Life-Span Development PDF

LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT 19e John W. Santrock © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.  Chapter 1 Introduction © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distr...

LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT 19e John W. Santrock © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.  Chapter 1 Introduction © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.  Chapter Outline The Life-Span Perspective. The Nature of Development. Theories of Development. Research on Life-Span Development. © McGraw Hill 3  The Life-Span Perspective: Topics The importance of studying life-span development. Characteristics of the life-span perspective. Some contemporary concerns. © McGraw Hill 4  The Importance of Studying Life-Span Development 1 Studying life-span development: Prepares the individual to take responsibility for children. Gives insight about individuals’ lives and history. Provides knowledge about what individuals’ lives will be like as they age into their adult years. © McGraw Hill 5  The Importance of Studying Life-Span Development 2 Development: the pattern of change beginning at conception and continuing throughout the life span. Involves growth. Also includes decline brought on by aging and dying. Life-span perspective: the perspective that development is lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary, and contextual. Development involves growth, maintenance, and regulation and is constructed through biological, sociocultural, and individual factors working together. The emphasis is on developmental change throughout childhood and adulthood. © McGraw Hill 6  Life Expectancy 1 The upper boundary of the human life span is 122 years. Life expectancy in the United States is about 77 years. People are living longer in part due to better sanitation, nutrition, and medicine. © McGraw Hill 7  Life Expectancy 2 FIGURE 1: MAXIMUM RECORDED LIFE SPAN FOR DIFFERENT SPECIES. Our only competitor for the maximum recorded life span is the Galápagos turtle. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill (Tortoise image on top) Philip Coblentz/MedioImages/SuperStock; (mouse image at bottom) Redmond Durrell/Alamy Stock Photo 8  Life Expectancy 3 The rapid increase in life expectancy has negative implications for quality of life for older people. Society reflects the needs of younger people: Parks, transportation systems, and so on are built assuming they are used only by able-bodied people. Planning and building does not consider the needs of low- strength or low-stamina people. The focus has been on what older adults lack, not what they can contribute to society. Older citizens can share deep expertise and motivation to make a difference. © McGraw Hill 9  Life Expectancy 4 FIGURE 2: HUMAN LIFE EXPECTANCY AT BIRTH FROM PREHISTORIC TO CONTEMPORARY TIMES. It took 5,000 years to extend human life expectancy from 18 years to 41 years of age. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill 10  Characteristics of the Life-Span Perspective Development has these qualities: Lifelong. Multidimensional. Multidirectional. Plastic. Multidisciplinary. Contextual. It involves growth, maintenance, and regulation of loss. It is a co-construction of biological, sociocultural, and individual factors. © McGraw Hill 11  Types of Contextual Influences Normative age-graded influences are similar for individuals in a particular age group. For example, starting school, puberty, menopause. Normative history-graded influences have common generational experiences due to historical events. In the 1930s, the Great Depression; in the 1960s to 1970s, the civil rights and women’s rights movements; in 2001, the attacks on 9/11. Nonnormative life events are unusual occurrences that have a major life impact. For example, early pregnancy, losing a parent as a child, winning the lottery. © McGraw Hill 12  Some Contemporary Concerns 1 Health and well-being: Lifestyles and psychological states have powerful influences on health and well-being. For example, there is a positive connection between exercise and cognitive development. Parenting and education: Many questions involve pressures on the contemporary family and conditions impairing the effectiveness of U.S. schools. © McGraw Hill 13  Some Contemporary Concerns 2 Sociocultural contexts and diversity: Culture: behavior patterns, beliefs, and all other products of a group passed on from generation to generation. Cross-cultural studies: comparison of one culture with one or more other cultures to gain information about their developmental similarities. © McGraw Hill 14  Some Contemporary Concerns 3 Ethnicity: a characteristic based on cultural heritage, nationality characteristics, race, religion, and language. Pride of ethnic identity has positive outcomes. Socioeconomic status: grouping of people with similar occupational, educational, and economic characteristics. Gender: characteristics of people as masculinity or femininity. Transgender refers to individuals who adopt a gender identity that differs from the one assigned to them at birth. © McGraw Hill 15  Some Contemporary Concerns 4 FIGURE 3: EXPOSURE TO SIX STRESSORS AMONG POOR AND MIDDLE- INCOME CHILDREN. One study analyzed exposure to six stressors among poor children and middle-income children. Poor children were much more likely to face each of these stressors. