Earlier pronunciations like *knee* and *gnaw* retained their spelling, despite the loss of the initial **\[k\]** and **\[ɡ\]**. - Velar fricative **\[x\]**: Present in Old English *nicht* (\[nɪxt\]), but lost in Modern English *night* (\[naɪt\]). Remnants exist in dialects (e.g., *loch* in Scottish English). **2. Metathesis** - Reversal of two sounds in a word: - *acsian* → *ask*, *frist* → *first*, *hros* → *horse*. - Dialectal examples: *pretty* → *purty*, *ask* → *aks*. **3. Epenthesis** - Addition of sounds within words: - *æmtig* → *empty*, *spinel* → *spindle*, *timr* → *timber*. - Modern examples: Pronunciations like *sumpthing* (for *something*) and *filum* (for *film*). **4. Prothesis** - Addition of sounds at the beginning of a word: - Common in Spanish evolution from Latin: *schola* → *escuela* (*school*), *spiritus* → *espíritu* (*spirit*). - Observed in Spanish-influenced English pronunciations (*estrange* for *strange*). **Syntactic Changes** **1. Word Order Variability** - Old English allowed more flexible word orders: - Subject after verb: *ferde he* (\"he traveled\"). - Object before verb: *he hine geseah* (\"he saw him\"). - Object at the sentence\'s start: *him man ne sealde* (\"no man gave to him\"). **2. Double Negatives** - Common in Old English but ungrammatical in Modern English: - *ne sealde* (\"not gave\") and *næfre* (\"never\") combined in *and ne sealdest þū me næfre* (\"you never gave me\"). **3. Loss of Inflection** - Inflectional suffixes indicating grammatical function were lost: - *sealde* (\"he gave\") vs. *sealdest* (\"you gave\"). - Old English had distinct inflections for nouns, adjectives, and articles. **Semantic Changes** **1. Borrowing and Obsolescence** - Words from other languages and historical context: - Borrowed words: *army* (French), *skin* (Old Norse). - Obsolete terms: *foin* (sword thrust), *were* (man). **2. Broadening** - Meaning expansion: - *Holy day* → *holiday* (general break). - *Fodder* → *food* (all types of nourishment). **3. Narrowing** - Meaning restriction: - *Hund* (any dog) → *hound* (specific breeds). - *Wife* (any woman) → married women only. - Words gaining negative connotations: *vulgar* (ordinary) → crude, *naughty* (nothing) → misbehaving. These sound, syntactic, and semantic changes reflect how English has evolved from Old to Modern forms, influenced by internal shifts and external factors like borrowing and cultural developments. **Diachronic and Synchronic Variation** **1. Diachronic Variation** - Refers to language changes over time. - Gradual changes occur due to: - **Cultural Transmission**: Each generation learns and recreates the language of the previous one, often with slight modifications. - **Imperfect Learning**: Children may replicate some language elements exactly but others only approximately. - **Innovation**: A desire to introduce variations for identity or stylistic reasons. - Historical events like wars, invasions, and cultural upheavals also contribute to changes, but the continuous transmission process is the primary driver. - Examples include: - Sound changes, such as the loss of \[k\] in *knee*. - Syntactic changes, such as the shift in word order from Old to Modern English. - Semantic changes, like the broadening of *holiday* to mean any break from work. **2. Synchronic Variation** - Examines differences within a language at a single point in time. - Influenced by: - **Geographical Factors**: Regional dialects and accents (e.g., British vs. American English). - **Social Factors**: Differences based on class, gender, age, or cultural identity. - **Group Variations**: Professional jargon, youth slang, or community-specific terms. - Highlights the diversity and adaptability of a language across regions and social groups. While diachronic variation focuses on how language evolves historically, synchronic variation explores how it diversifies and adapts within a community at a given moment. Both perspectives are essential to understanding the dynamic nature of language. **CHAPTER 18. LANGUAGE AND REGIONAL VARIATION** **Languages as Unified Systems** - Throughout the book, languages like **English**, **Spanish**, and **Swahili** have often been treated as singular, unified entities. - This perspective overlooks the **variability** inherent in all languages, particularly in their spoken forms. **Variation Within a