Discourse Analysis and Pragmatics PDF

DISCOURSE ANALYSIS AND PRAGMATICS Discourse Analysis and Pragmatics have a different approach to the same things. They both study: CONTEXT (knowledge of the world, socio-psychological factors that define communication, time/space in which words are said) TEXT (the use of...

DISCOURSE ANALYSIS AND PRAGMATICS Discourse Analysis and Pragmatics have a different approach to the same things. They both study: CONTEXT (knowledge of the world, socio-psychological factors that define communication, time/space in which words are said) TEXT (the use of language, that is to say how languages become meaningful and unified for their use with the help of coherence or relevance) FUNCTION (the speaker’s purpose in speaking) but DISCUORSE ANALYSIS focuses on the STRUCTURE of a text and studies: - how elements of a language are organised - how a text can be considered a framework according to the social transaction - the exchange structure - the conversation analysis - the interactional sociolinguistics while PRAGMATICS focuses on SOCIAL PRINCIPLES of the discourse - it deals with how words are used according to social distance - it describes the unwritten maxims used by speakers in order to be accepted and/or cooperate CONTEXT There are 3 types of CONTEXT: 1. SITUATIONAL CONTEXT What speakers know about the environment sorrounding the conversation 2. BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE CONTEXT Divided into: a) CULTURAL GENERAL knowledge = is what people know about the world *Cultural background can be shared by a group of people, generating DISCOURSE COMMUNITIES, that is some smaller groups (inside a larger community) who share a strongest interest and even a special vocabulary to better communicate (Ex: fans of a music band) b) INTERPERSONAL knowledge = is the private life of a person (Ex: what happens between sibilings or lovers) 3. CO-TEXTUAL KNOWLEDGE (CO-TEXT) The context of the text we are focusing on: it refers to all the words that sorround a specific word we are referring to in a text (Ex: “The room was empty when I arrived”; if we focus on the subject “I” all the other words form the co-text of the word we refer to).  REFERENCE – REFERENT- REFERRING EXPRESSIONS REFERENCE is the use of “linguistic forms” to allow the hearer to understand an “entity”: the entity is defined REFERENT and the linguistic forms are the REFERRING EXPRESSIONS. 1) EXOPHORA When a REFERENT is mentioned for the first time, the REFERRING EXPRESSION used is defined EXOPHORA and depends on the context OUTSIDE the text. For example: “Is THAT the one YOU were talking about?” In this case, THAT and YOU are exophoric (as they depend on contexts outside the conversation in order to be understood). 2) ENDOPHORA Endophora, on the other hand, is a REFERRING EXPRESSION that refers to something INTERTEXTUAL. There are 2 types of endophora: a) if we use a word to refer to another word or phrase used earlier, we have an ANAPHORA For example: “Did you see THE GAME last night? IT was incredible” In this case, IT refers to THE GAME mentioned into the first part of the sentence. b) if we use a word to refer to a later word or phrase, we have a CATAPHORA For example: “If you want SOME, here’s some Parmesan Cheese” In this case, the first SOME refers to PARMESAN CHEESE mentioned into the second part of the sentence. 3) DEIXIS With the term DEIXIS we refer to the use of a REFERRING EXPRESSION connected to the REFERENT that points a specific PERSON, PLACE or TIME: a) PERSON DEIXIS uses personal pronouns in referring to a person For example: “WE are getting married” b) PLACE DEIXIS is the linguistic form that refers to the place where the referent is in the context (usually a demonstrative adjective – this, that, those, these - or an adverb – here, there). For example: “THIS is my car”; “HERE is where we first met”. c) TIME DEIXIS refers to time. For example: “We are leaving TOMORROW” 4) INTERTEXTUALITY Intertextuality occurs when a REFERRING EXPESSION points to entities that have been already mentioned BUT in a previous conversation. For example: Two friends talking about a movie they have watched. A: “I loved THAT” B: “ Really? I didn’t like THAT, instead. I fell asleep the first time I tried to watch IT” ANAPHORIC REFERENCE: the referent PRECEDES the referring expression. CATAPHORIC REFERENCE: the referent FOLLOWS the referring expression. EXOPHORIC REFERENCE: we refer to an entity mentioned for the first time. ENDOPHORIC REFERENCE: we refer to an entity already mentioned before.  GRAMMAR COHESION and LEXICAL COHESION We talk about GRAMMAR COHESION when a REFERRING EXPRESSION is linked to another within the text. It can be reached by means of 3 tools: 1. ENDOPHORA (vedi sopra): a REFERRING EXPRESSION that refers to something INTERTEXTUAL (Anaphora/Cataphora). 2. SUBSTITUTION: the use of a DIFFERENT EXPRESSION in order to avoid repetitions For example: “Me and my sister are going out tonight. WE love to spend time together”. 3. ELLIPSIS: the possibility to OMIT parts of the discourse in order to avoid repetitions (we know that our hearer is able to retrieve the missing word from the co-text) For example: I’m going to the cinema tonight while he’s not. (→“going to the cinema” is omitted). NB: Substitution and Ellipsis MUST include the entity they refer to (or the message will be unclear). while LEXICAL COHESION involves the correct use of words in order to make the text MEANINGFUL. It can be reached by means of 4 tools: 1. REPETITION: when we use a word/phrase several times. For example: “It was cold. My hands were cold, my nose was cold and my feet were cold”. 2. SYNONYMS: when we use a different word to refer to the same entity. For example: terrible / horrible, beautiful/stunning 3. SUPERORDINATES: when we use a general “umbrella” term that includes the entity we are referring to. For example: bird for parrot 4. GENERAL WORDS: when we use general nouns/verbs whose meaning is so vague that it fits almost eveywhere For example: “thing, stuff, place, person, to do” etc. LEXICAL COHESION was also studied by HALLIDAY and HASAN in Stylistics. According to them, LEXICAL COHESION can be reached by means of: 1. REPETITION: when we use a word/phrase several times (vedi sopra). 2. SYNONYMY: that is an example of repetition by using other words (car/vehicle) dived into: a. HYPONYMY: from specific to general Ex. (rose/flower) b. MERONYMY: a part to refer to the whole Ex. (finger/hand) c. ANTONOMY we have an opposition Ex. (happy/sad) 3. COLLOCATION: refers to words that are frequently used together in a Lexical Sense, like ‘make’ and ‘decision’, ‘pay’ and ‘attention’, ‘waste’ and ‘time’. NB: ≠ COLLIGATION: words that are frequently used together in a Grammatical Sense (ex: the verb “to hear” is usually followed by direct obj. + ing form : “I heard them saying”). They developed 5 TYPES OF COHESION (the LEXICAL is one of them): 1. REFERENCE ties together sentences to create the text 2. SUBSTITUTION that is when a word is replaced by another one 3. ELLIPSIS which links different parts of the text by means of OMISSION 4. LEXICAL COHESION (vedi sopra) 5. CONJUNCTION structures a text in a specific way and brings the presented elements in a logical order They also talk about UNRESOLVED COHESION: when we use referents (pronouns, articles) in order to create familiarity between text and reader BUT the reader is not able to find the reference.  