Science, Technology and Society (STS) Introduction PDF

LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO STS → Ecology: The study of ecosystems and the interactions among organisms and SCIENCE their environment. Came from the lat...

LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO STS → Ecology: The study of ecosystems and the interactions among organisms and SCIENCE their environment. Came from the latin word “scientia” - → Biochemistry: The study of the chemical which means knowledge processes within and related to living A system of acquiring knowledge based organisms, bridging life sciences and on the scientific method physical sciences. As a process used to solve problems or EARTH SCIENCE - Sometimes considered part of develop and understanding of nature physical science, it is often treated as its own that involves testing possible answers branch. Earth science focuses on the study of TYPES OF SCIENCE the Earth and its components. PHYSICAL SCIENCE - This branch deals with the → Geology: The study of the Earth's solid study of non-living systems,It focuses on materials and processes, such as rocks, understanding the fundamental principles that minerals, and plate tectonics. govern the physical universe. → Meteorology: The study of the atmosphere, weather, and climate. → Physics: The study of matter, energy, → Oceanography: The study of the and the fundamental forces of nature. oceans, including marine organisms, → Chemistry: The study of substances, ecosystems, and physical and chemical their properties, and how they interact, processes. combine, and change. → Environmental Science: The study of → Astronomy: The study of celestial the environment and solutions to objects and the universe as a whole. environmental problems, often → Earth Sciences: Sometimes included overlapping with ecology. here; involves geology, meteorology, → Paleontology: The study of the history and oceanography. of life on Earth through the examination → Mathematics: Often considered the of plant and animal fossils. foundation of physical sciences, focusing on the study of numbers, SCIENTIFIC METHOD quantities, shapes, and patterns, used - PROBLEM - ANALYSIS as a tool across various scientific - OBSERVATION - CONCLUSION disciplines. - QUESTION BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE - This branch focuses on - HYPOTHESIS the study of living organisms and life processes. - EXPERIMENT → Biology: The study of living organisms TECHNOLOGY and their vital processes. Comes from the greek root word → Botany: The study of plants. “techne” meaning “art, skill or cunning → Zoology: The study of animals. of hand” → Microbiology: The study of microscopic technology is the application of human organisms, such as bacteria and viruses. knowledge, skills, technique and ideas → Genetics: The study of genes, heredity, to create and produce products and and variation in living organisms. services to achieve specific goals  it refers to methods, systems, and conditions and diseases. It encompasses devices which are the result of scientific a wide range of tools and innovations knowledge being used for practical used in healthcare settings to improve purposes. patient care, enhance diagnostic accuracy, and facilitate treatment. TECHNOLOGY → Environmental Technology - refers to Technology refers to the application of the application of scientific and scientific knowledge, tools, techniques, engineering principles to develop and and processes to solve problems, create implement solutions that address products, or achieve specific objectives. environmental challenges and promote It encompasses a wide range of fields, sustainable practices. It involves including engineering, computing, creating and using technologies that biology, and more. Technology can be protect, preserve, and improve the seen in both tangible forms (like quality of the environment, as well as machines and gadgets) and intangible efficiently managing natural resources. forms (like software and systems). SOCIETY APPLIED TECHNOLOGY Came from the latin word “societas” Applied technology refers to the which means “a friendly association practical application of existing with others” technological tools, techniques, and a group of people living together under knowledge to specific tasks, industries, the same rules and regulation or problems. It focuses on using a group of individuals which is bound by technology in real-world situations to its common interest enhance efficiency, solve problems, and → MODERN SOCIETY - Societies improve processes within a particular characterized by rapid technological context. advancement, high levels of education, and complex social structures. They are COMMON TYPES OF TECHNOLOGY often industrialized and have a high → INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY - IT refers degree of economic and social to the use of computers, software, development. networks, and other electronic systems → TRADITIONAL SOCIETY - Societies that to manage, process, store, and transmit maintain long-standing cultural information. IT encompasses a broad practices, customs, and social norms. range of technologies and practices They often emphasize