Language** - **Geographic Diversity**: - Languages exhibit significant variation based on the country or region where they are spoken. - Example: English is spoken differently in **Australia**, **Britain**, and the **USA**, with further variation within each country. - **Local Varieties**: - Within a single region or country, unique varieties emerge. For instance: - Lee Tonouchi's account of *"Trick-O-Treat"* highlights a distinct local variety in **Hawai'i**, showcasing phonetic, lexical, and grammatical differences. **Linguistic Geography** - This chapter explores language variation as a function of geography, emphasizing how a language adapts and evolves in different locations. - **Focus on Specific Varieties**: - When referring to a language like English, Spanish, or Swahili, it's essential to clarify which **variety** is being considered. - For example, \"English\" might imply **Standard British English**, **American English**, or any of the numerous global English varieties, depending on the context. **The Standard Language** - **Definition**: The standard language is an idealized variety of a language not tied to a specific region, often used for official, educational, and formal communication. - It is associated with administrative, commercial, and educational centers. - It is the variety found in printed materials (e.g., newspapers, books) and widely used in mass media. - It is the version typically taught to learners of English as a second or foreign language. - **Characteristics**: - **Written Form**: Easier to describe due to its consistent vocabulary, spelling, and grammar. - **Spoken Form**: More variation depending on the speaker\'s region or background. - **Regional Variants**: Includes recognized forms like: - **Standard American English** (USA) - **Standard British English** (UK) - **Standard Australian English**, **Standard Canadian English**, and **Standard Indian English**. **Accent and Dialect** - **Accent**: Refers to pronunciation differences that indicate a speaker\'s regional or social origin. - Example: American vs. Scottish accents both use Standard English vocabulary and grammar but differ in pronunciation. - **Myth**: It is incorrect to believe only some people have accents---everyone speaks with an accent. - **Dialect**: Encompasses pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary unique to a particular region or group. - Example: - **Standard English**: *You don't know what you're talking about.* - **Scottish Dialect**: *Ye dinnae ken whit yer haverin' aboot.* - Pronunciation: *whit* (what), *aboot* (about). - Vocabulary: *ken* (know), *haverin'* (talking nonsense). - Grammar: *dinnae* (don't). **Dialectal Variation in Grammar** - **Examples of Dialect-Specific Grammar**: - A Donegal Irish English speaker (A) vs. British English visitors (B and C): - A: *How long are youse here?* (Present tense for past time: *How long have you been here?*) - B: *Till after Easter.* (Interprets as future time: *How long will you stay?*) - C: *We came on Sunday.* (Clarifies with a past tense response.) - A: *Youse're here a while then.* (Confirms with present tense for past duration.) - **Key Features**: - Dialectal grammar can differ subtly in tense usage, as shown in Donegal Irish English. - Vocabulary like *youse* (plural \"you\") may not be part of visitors\' dialects but is understood in context. **Dialectology and Regional Variation** **Understanding Dialects** - **Mutual Intelligibility**: - Dialects of the same language are often distinguished by the ability of their speakers to understand each other. - In contrast, speakers of different languages usually cannot achieve mutual intelligibility. - **Equality of Dialects**: - Linguistically, no dialect is inherently superior; all are valid forms of communication. - However, social prestige can elevate certain dialects (e.g., those associated with economic or political centers like **London** for British English or **Paris** for French). **Regional Dialects** - **Humor and Stereotypes**: - Regional dialects often serve as a source of humor through exaggerated imitations, such as: - **Brooklyn** vs. **Southern USA** accents. - Despite stereotypes, regional dialects have consistent linguistic features studied through surveys. **Dialect Surveys** - **Methodology**: - Surveys collect speech samples to map linguistic differences across