COHERENCE It refers to the APPROPRIATENESS of a text within its communicative context. For example: if in a legal text we use informal structures and vocabulary, it would be considered inappropriate (and so incoherent). LEXICAL BUNDLES (BIBER) BIBER talks about LEXICAL BUNDLES referring to groups of words that occur, frequently, together like EXTENDED COLLOCATIONS of three or more words. (Ex: in order to, take a look at, etc.). IDIOM PRINCIPLE and OPEN CHOICE PRINCIPLE (SINCLAIR) SINCLAIR talks about the IDIOM PRINCIPLE: what we hear, read or use is often composed by pre-established schemes of words (= le espressioni che usiamo e ascoltiamo spesso sono un insieme di parole ricorrenti, come frasi fatte Ex: “better late than never”) SINCLAIR also talks about the OPEN CHOICE PRINCIPLE that refers to the ability of a speaker to fill a gap within a sentence. SPEECH ACT and PERFORMATIVE HYPOTHESIS (AUSTIN) AUSTIN theorized SPEECH ACT (between the 50s and the 60s) as the action performed in saying something. According to his theory, every utterance can be analysed on 3 levels: 1. LOCUTION: what is said (the speech itself) 2. ILLOCUTIONARY FORCE: the purpose of the uttering (Ex: making a request, inviting, etc.) 3. PERLOCUTIONARY EFFECT: the result of the words Ex: the sentence “Is there any salt?” - Locution Level: the sentence is a question - llocutionary Level: the sentence is a request - Perlocutionary Level: we want the hearer to pass us the salt Based on these premises, AUSTIN developed the PERFORMATIVE HYPOTESIS which says that behind an utterance there’s always a performative verb (to order, to ask, to invite, to promise, etc). Then he recognised that it’s not true and utterances without performative verbs are MORE common and natural: so, he defines these utterances IMPLICIT PERFORMATIVES (speech acts not always are supported by a performative verb). He points out that - if their intent is NOT clear – implicit performatives can lead to ambiguity: Ex: “I’ll go home” can be a promise or a warning. To AVOID misunderstandings SEARLE (Austin’s student) grouped SPEECH ACTS into 5 MACRO-CLASSES that represent a categorization of the implicit performatives: 1. DECLARATIONS: words have the power to change the situation by means of specific words (“I pronounce you husband and wife”) 2. REPRESENTATIVES: words state what the speaker thinks is the case to do (“claim, insist, doubt”..etc) 3. COMMISSIVES: words state the commitment of the speaker to do something (“Giorgio promised me we will go to the cinema tomorrow”) 4. DIRECTIVES: words lead the hearer doing something (“ordering, inviting, commanding, etc.”) 5. EXPRESSIVES: words refer to the way the speaker feels (“apologizing, regretting, etc.”)  To be successfully performed, every SPEECH ACT must satisfy the FELICITY CONDITIONS (SEARLE vs AUSTIN) - According to AUSTIN, Felicity Conditions are satisfied when each member of the conversation recognises the CONTEXT and the ROLE of the participants; - According to SEARLE, instead, Felicity Conditions are satisfied when the hearer understands what the speaker says (and the speaker doesn’t play/pretend). In this regard Searle talks about: DIRECT Speech Acts: express the literal meaning (when we speak we do mean exactly what we say) Ex: “Pass the salt, please”. INDIRECT Speech Acts: communicate a double meaning (when we speak we intend something that is quite different from the literal meaning of what we say) Ex: If I tell you, “Come and eat with me”, not only I want you to perform the act of eating with me, but I’m also inviting you. So, there is a second intention in my words but the hearer can understand it if he can “read” from the context. OVERLAP (SEARLE’s Macro Classes) OVERLAP is when an utterance falls into more than one macro-class: 1. because Speech Acts can vary due to SOCIAL and CULTURAL background 2. because of the absence of an appropriate semantic content (these utterances are defined BACKCHANNEL of FEEDBACK and are used to show our interest in the conversation and tell the speaker to go on). Ex: “you know”, “oh, really?” 3. because it’s an INCOMPLETE SENTENCE (when the speaker is interrupted or doesn’t continue to speak because the listener has already understood the communication) RELEVANCE THEORY (SPERBER and WILSON) According to SPERBER and WILSON, RELEVANCE is the main aim of any conversation because communication is successful when the hearer can understand what the speaker means with the minimum effort. Their theory is based on 2 main processes (that create the degree of relevance): 1. The CONTESTUAL EFFECTS: when we add/omit informations - ADDING informations means we are making EXPLICATURES - OMITTING informations means we are making IMPLICATURES (the information can be retrieved by the hearer thanks to the context or thanks to his/her background knowledge) 2. The PROCESSING EFFORTS: the less is the effort, the more is the relevance. We need to be clear and direct, we don’t have to ask for further effort in order to understand what we want to say. RELEVANCE is higher when the hearer retrieves the maximum amount of informations with the minumum effort. MACRO-FUNCTIONS (BROWN and YULE) BROWN and YULE theorized the following MACRO-FUNCTIONS: - TRANSACTIONAL function: that is when language expresses content and gives informations (Ex: giving informations to a tourist) - INTERACTIONAL function: expresses social relationships and/or personal attitudes (Ex: solidarity).The extreme version of the interactional function is the PHATIC FORM that does not contain any information but keeps the communication open. Ex: “it’s so noisy” in a crowded place.  EXCHANGE STRUCTURE and CONVERSATION ANALYSIS (SINCLAIR and COULTHARD) According to SINCLAIR and COULTHARD, when we analyse a discourse, we can use 2 approaches [DISCOURSE ANALYSIS] that have 2 different aims: 1) EXCHANGE STRUCTURE is an approach to Discourse Analysis and is based on 5 levels: - ACTS that combines to form moves - MOVES that combines to form exchange NB: this level is the most interesting one, it’s defined “IRF” I = initiation (from teacher) R = response (from students) F = follow-up (teacher’s comment on students answer) - EXCHANGE that combines to form transactions - TRANSACTIONS that combines to form lesson/relationship - LESSON/RELATIONSHIP The approach of this structure it to develop a pattern and check how a conversation fits in it. 2) CONVERSATION ANALYSIS works in the opposite way to the Exchange Structure because it starts with collecting data and then develops conversation pattern. It focuses on how the words spoken by speaker A will influence the answer of speaker B. According to GUY COOK, talks can be considered a conversation when: - There aren’t PRACTICAL TASKS; - There is an EQUAL POWER among participants; - The NUMBER of participants is SMALL; - There are SHORT TURNS; - The talk is intended for the participants and NOT FOR AN OUTSIDE AUDIENCE. Moreover a CONVERSATION needs TURN-TAKING: the change between speakers is defined TRP (Transition Relevance Place) TRP may not be respected, so we can have an INTERRUPTION (the speaker doesn’t respect the turn) or an OVERLAP (the speaker anticipates and completes what the other is saying). ADJACENCY PAIRS When we have two related utterances from two different speakers and the second utterance is a specific response to the first, we talk about the so called ADJACENCY PAIRS. The first utterance generates an expectation and leads to the responding utterance: if the second utterance