communal living involved in handling data and facilitating and have strong adherence to tradition communication within and between and ritual. organizations. → INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY - Societies → MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY - Medical characterized by industrialization, Technology refers to the use of scientific where the economy is driven by and engineering principles to develop manufacturing and industry. These and apply devices, systems, and societies often feature urbanization, techniques for diagnosing, monitoring, technological advancements, and treating, and managing medical specialized labor. SUMMARY remembered primarily for his cosmology based on water as the SCIENCE - PROCESS OF ACQUIRING SCIENTIFIC essence of all matter, with Earth a flat KNOWLEDGE disk floating on a vast sea. TECHNOLOGY - APPLICATION OF SCIENTIFIC He was the first to identify non KNOWLEDGE TO PEOPLE supernatural explanations such as earthquakes, lightnings etc. SOCIETY - GROUP OF PEOPLE WHO USES TECH He predicted solar eclipse and make a AND STUDIES SCIENCE fortune by doing prediction WHAT IS STS>? “THE MOST DIFFICULT THING IN LIFE IS TO Science, Technology, and Society (STS) is an KNOW YOURSELF” interdisciplinary field that examines the ANAXIMANDER (AX 610 - 546 BC) interactions between scientific research, technological development, and societal factors. Believed that life came from water It explores how science and technology and mud, he proposed that humans influence and are influenced by social, cultural, evolved from lower life forms ( economic, and political contexts. The field seeks speculation was vindicated by to understand the reciprocal relationship charles darwin 2400 years after) between scientific advancements, technological innovations, and their broader impact on He was the first thinker to develop a society. cosmology. A rationalist, he prized symmetry and used geometry and STS aims to provide a comprehensive mathematical proportions to help understanding of how science and technology map the heavens; his theories thus interact with and impact society, and to address departed from earlier, more mystical the challenges and opportunities that arise from conceptions and foreshadowed the these interactions. achievements of later astronomers. LESSON 2: BRIEF HISTORY OF SCIENCE “THE SOURCE FROM WHICH EXISTING 700 BC - 20TH CENTURY (ANCIENT PERIOD) THINGS DERIVE THEIR EXISTENCE IS ALSO Human history questions about the THAT TO WHICH THEY RETURN AT THEIR world and anything were answered by DESTRUCTION” the religious authorities PYTHAGORAS (PY 570 - 495 BC) Mathematics was born in egypt, the babylonians were the first to apply it to Started a school of dedicated to astronomy mathematics and its application to The pre-socratic philosophers in ancient nature greece were the first to develop a Pythagoras was a greek philosopher systematic science who made important developments in mathematics, astronomy, and the THALES OF MELITUS (TM 624 - 546 BC) theory of music. The theorem now IN THE 7TH CENTURY HE WAS DUBBED known as pythagoras's theorem was AS "THE FATHER OF SCIENCE”, He is known to the babylonians 1000 years  earlier but he may have been the first to NOTHING EXIST EXCEPT ATOMS AND EMPTY prove it. SPACES; EVERYTHING ELSE IS JUST AN OPINION A FOOL IS KNOWN BY ITS SPEECH; AND A WISE HIPPOCRATES (HP 440 - 370 BC) MAN BY SILENCE Developed the first scientific approach HERACLITUS & PARMENIDES (HC-P 540 - 480 to anatomy and medicine they used BC) experiments and records to heal the sick illnesses do not come upon us out Started major debates on what justifies of the blue. They are developed from reason, knowledge or experience? Is small daily sins against nature, when nature fundamentally permanent or enough sins have accumulated illnesses damaging will suddenly appear who is best knowledge or experience? “MAKE A HABIT OF TWO THINGS TO HELP OR “BIG RESULTS REQUIRES BIG AMBITION” ATLEAST TO DO NO HARM” “NATURES LOVE TO HIDE” “THE PHYSICIAN IS ONLY NATURES ASSISTANT” EMPEDOCLES (EM 490 - 430 BC) ERATHOSTHENES (ER 276 - 194 BC) Discovered air using a straw and a glass ACCURATELY MEASURED THE SIZE / of water. "empedocles discovered the CIRCUMFERENCE OF EARTH USING 2 invisible - carl sagan” STICKS, HE CREATE THE FIRST MAP OF Empedocles devised the theory that all THE WORLD substances are made of four pure, What is Eratosthenes famous for? indestructible elements: air, fire, water, Eratosthenes measured Earth's and earth. In one sense, it is admirable circumference mathematically using that Empedocles tried to simplify our two surface points to make the complex world into basic elements. calculation. He noted that the Sun's rays THERE ARE 2 FORCES IN NATURE CALLED LOVE fall vertically at noon in Syene (now AND HATE, LOVE ATTRACTS ELEMENTS AND Aswān), Egypt, at the summer solstice. PARTICLES TO BUILD A PARTICULAR FORM OR “IT'S NO LONGER NECESSARY TO INQUIRE AS PERSON WHILE HATE CAUSES THE TO THE CAUSE OF THE OVERFLOW OF THE NILE, DECOMPOSITION OF THINGS SINCE WE KNOW DEFINITELY THAT MEN HAVE DEMOCRITUS (DM 460 - 370 BC) COME TO THE SOURCES OF THE NILE AND HAVE OBSERVED THE RAINS THERE” FIRST TO THEORIZE THAT MATTER IS MADE UP OF "ATOMS” MIDDLE AGES (5TH - 14TH CENTURY ) Democritus was a central figure in the Science continued through the roman development of the atomic theory of empire. When the empire fell and the the universe. He theorized that all dark ages ensued, science in the west material bodies are made up of ceased to progress indivisibly small “atoms.” Aristotle While there was some european famously rejected atomism in On scientist in the middle ages, they were Generation and Corruption. generally isolated and marginalize  Most scientific advancements from 500- Developed three laws of motion.... 