regions. - Criteria often emphasize **non-mobile, older, rural, male speakers (NORMS)** for \"authentic\" data. - **Challenges**: - The approach may describe older speech patterns rather than contemporary usage. - Nonetheless, such surveys have produced detailed **Linguistic Atlases**. **Isoglosses and Dialect Boundaries** - **Isogloss**: - A line on a map marking a boundary between areas with different linguistic features (e.g., \"paper bag\" vs. \"paper sack\"). - **Dialect Boundaries**: - When multiple isoglosses overlap, they form a dialect boundary, separating distinct linguistic regions. - **Example: Upper Midwest USA**: - **Northern Dialect**: Commonly uses *paper bag*, *pail*, *kerosene*, and *slippery*. - **Midland Dialect**: Prefers *paper sack*, *bucket*, *coal oil*, and *slick*. **Phonetic and Lexical Differences** - Pronunciation differences between Northern and Midland dialects: - *\"taught\"*: \[ɔ\] (Northern) vs. \[ɑ\] (Midland). - *\"roof\"*: \[ʊ\] (Northern) vs. \[u\] (Midland). - *\"creek\"*: \[ɪ\] (Northern) vs. \[i\] (Midland). - *\"greasy\"*: \[s\] (Northern) vs. \[z\] (Midland). - Vocabulary distinctions: - Northern speakers might say *slippery* and *kerosene*, while Midland speakers might say *slick* and *coal oil*. **Key Takeaways** - **Regional Variation**: - Dialects reflect both geographic and social diversity. - **Dynamic Usage**: - While dialect surveys capture trends, not all speakers in a region adhere to the recorded patterns. Dialects are dynamic and continue to evolve. **The Dialect Continuum, Bilingualism, and Diglossia** **The Dialect Continuum** - **Gradual Transitions**: - Dialect boundaries, marked by **isoglosses**, often obscure the reality that language varieties merge gradually across regions. - This gradual blending forms a **dialect continuum** where neighboring dialects or languages transition smoothly without abrupt breaks. - **Example: Dutch and German**: - In the border areas between **Holland** and **Germany**, the Dutch dialects near the border may closely resemble German, making the distinction less clear. - **Bidialectalism**: - Individuals who navigate between dialects with ease are called **bidialectal**. - Example: Speaking one dialect informally with family and friends and another more formal dialect at school. **Bilingualism** - **Definition**: - Refers to individuals or communities fluent in two distinct languages. - **Types of Bilingualism**: - **Minority Bilingualism**: - Occurs in politically dominant societies where minority groups learn the majority language for broader participation. - Example: Welsh speakers learning English in Britain or Spanish speakers learning English in the United States. - **Family Bilingualism**: - Results from parents speaking different native languages. - Example: A child learning French from the mother and English from the father. - Typically, one language becomes dominant over time. - **National Bilingualism**: - Countries like **Canada** officially recognize two languages (e.g., English and French). - Political activism has driven linguistic rights, such as bilingual signs in **Wales** (English and Welsh). **Diglossia** - **Definition**: - A situation where two varieties of a language coexist, with distinct functions: 1. **High Variety**: - Used in formal settings (e.g., education, religion, political events). - Examples: **Classical Arabic**, **Latin** in medieval Europe. 2. **Low Variety**: - The vernacular spoken in everyday situations. - Examples: Local dialects such as **Egyptian Arabic** or **Lebanese Arabic**. - **Historical Diglossia**: - Latin served as the **high variety** across Europe for scholarly and religious purposes, while local languages like early Italian or French were the **low varieties**. **Key Takeaways** 1. **Language Variation**: - Dialects and languages are dynamic, blending across regions and borders. 2. **Cultural and Political Influence**: - Bilingualism and diglossia often reflect cultural histories and political contexts. 