is POSITIVE we can talk about “preferred response”, if the second utterance is NEGATIVE we are dealing with a “dispreferred response”. For example: offer/acceptance (preferred resp.) refusal OR question to a question (dispreferred resp.); greeting/greeting (preferred resp.) no response (dispreferred resp.). PATTERN OF A CONVERSATION 1. OPENING STRUCTURE (ex: greetings) 2. PRE-SEQUENCES (to prepare the ground for the conversation) 3. INSERTION SEQUENCES (contain the main informations) 4. CLOSING STRUCTURES (end of the conversation, ex: farewell)  INTERACTIONAL SOCIOLINGUISTICS (GUMPERTZ) INTERACTIONAL SOCIOLINGUISTICS it’s a third kind of DISCOURSE ANALYSIS theorized by GUMPERTZ and is focused on the STRUCTURE OF DISCOURSE plus the SOCIAL ASPECTS. He introduces the idea of CONTEXTUALIZATIONS CUES to explain all the elements that allow the speaker and the hearer to undestand each other because they share social interaction aspects. Ex: intonation, accent, body language, culture, etc. MAXIMS and COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE (GRICE) According to GRICE conversations are successful only when some specific “social rules” that he defines MAXIMS (Logic and Conversation, 1975) are respected: in this way the Cooperative Principle is satisfied by the conversation. The maxims in question are the following: 1) MAXIM OF QUANTITY: the information provided by the speaker should be neither too little (conversation incomplete) nor too much (boring conversation); 2) MAXIM OF QUALITY: connected to the truthfullness of what is said and to the fact that the speaker is not lying. Speakers are expected not to say false things or things they don t know how to support; 3) MAXIM OF RELATION: when the speaker makes reference to what had been said before; 4) MAXIM OF MANNER: when the speaker is clear, direct and avoids ambiguity. FLOUT or VIOLATE THE MAXIMS GRICE affirms that every time one or more MAXIMS are FLOUTED, we have an IMPLICATURE (an implicit message from the speaker to the hearer). So, the speaker doesn’t give the hearer some informations because he/she thinks that the hearer will be able to retrieve it from the context. - when the MAXIM OF QUANTITY is flouted, the speaker consciously avoids some informations because they are not openly necessary and because the hearer will understand what we mean. Ex: A. “How do I look?” B. “Nice Jacket” (By appreciating the jacket, B appreciates the whole look, but doesn’t say it explicitly because he/she thinks that A will take it for granted). - when the MAXIM OF QUALITY is flouted, the speaker doesn’t say what he/she really thinks (we are lying). Quality is flouted also when we use: RHETORICAL FIGURES (Hyperbole, Metaphor) SARCASM (is a way to hurt someone but in a friendly way) IRONY and BANTER: LEECH defines irony as a frindly way of being offensive (we use negative words to say something positive) and banter as an offensive way of being friendly (we tease in a playful way). GRICE affirms that MAXIMS are VIOLATED when the speaker intentionally omits some informations because he/she doesn’t want the hearer to receive the right information. So, the speaker doesn’t provide enough informations or is ambiguous and the hearer undestands the message in the wrong way. There are 2 types of violation: 1. INFRINGING the maxim: a maxim is not satisfied because of improper use of the language (such as children do or a person under anxiety or alcohol) 2. To OPT-OUT the maxim: we don’t want to give any/some informations (such as criminals that refuse to give information to the police)  POLITENESS (ROBIN LAKOFF, LEECH, BROWN and LEVINSON) POLITENESS is generally considered a positive behaviour in a social context. ROBIN LAKOFF defines POLITENESS as a reducer of social friction. Her Politeness Principle is based on 3 elements: 1. DON’T IMPOSE 2. GIVE OPTIONS 3. MAKE THE RECEIVER FEEL GOOD Robin Lakoff is considered the first one to theorize the concept of “impoliteness” (trattata avanti) by means of her concept of “face” LEECH starts from R. Lakoff’s model and develop his own model based on: 6 PRINCIPLES (maxims) 1. Tact Maxim 2. Generosity Maxim 3. Approbation Maxim 4. Modesty Maxim 5. Agreement Maxim 6. Sympathy Maxim that operate on 4 PARAMETERS 1. Cost-Benefit 2. Optionality 3. Indirectness 4. Authority and Social Distance Is interesting that he distinguishes 2 types of POLITENESS: 1. ABSOLUTE Politeness (focused on SEMANTICS) what is/what is not polite for a culture 2. RELATIVE Politeness (focused on PRAGMATICS) He also talks about ILLOCUTIONARY GOALS based on different SOCIAL AIMS: - COMPETITIVE (ordering, asking etc) - CONVIVIAL (offering, inviting etc) - COLLABORATIVE (reporting, announcing etc) - CONFLICTIVE (threatening, cursing etc) R. LAKOFF and LEECH are criticized by scholars because their models do not provide enough informations and data to create case studies and so are not replicable BROWN and LEVINSON define POLITENESS as something that helps peolple to SAVE FACE. FACE: is a concept they took from GOFFMAN who affirms that we express ourself through a FACE that is acting, speaking, dressing in a certain way in order to form a public image. BROWN and LEVINSON diveded GOFFMAN’s concept of face into 2 parts: POSITIVE FACE = our desire to be approved by others NEGATIVE FACE = our desire to act freely Every conversation represents an occasion of threatening (threat = minaccia), because we can damage our face and the general harmony of a group of persons speaking. All the actions that can damage our face are called FTAs: FACE-THREATENING ACTS. B & L hanno introdotto la teoria della Politeness in base alla teoria di FACE di Goffman: l’idea base è quella che la Politeness è l’abilità di usare della strategie di interazione per 2 motivi precisi: 1) farsi apprezzare e piacere all’interlocutore (POSITIVE FACE) 2) difendere la propria libertà di espressione, opinione e comportamento (NEGATIVE FACE)  FTAs: FACE-THREATENING ACTS According to BROWN and LEVINSON FTA’s are divided into 2 categories: 1. Those that threaten (minacciano) the HEARER’s face POSITIVE face: is threaten when the SPEAKER doesn’t care about his/her feelings (accusing, criticizing etc.) NEGATIVE face: is threaten when the SPEAKER limits the freedom of the hearer (orders, requests, remindings etc.) 1. Those that threaten (minacciano) the SPEAKER’s face POSITIVE face: breakdown, self-humiliation, confession, admission of guilt etc. NEGATIVE face: epressing/accepting thanks, apologies etc. There are some strategies we can use to avoid or minimize FTA’s (do not perform FTA’s) If we CHOOSE TO DO FTA’s, we can: - GO OFF RECORD: the SPEAKER has a second intent and his/her speech is ambiguous - GO ON RECORD: the SPEAKER’s intentions are clear in attacking the hearer’s face (there is not a second meaning). If we go on record: 1. we can go BALD ON RECORD (essere espliciti): the SPEAKER is as direct and clear as possible to attack OR 2. we can use a REDRESSIVE ACTION to reach efficiency: a. POSITIVE Politeness: satisfies the HEARER’s need of being socially accepted Ex: when we ask a favour and we praise someone to get the favour done reducing social friction (Es: “Visto che sei la più brava di tutte, mi presti i tuoi appunti?” Visto che ti sto “disturbando”, ti faccio un complimento così riduco la frizione sociale) b. NEGATIVE Politeness: satisfies the HEARER’s need of acting without impositions Ex: when we ask a favour but we anticipate to our hearer the possibility to say no (Es: “Sentiti libero di dire no, ma mi puoi prestare i tuoi appunti?” Sto considerando il tuo desiderio di non aver voglia o di poter dire di no e quindi ti dò un'ulteriore opzione) All these attitudes are performed according to 3 VARIABLES: 1. SOCIAL DISTANCE = the degree of familiarity and solidariety that speaker and hearer share 2. RELATIVE POWER = the power that the speaker has to impose his/her will on the hearer 3. RANKING OF IMPOSITION = the right that the speaker has to say what he/she says BROWN AND LEVINSON’S RESEARCH was not well accepted: - BECAUSE it’s based on universals (and politeness is not performed identically in every community) - BECAUSE OF POST-STRUCTURALISM (1960’s): that questions the idea of MEANING; language and context affect each other. In this respect, FOCAULT affirms that DISCOURSE is a mix of language and practice (what we say + what we do) so CONTEXT plays a key role in what we say.  