1300 ce were made in the islamic world. “I CONSIDER MY GREATEST ACCOMPLISHMENT medicine, astronomy, chemistry TO BE LIFELONG CELEBACY” developed considerably in these regions 12th ce europe - scholasticism tried to “IF I HAVE SEEN FURTHER THAN OTHERS IT IS reconcile ancient greek thought with BY STANDING UPON THE SHOULDER OF biblical dogma (end of dark ages ) GIANTS” ST. THOMAS AQUINAS (ST 1400 - 1480 AD) AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT (1685-1814 AD) St. Thomas aquinas endorse “natural The golden age for “natural theology” - knowing god by studying his philosophers” or scientist, they turned creation away from the aristotelian model of This led to a social revolution - people trying to find the purpose of motion, started to think, free discussion was scientist started looking for laws and demanded that results in weakening mechanisims in nature. church power “THE AGE OF REASONING” Thinkers turning away from church and going back to antiquity for references, LESSON 3: HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS thus there was a renaissance. TRANSPORTATION AND NAVIGATION “THE THINGS THAT WHAT WE LOVE TELLS US COMMUNICATION WHAT WE ARE” SECURITY AND PROTECTION HEALTH FRANCIS BEACON (FB 1561 - 1626 AD) ARCHITECTURE AND ENGINEERING He provided a “map” - the first scientific POWER AND ENERGY method, explains the empirical MASS PRODUCTION observation and experimentation AESTHETIC together with rational analysis, RECORD KEEPING mathematical modeling and deductive reasoning TRANSPORTATION AND NAVIGATION -- Transportation in the ancient period faced “BEING A GENIUS IS LIKE BEING ABLE TO RUN significant challenges due to limited technology FAST” YOU TRAVEL FAR, BUT UNLESS YOU HAVE and infrastructure. Travel was primarily on foot A MAP, YOU'LL BE LOST” or by animals, making it slow and exhausting for ISAAC NEWTON (IN 1643 - 1727 AD) long distances. Roads were either poorly constructed or non-existent, especially outside Isaac newton was an english polymath major cities, which made overland travel active as a mathematician, physicist, difficult, particularly in rugged or desert regions. astronomer, alchemist, theologian and While simple carts and wagons were used, they author who was described in his time as were inefficient for carrying heavy loads over a natural philosopher. He was a key long distances. Waterways provided an figure in the enlightenment period. alternative, but navigation was risky due to the lack of advanced ships and navigation tools, as Discovered calculus.... well as dangers like piracy and unpredictable weather. Geographic obstacles such as o Landmarks and Natural Features: mountains, deserts, and rivers further restricted Ancient people used natural landmarks travel, making it hard for people to move like mountains, rivers, and stars to beyond their regional areas unless they lived navigate. Travelers would often follow near key trade routes. These limitations rivers or coastlines, using them as hindered trade, communication, and the natural guides. exchange of cultures. o Trail Markers: Paths and trails were LAND TRANSPORTATION often marked with stones or other visible objects. Some civilizations o Walking: The most basic form of created road systems, like the Romans, transportation was walking. For long who built extensive networks of roads distances, people traveled by foot across their empire to facilitate travel across rugged terrains, forests, and and communication. deserts. o Overland Trade Routes: Famous trade o Animal-based Transportation: Animals routes like the Silk Road connected Asia like horses, donkeys, camels, and oxen with Europe and North Africa, requiring were essential. In some regions, knowledge of geography, topography, elephants were also used for carrying and safe passage through deserts and heavy loads or traveling across difficult mountains. terrains. WATER NAVIGATION WATER TRANSPORTATION Celestial Navigation: Ancient mariners Rafts and Canoes: Early forms of water relied heavily on the stars, the sun, and transportation involved simple rafts the moon to navigate. The North Star made from logs or reeds, and canoes (Polaris) was particularly important for carved from trees, allowing humans to northern hemisphere sailors. cross rivers and lakes. Coastal Navigation: Sailors often stayed Boats and Ships: As technology evolved, close to the coast to avoid getting lost at boats became more sophisticated. sea. The Phoenicians, known for their Ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and seafaring skills, used the