3. **Adaptability**: - Many individuals adapt to varied linguistic demands, becoming bidialectal or bilingual. **Language Planning** - **Bilingualism and Monolingualism**: - Many countries assumed to be monolingual, but large bilingual communities exist (e.g., Spanish speakers in San Antonio, Texas). - Bilingualism can impact government organization and educational systems (e.g., whether elementary school should be taught in Spanish or English). - **Language Planning in Different Countries**: - Language planning involves deciding which language(s) will be used for official purposes (e.g., education, government). - Example 1: **Guatemala** - Spanish vs. Mayan languages in education. - Example 2: **Israel** - Chose Hebrew as the official language despite it being less widely spoken. - Example 3: **India** - Chose Hindi as the official language, but faced resistance from non-Hindi regions. - Example 4: **Philippines** - National language wars over the naming of Filipino as the national language. - **Stages of Language Planning**: - **Selection**: Choosing an official language (e.g., Swahili in Tanzania). - **Codification**: Creating grammars, dictionaries, and written models for the standard variety. - **Elaboration**: Developing the standard variety for all aspects of life (e.g., literature, media). - **Implementation**: Encouraging the use of the standard variety. - **Acceptance**: When the majority of the population adopts the standard variety and sees it as part of their national identity. **Pidgins and Creoles** - **Pidgins**: - Contact languages developed for trade or communication between groups with no common language. - No native speakers; used for specific practical purposes. - Simplified grammatical structures and limited vocabulary. - Example: **Tok Pisin** in Papua New Guinea (originally an English-based pidgin). - Pidgins lack complex grammatical morphology (e.g., plural markers, possessives). - **Creoles**: - When a pidgin becomes the first language of a community and develops more complexity. - Creoles are spoken by a large number of native speakers and used in all social contexts. - Example: **Haitian Creole**, **Jamaican Patois** (English-based creoles). - Vocabulary from pidgin becomes more grammatically integrated. **Post-Creole Continuum** - **Decreolization**: - The shift from a creole to a variety closer to a standard language due to social factors (e.g., prestige of standard varieties). - Leads to a range of varieties between the full creole and the standard variety. - **Social Influence**: - Differences in creole varieties tied to social status, education, and identity. - In Jamaica, speakers may use different forms: basic creole, a variety with fewer creole features, or standard English. - Social context influences which variety is used. **CHAPTER 19. LANGUAGE AND SOCIAL VARIATION** **Sociolinguistics: Language and Society** - **Geographical vs. Social Variation**: - People in the same geographical area may speak differently based on factors like education, economic status, and social group membership. - Language use can indicate membership in different social groups or speech communities. - **Speech Communities**: - A **speech community** is a group of people who share norms and expectations regarding language use. - Sociolinguistics studies the linguistic features that have social relevance within these speech communities. **Sociolinguistics:** - **Definition**: The study of the relationship between language and society. - Sociolinguistics emerged through the interaction of linguistics with other disciplines: - **Anthropology**: Examines language and culture. - **Sociology**: Investigates language\'s role in organizing social groups and institutions. - **Social Psychology**: Focuses on attitudes, perceptions, and group behaviors. **Social Dialects:** - **Social Dialects vs. Regional Dialects**: - **Regional Dialects**: Traditionally studied in rural areas. - **Social Dialects**: Concerned with urban speakers and social groups. - **Social Class** is a key factor in defining social dialects. - **Middle Class**: Higher education, non-manual work. - **Working Class**: Fewer years of education, manual work. - Subdivisions: **Upper-middle-class speech** vs. **Lower-working-class speech**. - **Social Dialects (Sociolects)**: - Social dialects involve features that distinguish speakers by social class. - Example: In Edinburgh, the pronunciation of \"home\": - Lower-working-class speakers: \[heɪm\] (rhymes with \"name\"). - Middle-class speakers: \[hom\] (rhymes with \"foam\"). - **Linguistic Variables**: - **Pronunciation** or specific words/structures vary between social groups. - Example: The use of \"ain\'t\" (e.g., \"I ain\'t finished