CONVERSATIONAL CONTRACT (FRASER) FRASER’s CONVERSATIONAL CONTRACT is considered an upgrade of Grice’s model. It’s based on the fact that a CONVERSATION is made of RIGHTS and OBLIGATIONS that help the parties knowing what to expect from each other. It takes into account : LANGUAGE (like Grice’s Maxims) PEOPLE’s FEELINGS SOCIAL and CULTURAL CONTEXT POLITENESS (EELEN and WATTS) According to EELEN and WATTS (early 2000’s) there are 2 definitions of POLITENESS: (IM) POLITENESS 1 : the concept that a group of people share about what (im)polite language is (IM) POLITENESS 2 : the definition used by linguists Their model was hardly criticized because the 2 definitions divide ordinary people and experts and a theory must be valid for everyone. As for Impoliteness, EELEN considered it a linguistic failure. POLITENESS (WATTS) WATTS explains POLITENESS according to 2 different ideas: 1. POLITIC SPEECH that everyone uses to mantain social balance in a community (a community can be a family but also a nation). It’s recognized by all the participants and changes during the interaction. Ex: During recess students in a classroom laugh and chat: if suddenly the director arrives, they stop chatting switching into a more formal politic speech (requested by the arrival of the director). 2. POLITE SPEECH which depends on the speaker’s inclinations, so it’s unpredictable. The answer to one question depends on the context (it’s a formal context or among friends?) Ex: At the question “How was work today?” a person can answer “Fine, thanks” but also “A load of crap”. Both answers can be polite, it depends on the context. The second answer would be impolite in a formal context, but may be acceptable between friends meeting at the pub after a long week, when they can relax and unload the stress. It is always the speaker’s choice, whether he/she wants to be polite/impolite because the speaker knows which kind of register the hearers expect from him/her. They are both influenced by the SOCIAL and the CULTURAL context. IMPOLITENESS (CULPEPER) Defining IMPOLITENESS is a real challenge: many scholars gave different definitions and focus on different aspects. According to CULPEPER, Impoliteness is a phenomenon of great SOCIAL IMPORTANCE. In his opinion: - is a NEGATIVE ATTITUDE - has EMOTIONAL CONSEQUENCES for at least one participant - is about HOW SOMETHING IS SAID rather than the content of the utterance - is CONNECTED TO CULTURE and IDENTITY (because the aim of impoliteness is to damage a person’s identity) In general, a behaviour is considered IMPOLITE because it goes against how we expect it to be. CULPEPER published a book on Impoliteness in 1996.  THE CONCEPT OF FACE (GOFFMAN, BROWN and LEVINSON, HELEN SPENCER-OATEY) FACE was first theorized by GOFFMAN (visto già in precedenza) who affirms that we express ourself through a FACE that is acting, speaking, dressing in a certain way in order to form a public image. He also takes in consideration WHAT OTHERS THINK ABOUT US (so face includes social interdependence) Then, BROWN and LEVINSON (visto già in precedenza) divided Goffman’s definition into 2: - POSITIVE FACE, our desire to be approved by others; - NEGATIVE FACE, our desire to act freely. HELEN SPENCER-OATEY makes a distinction between identity/face: - IDENTITY is related to the single individual - FACE is relational and connected to the social context She describes 3 types of FACE: 1) QUALITY FACE, our self-esteem and our desire to be approved for our qualities; 2) SOCIAL IDENTITY FACE, our social role; 3) RELATIONAL FACE, based on the rights and obligations connected to the relationship in a conversation. ACTING ACCORDING TO SOCIAL NORMS We all make rational decisions and when we make irrational decisions it is possible to talk about IMPOLITENESS. If this is the case, we may be influenced by anger, hate or frustration. HABITS: all regular behaviours that become SOCIAL NORMS. They give us a sense of certainty and, in case they deviate, they are judged negatively. MORALITY: it refers to CUSTOMS and gives the idea of a “right conduct”. When a right conduct is violated, it leads to IMMORALITY. INTENTION: it is a combination of DESIRE plus BELIEFS that leads to an action. INTENTIONALITY: it means performing an action intentionally and requires 5 components: desire + beliefs that make the intention, skills, and awareness. EMOTION & OFFENCE: they are what others expect us to do about feelings in a specific situation. For example: at a funeral, we are expected to cry and laughing would be considered an offence. Emotion & Offence have 3 main features: 1. Situational antecedents; 2. Behavioural responses; 3. Self-control procedures. POLITENESS and IMPOLITENESS (LEECH) LEECH’s definitions of POLITENESS is (se ne è già parlato sopra ma su aspetti diversi): - ABSOLUTE POLITENESS, is Politeness independent of the context (ORDERS are intrinsically IMPOLITE and OFFERS are intrinsically POLITE) - RELATIVE POLITENESS, is Politeness within a particular context As for IMPOLITENESS, he defines: - MOCK IMPOLITENESS or BANTER (falsa scortesia): is a form of Impoliteness that remains on the surface and is not intended to cause real offence. It can strengthen social intimacy. For example: I can call a dear friend “idiot” but I don’t literally mean he/she really is, rather I manifest my affection for this person.  5 SUPER STRATEGIES (CULPEPER) CULPEPER developed 5 super strategies meant to attack face. He started from B&L’s model, since they didn’t take into account Impoliteness. According to Culpeper, IMPOLITENESS is a negative attitude towards specific behaviours occurring in specific contexts and it is sustained by expectations, desires and/or beliefs about social organization. 1. BALD-ON RECORD IMPOLITENESS: the speaker wants to damage the hearer’s FACE and says what he/she thinks directly, without hiding his/her feelings but making the other uncomfortable. Ex: “Stop complaining!” 