coastline and Phoenicians built sailboats and ships to landmarks to guide them. navigate rivers (like the Nile) and seas (like the Mediterranean). The use of Wind and Ocean Currents: Mariners sails and oars made it possible to travel were familiar with seasonal winds and longer distances. ocean currents, which helped them time their journeys, especially in the Trade Vessels: The Phoenicians and Indian Ocean and Mediterranean. Greeks were renowned for building larger ships capable of transporting Instruments: Although rudimentary, goods across the Mediterranean. The early instruments like the astrolabe Romans, too, had extensive sea routes (developed later by the Greeks and for trading and military conquests. refined by Arab sailors) were used for LAND NAVIGATION  measuring the angle of celestial bodies particularly common in military contexts to help with navigation. or royal courts. COMMUNICATION - Communication in the WRITTEN COMMUNICATION ancient period was slow, unreliable, and limited Early Writing Systems: by distance and geography. Messages had to be delivered in person, either on foot, by animal, or - The invention of writing marked a major via basic couriers, which meant long delays in turning point in communication. The receiving information. Written messages were earliest forms of writing were often sent on materials like clay tablets, pictographs (symbols representing papyrus, or parchment, making them vulnerable objects or ideas) and cuneiform (wedge- to damage and deterioration. The lack of shaped marks on clay tablets) used in established postal systems in many regions Mesopotamia around 3200 BCE. added further challenges, and natural barriers - Hieroglyphics in Egypt and Linear B like mountains, deserts, and oceans made script in Mycenaean Greece were other communication between distant regions even forms of early writing. more difficult. Additionally, language differences - Indus Valley Script (which remains between regions could hinder effective undeciphered) and Chinese Characters communication, especially in trade or were used for administration, trade, and diplomatic relations. These limitations made it recording events. difficult to share information quickly, impacting - Papyrus, Parchment, and Clay Tablets: governance, trade, and cultural exchange. Messages were inscribed on a variety of materials: ORAL COMMUNICATION - In Egypt, papyrus scrolls made from Verbal and Face-to-Face plant fibers were used. Communication: In most ancient - In Mesopotamia, clay tablets were used societies, communication was primarily to record laws, treaties, and commercial verbal. Storytelling, speeches, and transactions. direct conversations were key methods - In later periods, parchment (made from of transmitting information. animal skin) became common in Europe and the Mediterranean. Oral Traditions: Many ancient cultures, especially those without writing Scribes: The profession of scribes was systems, relied on oral traditions to pass crucial in ancient times. They were down knowledge, history, myths, and skilled individuals who wrote and cultural values. This included the use of recorded information for kings, poetry, songs, and storytelling. In merchants, and religious leaders. Greece, for example, epics like Homer's Scribes played an essential role in Iliad and Odyssey were preserved maintaining government records, through oral recitation before being documenting religious texts, and written down. preserving history. Messengers: People were employed as Inscriptions and Monuments: Many messengers to carry verbal or written ancient rulers and civilizations used messages over long distances. This was inscriptions on monuments, temples, and tombs to communicate their  achievements, laws, or religious beliefs. had a sophisticated relay system of For example, the Rosetta Stone (Egypt) runners (called chasquis) to deliver was inscribed with the same text in messages and goods across the Andes three scripts (hieroglyphics, Demotic, Mountains. and Greek) to reach a broad audience. Horseback Messengers: In the Persian SYMBOL AND VISUAL COMMUNICATION Empire, the Royal Road facilitated quick communication by horse-mounted Cave Paintings: Long before writing, couriers. Similarly, the Romans early humans used cave paintings (as developed an extensive postal system seen in places like Lascaux, France) to using roads and relay stations for depict scenes of hunting, animals, and messengers on horseback. spiritual beliefs. Fire and Smoke Signals: In cases where Totems and Statues: In many cultures, immediate long-distance religious or cultural symbols like totem communication was needed, ancient poles, statues of gods, or carved stones civilizations used fire or smoke signals. were used to communicate beliefs, For example, the Greeks used beacon power, and social structures. fires to send signals across mountain Coins: The use of coins as currency, ranges. especially in the Greek and Roman Drums and Horns: Some African and worlds, often included images and Native American societies used drums, inscriptions, serving not only as money horns, and other instruments to but as a medium to communicate the communicate messages over