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill 16  Some Contemporary Concerns 5 Social policy: a national government’s course of action designed to promote the welfare of its citizens. Values, economics, and politics all shape a nation’s social policy. Social policy issues include: The increase in the number of children living in poverty and resulting stressors. The well-being of older adults, with escalating health-care costs and the need for access to adequate health care. © McGraw Hill 17  Some Contemporary Concerns 6 Source Characteristic Individual Good intellectual functioning. Appealing, sociable, easygoing disposition. Self-confidence, high self-esteem. Talents. Faith. Family Close relationship to caring parent figure. Authoritative parenting: warmth, structure, high expectations. Socioeconomic advantages. Connections to extended supportive family networks. Extrafamilial Context Bonds to caring adults outside the family. Connections to positive organizations. Attending effective schools. TABLE 4: CHARACTERISTICS OF RESILENT CHILDREN AND THEIR CONTEXTS © McGraw Hill 18  Some Contemporary Concerns 7 Technology: There has been an almost overwhelming increase in the use of technology at all points in human development. Topics to consider include: The potential effects on language development. Screen time versus participation in physical activity. Whether media multitasking is harmful or beneficial. The degree to which older adults are adapting. © McGraw Hill 19  Some Contemporary Concerns 8 FIGURE 5: THE AGING OF AMERICA. The number of Americans over age 65 has grown dramatically since the start of the 20th century and is projected to increase further from the present to the year 2040. A significant increase will also occur in the number of individuals in the 85-and-over group. Centenarians—persons 100 years of age or older— are the fastest-growing age group in the United States, and their numbers are expected to swell in the coming decades. © McGraw Hill 20  The Nature of Development: Topics 1 Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes. Periods of development. The significance of age. Developmental issues. © McGraw Hill 21  The Nature of Development: Topics 2 FIGURE 6: PROCESSES INVOLVED IN DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES. Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes interact as individuals develop. © McGraw Hill 22  Biological, Cognitive, and Socioemotional Processes 1 Biological processes: changes in an individual’s physical nature. Science now allows for the study of an individual’s genetic makeup. Cognitive processes: changes in an individual’s thought, intelligence, and language. Socioemotional processes: changes in an individual’s relationships, emotions, and personality. Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes interact as individuals develop. © McGraw Hill 23  Biological, Cognitive, and Socioemotional Processes 2 The connection is evident in two emerging fields: Developmental cognitive neuroscience explores links between development, cognitive processes, and the brain. Developmental social neuroscience examines connections between socioemotional processes, development, and the brain. Both fields show that their influence on each other is a constant. In many instances, biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes are bidirectional. © McGraw Hill 24  Biological, Cognitive, and Socioemotional Processes 3 FIGURE 7: PROCESSES AND PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT. The unfolding of life’s periods of development is influenced by the interaction of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes. (Photo credit left to right) Steve Allen/Brand X Pictures/Getty Images; Courtesy of Dr. John Santrock; Laurence Mouton/PhotoAlto/Getty Images; Digital Vision/Photodisc/Getty Images; SW Productions/Brand X Pictures/Getty Images; Blue Moon Stock/Alamy Stock Photo; Sam Edwards/CaiaImage/Glow Images; Ronnie Kaufman/Blend Images LLC Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill 25  Periods of Development 1 Developmental period refers to a time frame in a person’s life characterized by certain features. Prenatal period: conception to birth. Infancy: birth to 18 or 24 months. Toddler: 18 months to 3 years of age. Early childhood: 3 to 5 years of age. Middle and late childhood: about 6 to 10 or 11 years old. Adolescence: 10 to 12 years old, to 18 to 21 years old. Emerging adulthood: 18 to 25 years of age. Early adulthood: early twenties through the thirties. Middle adulthood: forties and fifties. Late adulthood: sixties or seventies, until death. © McGraw Hill 26  Periods of Development 2 Four ages: Life-span developmentalists who focus on adult development and aging typically describe development in terms of four “ages.” First age: childhood and adolescence. Second age: prime adulthood, ages 20 to 59. Third age: approximately 60 to 79 years of age. Fourth age: approximately 80 years and older. Development in one period is connected to