2. POSITIVE IMPOLITENESS: the speaker wants to damage the hearer’s POSITIVE FACE (desire to be approved), so he/she ignores or snubs or exlude the hearer from an activity (be unsympathetic, use inappropriate identity markers etc). Ex: “Miss Iam-never-late, I have been waiting for you for more than an hour!” 3. NEGATIVE IMPOLITENESS: the speaker wants to damage the hearer’s NEGATIVE FACE (desire to act freely), for example ridiculing the interlocutor or inviding his/her space - literally (getting closer to the other more than the relationship permits) or metaphorically (asking for or speak about information which is too intimate given the relationship). Ex: “I am the eldest sister, you are just the little one, so I can go out at night and you can’t” 4. OFF-RECORD IMPOLITENESS: the speaker is ambiguous, he/she says something but, between the lines, he/she is intending something different. A metaphor is an example. Ex: “You are a chicken” -> coward 5. WITHHOLD POLITENESS: The speaker is expected to use politeness but he/she doesn’t for some reason. META-STRATEGY: SARCASM or MOCK POLITENESS (falsa gentilezza): the speaker uses politeness but he/she is insincere. Ex: “Very helpful indeed, thanks!!” said when we ask for suggestions and the other replies “It’s up to you”. IRONY vs SARCASM They both say something but mean something different but IRONY is defined as compromise between what we say and what we mean and is used to be “friendly offensive”. Its aim is to RAISE HUMOR. Ex: “I had so much fun by paying that fine (multa) of 100 euros.” = we know the speaker is ironic because there’s nothing funny in paying a fine. while SARCASM is used when we want to hurt the hearer in a friendly way. Ex: “That’s the magnificent undercooked fish that I was looking forward to eating. Thank you for serving it on such a horrible plate, too.” Verbal Irony - Mother saying, ‘I quite enjoy muddy paw prints on my new white carpet.’ Una madre dice: "Mi piacciono molto le impronte di zampe fangose sul mio nuovo tappeto bianco". Sarcasm - Mother-in-law saying to that same mother, ‘White was a fabulous choice for your new carpet. It goes great with 2 kids and 3 dogs.’ La suocera dice alla stessa madre: "Il bianco è stata una scelta favolosa per il tuo nuovo tappeto". Va benissimo con 2 bambini e 3 cani.’ RICORDA: MOCK POLITENESS/SARCASM = falsa gentilezza - MOCK IMPOLITENESS/BANTER = falsa scortesia  STYLISTIC STYLISTIC is a method of interpretation of a text and focuses on language. Its main object is LITERATURE. Stylistic Analysis is based on 3 principles (called 3Rs), so should be: 1. RIGOUROUS = based on some specific rules and schemes that are clear and direct 2. RETRIEVABLE = organized through specific terms and criteria 3. REPLICABLE = so clear that others can verify it and use it to analyse other texts LEVELS OF LANGUAGE Language has got the following 7 levels: SEMANTICS: that is the meaning of words and sentences; SYNTAX: that is how words combine to form phrases (GRAMMAR); PRAGMATICS: that is how words and sentences are used in everyday situations; LEXICOLOGY: that is the vocabulary; MORPHOLOGY: that is the construction of the words; PHONOLOGY: that is the sound of the spoken language GRAPHOLOGY: that is the shape of the written language. DEVELOPMENT OF STYLISTICS Stylistics was studied by 2 main movements: 1. The RUSSIAN FORMALISM 2. The PRAGUE SCHOOL OF STRUCTURALISM ROMAN JAKOBSON ROMAN JAKOBSON is the theorist who links the 2 movements: he was a Russian linguist who played a key role in the formation of Russian Formalism, then e moved to Prague making its contribution to the Prague School. In 1960 he developed a MODEL OF LANGUAGE made of 6 functions: 1. EMOTIVE focused on the ADDRESSER 2. CONATIVE focused on the ADDRESSEE 3. POETIC* focused on the MESSAGE 4. METALINGUAL focused on the CODE used 5. PHATIC concerns the CONTACT between speaker and hearer 6. REFERENTIAL regarding the CONTEXT of the MESSAGE AXIS OF SELECTION the pool of possible words we can choose when we form a phrase AXIS OF COMBINATION how words combine in a sentence *in the POETIC FUNCTION the 2 axes are connected together by the PRINCIPLE OF EQUIVALENCE (the principle is activeted, for example, when in a sentence we erase some words but we can still retrieve the meaning of the full sentece) FOREGROUNDING FOREGROUNDING aims to catch the reader attention by using uncommon words. Foregrounding can create effects such as surprise, focus, or emphasis, and is often used in poetry and literature.The idea is that when things are familiar, we stop noticing them. So, by means of different tools (metaphor, parallelism or deviation) the author creates “unfamiliar combinations” and the reader’s attention is shifted from what is said to HOW is said. Ex: “A grief ago” (Dylan Thomas)  THE BASIC MODEL OF GRAMMAR GRAMMAR refers to the rules of a language. We refer to grammar according to a SCALE from the largest units to the smallest: 1. SENTENCE 2. CLAUSE (that must contain SPCA*) 3. PHRASE 4. WORD 5. MORPHEME CLAUSE has a structure called SPCA (Subject / Predicator / Complement / Adjunct). Every CLAUSE can have 1 subject and 1 predicator BUT we can have 2 compliments and many adjuncts. MINOR CLAUSE: clauses without predicator but that have a meaning within the context (ELLIPSIS – that is the possibility to cut part of the discourse – can be a minor clause). PARTS OF POETRY METRE: an organize pattern of strong and weak syllabes RHYTM: a patterned movement of pulses in time, defined by periodicity (regular time intervals) and repetition (occurring again and again). FOOT: the basic unit of analysis in metrics for poetry NARRATIVE STYLISTIC NARRATIVE PLOT: the sequence of events in a story NARRATIVE DISCOURSE: the realised text Narrative Stylistic is composed by 6 units: 1. Textual Medium: the channel of narration (novel, musical, etc) 2. Sociolinguistic Code: the language used to locate the story in time and space 3. Action and Events: describes characters and how they interact 4. Point Of View: the p.o.v. of the NARRATOR 1° person: the narrator is part of the story 3° person: the narrator is outside the story - Homodiegetic: the narrator tells the story in 1° person - Heterodiegetic: the narrator tells the story in 3° person OMNISCENT: the narrator has access to thoughts and feelings of the characters Restricted Omniscence: the narrator is unable/unwilling to enter into the thoughts/feelings of the character 5. Textual Structure: how narrative units are organized 6. Intertextuality: when we allude to other texts. DEIXIS IN STYLISTICS In Stylistic, DEIXIS means pointing via language or defining distance/closeness to the speaking voice. Deixis allows to locate the speaking voice in a physical space by creating a deicting center, called ORIGO (around which we can locate other objects). Speaker Position = Deicting Center = Origo DEICTIC TERMS: words able to display deixis Ex: personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns etc ≠ DEICTIC ELEMENTS: words that cannot display deixis directly but are connected to the context Ex: tenses of verbs There are 6 types of deixis: 1. PLACE D. 2. TIME D. 3. PERSON D. 4. SOCIAL D. 5. EMPATHETIC D. 6. DISCOURSE D.  