distances, ruler’s image and political messages. especially in dense forests where visual NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION signals weren't effective. Gestures and Sign Language: Gestures SECURITY AND PROTECTION were used universally to communicate Armies and Warriors: Ancient across language barriers or in situations civilizations relied on organized armies, where speaking was not possible. Some militias, and warrior classes to protect cultures, like Native American tribes, their territories and interests. These developed complex systems of sign military forces were responsible for language. defending against external invasions, Body Language: Facial expressions, protecting trade routes, and postures, and physical movements maintaining internal order. conveyed emotions and intentions in Egyptians, Romans, Assyrians, Greeks, various cultures. and Persians had highly organized MESSENGER / POSTAL COMMUNICATION armies. In some societies, like Sparta, the entire Runners and Couriers: In many ancient society was geared towards military civilizations, specially trained runners or training and protection. couriers were used to deliver messages across vast distances. The Inca Empire  Samurai warriors in ancient Japan were balance the body’s Qi and both defenders and enforcers of local ensure good health. rulers’ authority. MIDWIVES In most ancient cultures, Fortifications and City Walls: midwives played an essential role in Fortifications were a common feature in childbirth. They assisted with delivery, ancient cities. City walls, defensive offered care for the mother and child, towers, and gates were constructed to and used herbal remedies to address protect urban centers from enemy complications during labor. attacks. COMMON DISEASES Castles and Citadels: Nobles, kings, and o Infectious diseases were emperors often built castles, palaces, widespread in the ancient and citadels that served as both world, especially in densely residences and defensive strongholds. populated cities with limited These were heavily fortified with walls, sanitation. moats, and towers. o Diseases such as malaria, HEALTH dysentery, tuberculosis, and HEALERS AND PHYSICIANS leprosy were common. Without knowledge of bacteria or o In ancient Egypt, healers known viruses, ancient people often as sunu were trained in medical blamed supernatural forces for practices and often worked the spread of illness. alongside priests. Some of these healers specialized in specific PLAGUES AND EPIDEMICS areas, such as dentistry or o Epidemics were devastating in surgery. the ancient world, often wiping o In ancient Greece, physicians out large portions of like Hippocrates and Galen were populations. The Plague of central to the development of Athens (430 BCE), for instance, rational medicine, separating it killed thousands during the from supernatural explanations Peloponnesian War. of disease. o The Antonine Plague (165–180 o Ayurvedic practitioners in CE) in the Roman Empire, ancient India combined spiritual possibly caused by smallpox, practices with medical caused massive depopulation treatments, focusing on and contributed to the decline maintaining the balance of the of the empire. body’s energies (doshas) to ISOLATION AND QUARANTINE prevent illness. o While germ theory didn’t exist, o In China, doctors combined some ancient civilizations herbal medicine, acupuncture, understood the importance of and other treatments to  isolating the sick. In ancient and monumental structures, Israel, for example, individuals where permanence was with leprosy were isolated from desired. the community as prescribed in MUD BRICK AND CLAY religious texts. o In regions with limited access to ARCHITECTURE AND ENGINEERING - stone, such as Mesopotamia Architecture in the ancient period faced and Indus Valley, mud bricks numerous challenges due to limited were commonly used in construction technology, materials, and construction. These bricks were knowledge. While impressive structures made by molding clay and straw like pyramids, temples, and fortresses and then drying them in the were built, these were often labor- sun. intensive projects that required massive workforces over many years. Common TIMBER buildings, however, were typically made o Wood was widely used in from simple materials like wood, mud- brick, or stone, which were less durable construction in areas where and prone to damage from weather, forests were abundant. Timber erosion, or natural disasters. was used for building houses, Engineering techniques, such as arches, ships, and some temples, domes, and foundations, were in their although few ancient wooden early stages, meaning structures were structures have survived due to often less stable and vulnerable to decay. collapse. The lack of advanced tools POWER AND ENERGY made precise measurements and large- scale construction difficult. Additionally, Energy in the ancient period was transportation of heavy building primarily derived from human, animal, materials over long distances was slow and natural sources, which presented and laborious. Architecture was also various challenges in efficiency and influenced by social hierarchy, with availability. The