yet\"): - More common in working-class speech than middle-class speech. - **Analyzing Social Dialects**: - Studies focus on systematic variation in the use of linguistic variables (e.g., pronunciations or words). - Typically, studies report the frequency of use of different forms in different social classes rather than an all-or-nothing scenario. **Education, Occupation, and Language Variation** - **Personal Dialect (Idiolect)**: - Each individual has a unique way of speaking based on personal experiences and background, known as an **idiolect**. - **Educational Influence on Language**: - People who leave school early tend to use forms less common in the speech of those with higher education. - Example: - **\"Them boys throwed somethin'\"** or **\"It wasn't us what done it\"** are associated with less-educated speakers. - Those who complete higher education use more language features influenced by written language: - Example: **\"threw\"** instead of **\"throwed\"**, **\"who\"** instead of **\"what\"**. - The phrase \"talks like a book\" reflects the influence of written language on educated speakers. - **Occupation and Socio-economic Status**: - As adults, education often correlates with occupation and socio-economic status. - Occupation can influence language, with different linguistic patterns observed in different professional groups. - Example: **Bank executives** vs. **window cleaners** use different language forms. - **Labov\'s Study (1960s)**: - Sociolinguist **William Labov** studied pronunciation differences among salespeople in three New York City department stores: - **Saks Fifth Avenue** (upper-middle-class status) - **Macy's** (middle-class status) - **Klein's** (working-class status) - **Labov\'s Method**: Salespeople were asked to direct to the **"fourth floor"** to analyze **postvocalic /rrrrrr/** entirely, using forms like **"mahvellous, dahling!"**. - **Social Markers**: - A **social marker** is a linguistic feature that identifies a speaker as a member of a particular social group, often unconsciously. - **Postvocalic /r/** as a social marker: - In New York, frequent use of /r/ indicated upper-middle-class status. - In Reading, lack of /r/ marked higher status among middle-class speakers. - **Other Pronunciation Features as Social Markers**: - **-ing dropping**: Using **\[n\]** instead of **\[ŋ\]** at the end of words (e.g., **sittin'**, **drinkin'**). - Associated with **working-class speech**. - **\[h\]-dropping**: Dropping the **h** sound at the beginning of words (e.g., **'at**, **'at**). - Associated with lower-class, less-educated speech. - Example: **Uriah Heep** (a character in Charles Dickens' **David Copperfield**) uses \[h\]-dropping to signify his lower-class status. - **Speech Style and Style-Shifting**: - **Formal style**: Careful speech, paying more attention to pronunciation. - Example: Saying \"Excuse me?\" instead of \"What?\" to elicit a more careful repetition of speech. - **Informal style**: Casual speech, less attention to precision. - Example: A salesperson casually answering \"fourth floor\" in a department store. - **Style-shifting**: Movement from casual to careful speech or vice versa based on context. - Example: Labov's study where salespeople used more careful pronunciation of \"fourth floor\" when asked to repeat it. - **Prestige**: - **Overt Prestige**: Speech forms seen as \"better\" or more prestigious by society. - Example: Middle-class speakers may pronounce /r/ more carefully to align with upper-middle-class standards (e.g., saying \"fourth floor\" with a clear /r/). - **Covert Prestige**: \"Hidden\" or unacknowledged status of speech forms that reflect solidarity with a group. - Example: Working-class speakers using non-standard language like \"ain\'t\" or dropping /r/ to show solidarity with their group. - **Speech Accommodation**: - **Convergence**: Adjusting speech to match the interlocutor's style to reduce social distance. - Example 1: \"C'mon Tony, gizzalook, gizzalook\" (informal request to a friend). - Example 2: \"Excuse me. Could I have a look at your photos too, Mrs. Hall?\" (formal request to a friend\'s mother). - **Divergence**: Changing speech to emphasize social distance and assert individuality. - Example: \"I cannae dae it so \...