DEICTIC SHIFT THEORY DEICTIC SHIFT THEORY describes how, when we read a story, we enter the world of narration thanks to our imagination first and then thanks to some strategies (such as PUSHEs and POPs). PUSHes and POPs (GALBRAITH) GALBRAITH model of PUSHes and POPs: PUSHes: means submerging ourselves (Ex: flashbacks) POPs: means emerging back (Ex: when a character wakes up from a dream) An other example of POPs is when the narrator interrupts the flow of narration to make a remark: in this case we are talking about POPPING MOVE. SPEECH and THOUGHT - SPEECH can be: DIRECT: is introduced by reporting clause and enclosed by quotation marks Ex: She said: “I’m studying now!” INDIRECT: doesn’t require quotation marks, the tense of the actions changes and also the world that refer to time and space Ex: She said (that) she was studying in that moment - THOUGHT (in narrative fiction) FREE DIRECT THOUGHT (FDT): Does Wilma still love me? (1° person) FREE INDIRECT THOUGHT (FIT): Did she love him? (3° person) DIRECT THOUGHT (DT): he wondered, “Does Wilma still love me?” INDIRECT THOUGHT (IT): he wondered if she still loved him DIALOGUE IN DRAMA DIALOGUE IN DRAMA was studied between the 1970s and the 1980s: even if drama is fictional, dialogue in drama is studied based on how dialogue works in real life. In dialogue in drama we can define 3 different contexts: 1. the Physical Context is the actual setting of the conversation (pub, workplace etc.); 2. the Personal Context is referred to the personal/social relationships between participants; 3. the Cognitive Context concerns the shared background knowledge of the participants (past experiences, cultural knowledge and so on). Utterances combine to form an EXCHANGE that requires COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE (when to be familiar or formal, when to be direct or indirect, when to talk or keep quiet) What is interesting in drama is that we have a MESSAGE that goes from one character to another but also a MESSAGE that goes from the playwright (drammaturgo) to the audience/reader. COGNITIVE STYLISTIC COGNITIVE STYLISTIC (1980s) studies the READER and how his/her knowledge is modified by the act of READING. IDEALIZED COGNITIVE MODEL (ICM): name given to the models we have in our mind (based on our experience or knowledge). Ex: when someone speaks about aliens, even if we have never seen one, we are able to understand the discourse because we have a cognitive model of an alien in our minds. Any ICM is not stable* but dynamic, because it changes every time we enrich the information.  FIGURES OF SPEECH (or TROPES or STYLISTIC DEVICES) - METAPHOR: is a process of mapping between 2 different conceptual domains TARGET DOMAIN the topic I want to describe SOURCE DOMAIN the concept I use to create the metaphor Ex: Time is money - METONYMY: when we transpose a concept by using different, similar words but within the same conceptual domain Ex: I gave you all my heart (heart = love) - calling the queen of England “the Crown” - SIMILE: a way of connecting 2 concepts by using “IS LIKE” Ex: He looks like a fish out of water - CARICATURE: used to create humor, is a sort of metonymy where some aspects are distorted (usually the physical appearance) - SYNECDOCHE: figure of speech that occurs when 1. a part is used to represent the whole 2. a whole is used to represent a part Ex: I can't wait to get back out on the waves. / I can't wait to get back out on the ocean. POETRY ONOMATOPOEIA: when words are used to represent a SOUND LEXICAL: “slurp” reference to the sound that someone makes while is eating NON LEXICAL: “vroom” the noise of a car PHONAESTHESIA/ SOUND SYMBOLISM: occurs when certain sounds are associated to certain meanings Ex: /gl/ = shiny things = glitter, gloss, glass PHONAESTHETIC FALLACY: the failure of sound symbolism (when the writer makes reference to something by using sound symbolism but the reader misunderstands) ALLITTERATION: repetition of the same CONSONANT sound in nearby words. The consonant sound must be in the word-initial position (cohesive effect) Ex: Big Blue Bag, Red Rose CONSONANCE: repetition of the same CONSONANT sound BUT not in the initial position (cohesive effect) Ex: “Mike likes his new bike” ASSONANCE: repetition of the same VOWEL sound in nearby words. Is often used to give emphasis to slogans or newspaper headlines (cohesive effect) Ex: no pAIn, no gAIn HUMOR The language of HUMOR is based on the principle of INCONGRUITY (contradiction between what is said and what the speaker means). There are different toos to create humor: - PUNs a word-play between 2 unrelated meanings that create a new one. It plays with the double meaning. Ex: “Why does Peter Pan fly all the time?” “He Neverlands” - IRONY a compromise between what we say and what we mean Ex: “I had so much fun by paying that fine (multa) of 100 euros.” - PARODY aims to criticize/questioning, is based on the principle of irony - SATIRE based on irony, it criticizes but has an aggressive element which isn’t present in parody  CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR THEORY – CMT (GEORGE LAKOFF and MARK JOHNSON) The CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR THEORY is also defined Cognitive Metaphor Theory (1980s). According to GEORGE LAKOFF and MARK JOHNSON, people use their experiences to create COMMON METAPHORS by means of a process (called MAPPING). The theory is based on 2 principles: 1. the SOURCE DOMAIN: what we use to create the analogy (journey) 2. the TARGET DOMAIN: what we want to describe (life) The process of mapping is one way only and it goes from the source domain to the target domain. Ex: “Life is a journey” MENTAL SPACE THEORY – MS (FAUCONNIER) MENTAL SPACE THEORY was developed by FAUCONNIER (in 1994) and follows the CMT of Lakoff and Johnson. It explores the way we create meaning during the understanding of a text. We create “MENTAL SPACES” while understanding a text means that, thanks to the interaction between the textual information and the interactants’ background knowledge, we arrive to a meaning/understanding of a text and put it into a MENTAL SPACE. oppure The focus of this theory is to explore the meaning construction involved in text comprehension and underline the dynamic aspects of human understanding. ‘Space’ refers to how people conceptualized meanings and how they understand them. The mental space is the connection between textual information and the background knowledge. Mental Spaces have a DYNAMIC nature. They are created continuously and are able to relate one to another in the MENTAL SPACE LATTICES. BLENDING THEORY – BT (FAUCONNIER and TURNER) The BLENDING THEORY is the updated version of the CMT and the MS and it was theorized by FAUCONNIER and TURNER. This theory focuses on the cognitive process of meaning creation by means of structures called BLENDS (that are new to the previous theories). It consists of 3 phases: 1. COMPOSITION 2. COMPLETION (completamento) 3. ELABORATION To better understand BT: Given 2 inputs, the process of MAPPING (from the CMT) selects only some meanings from the MENTAL SPACES (from the MS) associeted to the 2 inputs. This combination of meanings create the INTEGRATION NETWORK that works with our BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE giving life to the BLEND (a totally NEW MEANING compared to the intial inputs). For example: “This surgeon is a butcher” (“Questo chirurgo è un macellaio”: Facciamo interagire questi due domini (chirurgo/macellaio) al fine di evidenziare una certa situazione, ossia che il chirurgo ha fatto dei disastri)  POSSIBLE WORLD THEORY (RYAN) According to RYAN, when we read a text, we enter into a world (Textual Actual World – TAW) which is different from our world (Actual World – AW). As readers, we accept this new world (TAW) as the centre of a universe surrounded by other possible worlds (Alternate Possible Worlds – APW). To activate the transference process into the new world (TAW), the reader accepts the rules and the logics that govern the TAW and, in case, the APW. To consider the Alternate Worlds acceptable, things and situations of a world must show a certain degree of accessibility defined: PRINCIPLE of MINIMAL DEPARTURE (Ex: proprieties of common objects, correspondence of natural laws etc) FERDINAND DE SAUSSURE FERDINAND DE SAUSSURE was a Swiss linguist