reliance on human and monumental buildings reserved for the animal labor for agricultural and elite, while ordinary people lived in construction work limited the scale and much simpler and less durable homes. speed of production, making it labor- These limitations meant that while intensive and time-consuming. Energy ancient architecture could be sources like wood and charcoal were impressive, it was often inefficient, used for heating and cooking but were vulnerable, and difficult to maintain. often scarce, leading to deforestation and depletion of local resources. Water STONE and wind power were harnessed in o Stone was one of the primary some cultures, yet they were not widely materials used for building in developed or utilized, limiting their the ancient world due to its potential impact. The absence of durability and availability. It advanced technology meant that most was especially used in religious energy systems were inefficient, with  significant losses in conversion and civilizations like the Phoenicians, usage. Furthermore, access to these Egyptians, and Greeks relied on wind to energy sources varied geographically, propel their ships, enabling long- making some regions more dependent distance trade and exploration. on external supplies, which could be NATURAL FIRE Fire was one of the most disrupted by conflicts or natural important sources of energy in the disasters. Overall, the limitations in ancient world. It was used for cooking, energy availability and efficiency heating, and light, as well as for restricted economic growth, agricultural processes like metal smelting, pottery productivity, and the development of making, and other forms of craft and complex societies in the ancient world. industry. The discovery of fire, and its HUMAN ENERGY Labor was one of the control, was critical for the most basic forms of energy in ancient development of human societies. societies. People used their own THERMAL ENERGY The use of fire also physical strength for farming, enabled ancient people to harness construction, and other forms of thermal energy for smelting metals manual labor. Large construction (e.g., copper, bronze, and later iron), projects like the pyramids in Egypt or which allowed for the creation of ziggurats in Mesopotamia were built stronger tools, weapons, and primarily using human labor. infrastructure. ANIMAL ENERGY Domesticated SOLAR ENERGY While the direct animals such as oxen, horses, and harnessing of solar energy through donkeys were used to plow fields, advanced technologies like solar panels transport goods, and assist with didn't exist, ancient civilizations were construction. They provided a aware of the sun’s power. They used significant source of energy, especially passive solar energy for agriculture and for agriculture and transportation. building design. Temples and buildings WATER POWER Ancient civilizations, were often constructed in alignment particularly in regions like Egypt, with the sun’s position to mark Mesopotamia, and China, relied on important times of the year (e.g., rivers for irrigation and transportation. solstices), and in some cultures, the sun The flow of water in rivers such as the was worshiped as a source of life (e.g., Nile, Tigris, and Euphrates enabled crop the Sun God Ra in Egypt). production through irrigation. In some MASS PRODUCTION cases, watermills were used (e.g., in ancient Greece and Rome) to grind Mass production in the ancient period was grain or perform other mechanical severely constrained by the lack of advanced tasks, which was an early example of machinery, standardized processes, and efficient harnessing kinetic energy. labor systems. Most goods were produced by hand using simple tools, which made WIND POWER Wind was another form manufacturing slow, labor-intensive, and of energy harnessed in ancient times, inconsistent in quality. Craftsmen worked in particularly for sailing. Early seafaring small workshops with limited resources, and production was often localized, making it Standardization: Ancient empires, difficult to scale up for large markets. There especially the Roman Empire, were no factories or assembly lines, and standardized coinage to ensure production heavily relied on skilled artisans, consistent weights and designs. whose techniques varied, leading to a lack of Examples: The Roman Empire had mints uniformity in products. Furthermore, across its territories producing millions transporting materials and goods was slow and of coins each year. inefficient due to poor infrastructure, hindering the ability to distribute products widely. These AESTHETIC - In ancient times, aesthetic limitations meant that mass production as we problems or questions revolved around the know it today was impossible, and most nature of beauty, art, and their role in human economies were based on small-scale, life and the universe. Thinkers from different handcrafted goods rather than large quantities cultures explored these questions through of standardized products. philosophy, poetry, architecture, and other forms of artistic expression. Here are some key POTTERY PRODUCTION (e.g., Ancient Greece, ancient aesthetic problems and ideas: Egypt, China) REALISM This involves the attempt to Techniques: Potters' wheels and molds portray objects, people, and scenes as were used to mass-produce pottery for they are in reality, focusing on the everyday use, such as storage jars, details and imperfections of the natural bowls, and lamps. world. The idea is to create TEXTILE PRODUCTION (Ancient Egypt, representations that closely resemble Mesopotamia, Rome) the physical world and human experience. Realism was present in Looms: Handlooms were used to weave various ancient cultures to differing fabrics like linen and wool. Specialized extents, from Egyptian depictions of workers operated looms in workshops, daily life in tomb paintings to the later producing textiles for local use and stages of Greek sculpture, which trade. emphasized lifelike portrayals of the METALWORK (Bronze Age, Iron Age) human form. IDEALISM This focuses on representing Smelting and Casting: Metalworking a perfected, ideal version of reality. techniques like casting and forging were Rather than depicting things as they used to produce weapons, tools, and are, idealism emphasizes how things jewelry in large numbers. ought to be according to certain COINAGE (Ancient Greece, Rome, Lydia) philosophical or aesthetic principles. This was prominent in the art and Minting Coins: The process of striking philosophy of ancient Greece, where coins from metal blanks using dies was figures like Plato advocated for the one of the earliest forms of industrial pursuit of ideal forms—perfect, abstract production. Coins were produced in concepts that the physical world only large quantities to facilitate trade and imperfectly imitates. In Greek sculpture, taxation. idealism was expressed through the portrayal of gods, athletes, and heroes  with perfect, harmonious proportions, then baked or dried for beyond the flaws of real human bodies. preservation. BALANCE AND HARMONY The pursuit HIEROGLYPHS (Ancient Egypt): of balance and harmony influenced how ancient civilizations approached o Hieroglyphs, developed around everything from architecture and 3300 BCE, were the formal sculpture to music and poetry. They writing system of ancient Egypt, believed that aesthetic harmony combining logographic and mirrored cosmic order and that alphabetic elements. They were understanding or reflecting this used mainly for religious texts, harmony was crucial for creating art monumental inscriptions, and that resonated with deeper truths. administrative documents. RECORD KEEPING - Record keeping in the INDUS SCRIPT (Indus Valley ancient period faced significant challenges due Civilization): to the limitations of writing systems, materials, o The Indus Valley Civilization and accessibility. While early forms of writing, such as cuneiform and hieroglyphics, allowed (2600–1900 BCE) developed a for the documentation of important still-undeciphered script, found information, literacy was not widespread, often on seals and pottery, which confined to a select class of scribes and officials. suggests that record keeping The materials used for writing, such as clay was important for trade and tablets, papyrus, or animal skins, were fragile administrative purposes. and prone to deterioration over time, making LINEAR B (Ancient Greece): the preservation of records difficult. Additionally, the lack of standardized formats or o Linear B was the script used by methods for organizing information led to the Mycenaeans around 1450 inconsistencies and potential BCE to keep detailed records of misinterpretations. Records were often economic transactions, maintained manually, making them vulnerable inventories, and administrative to errors, loss, or destruction during conflicts or affairs. Written on clay tablets, natural disasters. This inefficiency in record it provides insight into the keeping limited the ability to track economic bureaucratic and economic transactions, population data, and historical organization of early Greek events accurately, hampering administration society. and governance in ancient societies. CUNEIFORM (Mesopotamia): CLAY TABLETS (Mesopotamia): o Cuneiform is one of the earliest o Clay tablets were widely used in known writing systems, Mesopotamia because of the developed by the Sumerians region's abundance of clay. around 3200 BCE in After writing, the tablets were Mesopotamia. It involved either left to dry in the sun or pressing a wedge-shaped stylus fired in kilns for permanent into clay tablets, which were preservation.  PAPYRUS (Egypt): o In ancient Egypt, papyrus became the primary medium for record keeping, especially for administrative, legal, and religious texts. It was lightweight and portable, making it easier to store and transport compared to stone or clay. STONE INSCRIPTIONS (Monuments and Steles): o Monumental inscriptions were carved into stone, ensuring their survival over millennia. Important decrees, victories, and religious messages were often inscribed on steles, statues, or temple walls. SCRIBES played a central role in record keeping across ancient civilizations. They were educated individuals trained in writing and were often employed by temples, royal courts, and governments to record official matters.