\" (teenager in Scotland diverging in style from a teacher\'s informal tone). - **Register and Jargon**: - **Register**: Language use appropriate for specific contexts. - Example: Legal register---\"The plaintiff is ready to take the witness stand.\" - Example: Religious register---\"Ye shall be blessed by Him in times of tribulation.\" - Example: Linguistic register---\"In the morphology of this dialect, there are fewer inflectional suffixes.\" - **Jargon**: Specialized vocabulary within a particular group or profession. - Example: Medical jargon---\"Zanoxyn is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug for arthritis, bursitis, and tendonitis.\" - **Slang and Social Identity**: - **Slang**: Informal language used by younger or marginalized groups to distinguish themselves. - Example: \"Bucks\" (money), \"mega-bucks\" (a lot of money), \"phat\" (cool or awesome). - Example: \"Hottie\" (attractive person), \"kickass\" (impressive), \"dope\" (cool). - **Taboo Terms**: Swear words or socially prohibited language. - Example: \"What the bleep are you doing, you little bleep!\" (censored swear words in media). - **Social Variation and Class**: - Language choices reflect social class and identity, with lower-class speakers using more informal or non-standard forms, and higher-class speakers adhering to formal standards. - Example: Lower-class speakers might say \"ain\'t doin\' nuttin\'\" instead of \"I\'m not doing anything\" to reflect group identity. - Language variation helps reinforce social boundaries and group identity markers. - Example: Use of slang or taboo words by lower-status groups, like \"sucks!\" or \"bummer\" to mark social differences from higher-status speakers. **African American English (AAE) Overview**: - **Historical and Social Context**: - AAE, also known as Black English or Ebonics, is used by many African Americans, though not exclusively. - It has distinct linguistic features that serve as social markers. - AAE developed in a socially segregated environment, with discrimination playing a role in shaping its linguistic traits. - While often stigmatized as \"bad\" language, AAE has covert prestige in certain social contexts, especially among younger speakers and within popular music. - **Vernacular Language**: - **African American Vernacular English (AAVE)**: AAVE is the most studied form of AAE and represents a \"non-standard\" spoken variety. - The term \"vernacular\" originally referred to local, lower-status languages and is used to describe non-standard varieties spoken by marginalized groups. - AAVE shares similarities with other non-standard varieties, such as Chicano English and Asian American English. - **Phonological Features**: - **Consonant Reduction**: - Final consonant clusters are often reduced, e.g., \"left hand\" becomes \"lef han.\" - Past tense -ed forms can be pronounced without the final consonant, e.g., \"I passed the test\" becomes \"I pass the tess.\" - **Dental Consonant Change**: - Initial dental consonants (e.g., in \"think\" or \"that\") may be pronounced as alveolar stops, e.g., \"think\" becomes \"tink,\" \"that\" becomes \"dat.\" - **Reduction of Articles**: - The definite article \"the\" is often pronounced as \[də\], e.g., \"You da man!\" - **Morphological Features**: - **Absence of Possessive -\'s and Third-Person Singular -s**: - Possessive -\'s (e.g., \"John\'s girlfriend\") is often omitted: \"John girlfriend.\" - Third-person singular -s (e.g., \"she loves him\") is omitted: \"She love him.\" - **Plural -s Omission**: - Plural -s is not used when plurality is indicated in the context: \"two guy\" instead of \"two guys.\" - **Grammatical Features**: - **Double Negatives**: - Double negatives are common, e.g., \"He don't know nothin\" or \"I ain't afraid of no ghosts.\" - While criticized as \"illogical,\" this structure is found in many other dialects and languages (e.g., French and Old English). - Double negatives emphasize the negative aspect, e.g., \"He don't never do nothin.\" - **Absence of Forms of the Verb \"To Be\"**: - AAVE often omits forms of \"to be,\" such as \"are\" or \"is,\" in casual speech, e.g., \"You crazy\" instead of \"You are crazy.\" - This absence is not \"sloppy\" but follows specific grammatical rules, like how other languages (e.g., Arabic, Russian) omit the verb \"to be.\" - **Habitual Be**: - AAVE uses \"be\" (not \"is\") to express habitual action, e.g., \"She be workin downtown now.