whose ideas are fundamental for the modern linguistics. He talks about the concept of SIGN: according to De Saussure a LINGUISTIC SIGN does not correspond directly to an object in real life, but is made of 2 components: 1. the SIGNIFIER that is the physical realization of the object (the WORD) Ex: the word “CHAIR” 2. the SIGNIFIED that is the mental concept that the sign expresses, WHAT IT IS Ex: referring to “chair”→ “WHAT YOU SIT ON” The relation between Signifier and Signified is defined SIGNIFICATION and its arbitrary and conventional (the relation is established by convention rather than a natural relation). Moreover, e introduces the concept of LANGUE and PAROLE LANGUE is an abstract system of a language that allows speakers to speak and understand each other PAROLE is the concrete use of the language, the linguistic act of a singular person LANGUE and PAROLE interact according to specific combinations: - the VERTICAL axis → focuses on the possibility of choosing, for example, a particular name or adjective among all the names/adjectives (PARADIGMATIC RELATION) - the HORIZONTAL axis → focuses on the possibility of combining, for example deciding the order of subject/verb/object (SYNTAGMATIC RELATION: it tends to be fixed or the sentence can result incomprehnsible) NB: as with Jakobson, the two axis are related according to the Principle of Equivalence  WRITING and RESEARCH: Reasons for extended writing activities: 1. To express own ideas; 2. To provide evidence to support ideas; 3. To dispute or support existing theories; 4. To demonstrate knowledge based on reading, conferences or other academic experiences. Types of writings: - ESSAY OF EXAMINATION: traditional texts during an exam; - LAB REPORT: to describe lab research; - FIELD STUDY REPORT: to describe academic research; - PPT SLIDE: to summarize oral speech; - WIKI: collaborative website; - BLOG: online space; - EXTENDED ESSAY: written papers at the end of a course; - DISSERTATION: final work at university. It is called Bachelor of Arts (BA) for Triennale or Master of Art (MA) for Magistrale; - THESIS: final work PhD; - REPORT: news about an interesting topic; - CASE STUDY: to give info and describe development over a period of time. Steps when facing a writing: 1. Gathering information from various academic sources; 2. Organizing that information; 3. Planning the text, by means of brainstorming (= is everything you can think about on a certain topic) è stato chiesto all’orale 4. Drafting and re-drafting until the information is given clearly; STEPS FOR WRITING A PAPER: 1. PLANNING: decide a topic – check resources – think about a title – make a rough outline – focus – plan contents 2. RESEARCHING: library/online – list sources – highlight relevant info – read everything found – more research 3. WRITING UP: write the first draft – read it carefully – set for clarity – work with a supervisor – bibliogr./abstracts BASIC STRUCTURE OF A PAPER: 1. Introduction 2. Main bod (corpo principale) 3. Conclusion PROVIDING EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT YOUR IDEAS: Evidence gives a work academic weight. Moreover, using the ideas of other people is essential, because when writing academically students are NOT expected to write their own ideas, but their point of view, supported by evidence. CRITICAL THINKING: to demonstrate you have read, understood and evaluated an article; to show you are able to select sources to support your Point Of View; to demonstrate you know how to use ideas coming from other sources. REASONS FOR READING A TEXT: 1. Because it was suggested by a teacher; 2. To compare it with other texts; 3. The text is relevant to your purpose; 4. The text was written by a respected author; 5. To make notes; 6. To develop a line of inquiry; 7. To refute/support an argument; 8. To copy the main points & examples; 9. Because the text was published recently; 10. Because the text was cited in other sources you are using; 11. To expand knowledge; 12. To confirm your understanding; 13. For intellectual curiosity. HOW TO APPROACH A TEXT: 1. Read carefully 2. Look up unfamiliar words 3. Read the index and abstracts 4. Summarize every chapter or section 5. Note references and bibliographical details 6. Read quickly by skimming 7. Mark notes in the margin SUMMARIZING (è stato chiesto all’orale) It means condensing someone’s ideas into a shorter form without giving all info/explanations. PARAPHRASING (è stato chiesto all’orale) It means rewriting someone’s ideas using different words. Never include interpretations. QUOTING (è stato chiesto all’orale) It means using the exact words of a writer in italics or within inverted commas. It must include footnotes to acknowledge the writer. 3 lines = inverted commas + author; 3+ lines = separate from the text, smaller font REFERENCING You might choose to refer directly to your source, where the authors are named within the sentence, using appropriate language. Alternatively, you might simply refer indirectly to the source by adding the name and date after your statement. STEPS TO SUMMARIZE: 1. Decide WHY you are summarizing: main ideas only or also details? 2. Be selective: understand the material before using it 3. Make notes: (1) to identify the main points and (2) to use your notes as your writing 4. Put the original away: write without using the original 5. Check again the original text. PLAGIARISM: Presenting works or ideas from another source as your own, with or without consent of the original author. PLAGIARISM can be AVOIDED if you ri-elaborate the text using your own words and if you quote using references.(è stato chiesto all’orale)  N.O.W. APPROACH (è stato chiesto all’orale) N = NOTE, (1) identify your note-making purpose (i.e., summarizing all text or just a section), (2) find the relevant main ideas, (3) write down the underlined sections in note form, (4) check the original text; O = ORGANIZE THE NOTES, study the notes and decide on an order; W = WRITE, write, draft, re-write if necessary CORNELL NOTE-TAKING SYSTEM (è stato chiesto all’orale) It was developed by Walter Pauk, Emeritus Professor. The paper is divided into 4 sections using columns and rows: ROW AT THE TOP = bibliographical details LEFT-HAND COLUMN = notes & comments/questions RIGHT-HAND COLUMN = ideas/impressions BOTTOM AREA = summary of the main notes EVALUATIVE ESSAYS vs DESCRIPTIVE WRITINGS: EVALUATIVE ESSAY is a text that conveys an idea or tries to verify a hypothesis. DESCRIPTIVE WRITING: it lists ideas/info/facts, outlines what has been observed, shows the order in which things happen, and describes a process/situation. EVALUATIVE WRITING: it explains the reasoning behind a theory, identifies the factors involved, shows why something is relevant/suitable, evaluates links between different info, places ideas in order of importance, compares the importance of various factors, and discusses weaknesses/strengths. 27 CRITICAL WRITING: 1. Choose a topic; 2. Title of the essay: as clear & as direct as possible; 3. Introduction: general summary of events related to the topic in chronological order and/or outline the structure. 4. THE BODY: - Section 1: background info about the phenomenon you have chosen; - Sections 2,3,4: explain why the features of S.1 are relevant, analyse the system, and support with evidence. Your opinion MUST be conveyed academically: support your thesis with examples, data & references. 5. Conclusion: a brief reference to the thesis statement + comment academically + comments of further analysis. READING & THINKING CRITICALLY: CRITICAL READING = a technique for discovering info and ideas within a text; CRITICAL THINKING = deciding whether to agree with this info or not. Remember that Critical Reading comes before Critical Thinking. HOW TO RECOGNIZE USEFUL SOURCES: - THE TITLE OF THE BOOK, it may tell you if you need it or not; - THE BLURB, on the back cover, it attracts the reader’s attention; - TABLE OF CONTENTS, it is a clear overview of the contents; - INDEX, it is a list of KEYWORDS; - DATE OF PUBLICATION, it tells you how recent the source is; - BIBLIOGRAPHY, it gives more references; - ABSTRACTS, more for articles than books, they summarize contents & goals of the paper + keywords. HOW CRITICALLY ANALYZE A WEBSITE: - TITLE, it has to be specific; - AUTHORITY, is it reliable? If the author of the text is not mentioned, better not to use it; - CURRENCY, is the info updated? If not, don’t use it; - CONTENT, is it explicit? Does it link to your topic? It is useful? - ACCURACY, are there other sources? - AUDIENCE, whom the paper is intended to? Who is the target? HOW TO QUOTE: 1. Less than 3 lines: between inverted commas; 2. More than 3 lines: separate from the text and reduce the font. TUTORIAL (è stato chiesto all’orale) It is a meeting between tutor (teacher) and tutee (student) to discuss aspects of the chapters, to make clarifications and to get teacher’s feedback. 28 WHEN SUBMITTING AN ESSAY: - CONTENT, be sure u don’t write a descriptive essay, remember your opinion; - ORGANIZATION, make sure all the parts are linked properly; - LANGUAGE, check grammar; - PRESENTATION, respect editorial rules; - SOURCES, quote all sources. CHOOSING A TOPIC: 1. Find something interesting for you; 2. Isolate a topic and go in depth; 3. Decide how practical it is to work on this topic; 4. Decide how much you already know on the topic; 5. Summarize the project idea into a sentence; 6. Make a plan; 7. Think about a possible working title; 8. Go for sources. ESTABLISHING A FOCUS 3 steps: 1. Planning; 2. Researching; 3. Writing up. WRITING A TOPIC 1. Don’t be too general or you will not establish a clear focus; 2. Starting from a topic you already know allows you to go deeper; 3. Not too much specialist knowledge/specialized; 4. Do not isolate only one aspect or you will find it difficult to choose the information to use; 5. Working title can change, not a problem; ABSTRACTS (è stato chiesto all’orale) They are brief texts to summarize the contents of an academic text. It describes the AIMS of the research, the METHODS used for the investigation, the MAIN FINDINGS and the CONCLUSIONS. It’s an independent text. It’s useful to read because it helps to take decisions and contains keywords.  WRITING THE INTRODUCTION It sets the tone for the reader and the stance of the writer. It also gives an idea of the organization of the paper. It can also be linked to the conclusion, where you can refer back to the intro and pull together all the ideas. In this way, you show you have dealt with all the issues raised in the intro. Usually, the intro contains: 1. Background info; 2. Justification for your choice; 3. An outline of the essay; 4. Key terms; 5. Your thesis statement, that is your viewpoint. 6. Your purpose for writing. 29 HOW TO IDENTIFY THE THESIS STATEMENT: it is crucial because it indicates your perspective and attitude. 1. It must contain one key idea; 2. It must contain both cause and effects; 3. It must give a clear idea of the content. HOW TO WRITE THE CONCLUSION It has precise functions: 1. Pull together the main ideas; 2. Refer back to the intro; 3. Show the extent to which you have been able to deal with the issues involved. The main features of a conclusion are: 1. Be logical; 2. Provide a brief summary of the main ideas; 3. Give a comment; 4. Predict future development; 5. Underline the need for further research; 6. Make clear the limitations of your paper; 7. Refer back to the thesis statement. HOW TO DEFINE WORDS You must explain clearly what you mean by using keywords. 1. Define a formal definition by using a dictionary; 2. You can expand it with explanations or examples; 3. Offer a comment; 4. Quote acknowledged references. 5. NEVER write a circular definition using the same words! PRESENTATIONS They usually focus on one aspect of the work because of time limit. The use of slides should show the key points of a presentation clearly. Think about your main purpose and your audience, to understand the need of explaining key vocabulary. Practice the presentation in your head but also aloud. Use linking words to move from one point to another. Use eye contact and speak clearly. Manage the time. EDITING: use a suitable font. Do not write too much in a single slide. Check spelling and grammar. Avoid emojis or inappropriate contents. Ask for a second opinion on your final presentation. As for a written paper, be accurate with: the title, the headings, your references, the bibliography, a refined language. Check that your ideas are properly linked. Write a terrific intro and a suitable conclusion that is connected to the intro. Ask for feedback to a colleague.  MACBETH (CULPEPER) In Macbeth we can see BALANCE but also IMBALANCE, especially in the BANQUET SCENE: There is balance because the Macbeths use polite strategies in order to reinforce their social position, and they make relations with the Lords supporting their faces. There is imbalance because the ghost appears and it uses impoliteness, damages them but only in short-term. Macbeth uses impoliteness by losing his nerve and starts blaming the Lords for the appearance of the Ghost. In the conversation between Lady Macbeth and Macbeth = she uses impoliteness to attack his face, asking “are you a man?”, in order to goad his masculine ego and here the maxim of quality is flouted because is obvious that he is a man. Lady Macbeth uses the superstrategy of Sarcasm by saying “o Proper Stuff!” because she implicates the opposite (and she flouts the maxim of quality). She also uses negative impoliteness because scorned him by saying “Shame itself!” and ridiculing his fears. DEVIL WEARS PRADA (CULPEPER) In the Devil wears Prada, there are both POWER and IMPOLITENESS. The most used by Miranda is Negative Impoliteness, but also by Emily. In some scenes it’s used positive impoliteness and bald on record. The strategy of Withhold Politeness and Sarcarsm or mock politeness are used only by Miranda. Bald on record: when Miranda, that is in Miami and want to come back to NY, tells Andrea that she is disappointed in her because she does not find a flight to go back home because of an hurricane; Positive Impoliteness: when Miranda have a a meeting with her employees about the theme to choose for every month (to express opinions) but the only opinion is the one of Miranda (and when employees’ opinions are not her ones, she hurts them by giving bad and negative opinions); Negative Impoliteness: when Miranda condescends Emily by saying she doesn’t understand why it’s so difficult to confirm an appointment // when Emily (in refferring to Andrea) scorns her because she doesn’t know who Miranda is (and everyone knows, especially the one who wants to work for her) and she asks; Sarcasm or Mock politeness: when Miranda criticizes the opinion of the employee by sarcastically saying “groundbreaking”; Withhold politeness: when Miranda invites Andrea to Paris but she refuses that invite.