\" - AAVE uses \"bin\" (stressed) for actions or states that have been ongoing, e.g., \"She bin workin there.\" - **Negative Forms of Verbs**: - In negative constructions, AAVE uses \"don't\" (not \"doesn't\"), e.g., \"She don't be workin.\" - Uncontracted negatives are ungrammatical: \"\*She doesn\'t be workin\" is incorrect in AAVE. - **Cultural Context**: - AAVE is not just a linguistic variety but reflects cultural identity, experiences, and beliefs. - The language and its features often face criticism from dominant groups, but AAVE speakers value their speech as part of their cultural heritage. **CHAPTER 20. LANGUAGE AND CULTURE** - **Culture** refers to the ideas and assumptions we learn as members of social groups, defined as "socially acquired knowledge." - This knowledge is acquired without conscious awareness, much like learning a first language, and becomes more apparent as we develop language. - Language provides a system for categorizing the world around us, shaping our understanding of people and things in society. **Categories** - **Categories** are groups of items with shared features, and words we learn are category labels used to refer to these concepts. - The relationship between language categories and external reality can vary: - Some languages have many words for specific things (e.g., types of rain or coconut), while others have fewer. - The **Dani** language (New Guinea) has only two color terms (\"black\" and \"white\") despite perceiving all colors. - **Inuit** languages have more terms for colors (including red, green, and yellow), while English has even more color terms. - More technology in a culture correlates with more color terms. **Kinship Terms** - **Kinship terms** (e.g., brother, mother, grandmother) can differ across languages: - In some languages, the term for "father" can also mean "father's brother." In English, "uncle" is used for this. - The **Watam** language (Papua New Guinea) distinguishes between "father's brother" (aes) and "mother's brother" (akwae). - In **Mopan Maya** (Belize), distinctions between different types of uncles are emphasized (e.g., suku'un for older brother and younger brother of parent, tataa' for older brother of parent and grandfather). - **Norwegian** distinguishes between paternal and maternal grandmothers (farmor and mormor), while English uses "grandmother" for both. **Time Concepts** - The concept of time may differ culturally: - In many cultures, time is viewed in measurable units (e.g., \"week,\" \"weekend\"). - The **Hopi language** (Arizona) traditionally lacked words for units like hours, minutes, or the concept of a \"week\" or \"weekend,\" as their culture did not operate on \"clock time.\" **Linguistic Relativity** - Differences in language use reflect distinct ways of talking about external reality. - **Linguistic Relativity (weak version)**: Language influences how we perceive the world, as language shapes \"habitual thought.\" - **Linguistic Determinism (strong version)**: Language \"determines\" thought, meaning that we can only think in the categories provided by our language. - Example: English uses one word for \"snow,\" whereas languages with more snow-related terms, like Inuktitut, categorize snow in more specific ways. **The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis** - Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf argued that Native American languages, like Hopi, cause speakers to perceive the world differently than speakers of European languages. - **Hopi and Time**: Hopi does not have terms for units of time (e.g., \"week,\" \"weekend\") like English does, influencing their worldview. - **Animacy in Hopi**: The distinction between \"animate\" and \"inanimate\" in Hopi grammar (e.g., clouds and stones categorized as \"animate\") shapes perception. - Critics argue that linguistic classification does not necessarily correspond to biological classification (e.g., French uses feminine terms for inanimate objects, but this doesn't imply stones are seen as female). **Snow Example** - Inuit languages have only two basic words for snow: **qanik** (snow in the air) and **aput** (snow on the ground), but they can create more terms from these roots for various snow-related phenomena. - English has lexicalized distinctions like **sleet, slush,** and **snowflake**, but also use

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