development in another period. © McGraw Hill 27  Periods of Development 3 Three developmental patterns of aging: Normal aging: describes most individuals, with psychological functioning peaking early middle age. Pathological aging: describes individuals with above-average decline as they age, developing a condition leading to mild cognitive impairment or chronic disease that impairs daily functioning. Successful aging: describes individuals maintaining positive physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development longer in life. © McGraw Hill 28  Periods of Development 4 Connections across periods of development: Just as there are many connections between biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes, so there are many connections between the periods of the human life span. © McGraw Hill 29  The Significance of Age 1 Age and happiness: Adults tend to be happier as they age because they: Have stronger relationships. Feel less pressured to achieve. Have more leisure time. Have more life experience that helps them adapt to change. Life satisfaction varies across countries. Health can predict life satisfaction as people age. © McGraw Hill 30  The Significance of Age 2 Conceptions of age: A full evaluation of age requires consideration of chronological, biological, psychological, and social age. Chronological age: the number of years that have elapsed since birth. Biological age: age in terms of biological health. Psychological age: the individual’s adaptive capacities compared with people of the same chronological age. Social age: connectedness with others and the social roles people adopt. © McGraw Hill 31  Developmental Issues 1 Nature-nurture issue: the debate about whether development is primarily influenced by nature or nurture. Nature refers to an organism’s biological inheritance. Nurture refers to its environmental experiences. © McGraw Hill 32  Developmental Issues 2 Stability-change issue: the debate about the degree to which early traits and characteristics persist through life or change. Does the individual: Becomes an older version of the early self, with the same traits persisting through life? or Develop into someone different from who they were at an earlier point in development? Continuity-discontinuity issue: the debate about the extent to which development involves gradual, cumulative change (continuity), or distinct stages (discontinuity). © McGraw Hill 33  Developmental Issues 3 FIGURE 10: CONTINUITY AND DISCONTINUITY IN DEVELOPMENT. Is our development like that of a seedling gradually growing into a giant oak? Or is it more like that of a caterpillar suddenly becoming a butterfly? Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill 34  Developmental Issues 4 Evaluating the developmental issues: Most developmentalists acknowledge that development is a combination of each of these views. The extent of their individual influences is still highly debated. © McGraw Hill 35  Theories of Development: Topics Psychoanalytic theories. Cognitive theories. Behavioral and social cognitive theories. Ethological theory. Ecological theory. An eclectic theoretical orientation. © McGraw Hill 36  Theories of Development 1 Scientific method: a four-step approach that can be used to obtain accurate information. Conceptualize a process or problem. Collect data. Analyze the data. Draw conclusions. © McGraw Hill 37  Theories of Development 2 Theory: an interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain phenomena and facilitate predictions. Hypotheses: specific assumptions and predictions that can be tested to determine their accuracy. The theory may suggest the hypothesis. © McGraw Hill 38  Psychoanalytic Theories 1 Psychoanalytic theories: describe development as primarily unconscious and heavily colored by emotion. Behavior is a surface characteristic, and the symbolic workings of the mind have to be analyzed to understand behavior. Early experiences with parents are emphasized. © McGraw Hill 39  Psychoanalytic Theories 2 Freud’s theory: Through his work with patients, Freud became convinced that their problems were the result of experiences early in life. He defined five stages of psychosexual development. Adult personality is determined by the way we resolve conflicts between sources of pleasure at each stage and the demands of reality. © McGraw Hill 40  Psychoanalytic Theories 3 Oral Stage Anal Stage Phallic Stage Latency Stage Genital Stage Infant’s pleasure Child’s pleasure Child’s pleasure Child represses A time of sexual centers on the focuses on the focuses on the sexual interest reawakening; mouth. anus. genitals. and develops source of sexual social and pleasure intellectual becomes skills. someone outside the family. Birth to 1½ 1½ to 3 Years 3 to 6 Years 6 Years to Puberty Onward Years Puberty TABLE 11: FREUDIAN STAGES. Because Freud emphasized sexual motivation, his stages of development are known as psychosexual stages. In his view, if the need for pleasure at any stage is either undergratified or overgratified, an individual may become fixated, or locked in, at that stage of development. © McGraw Hill 41  Psychoanalytic Theories 4 Erikson’s psychosocial theory: According to Erik Erikson, the primary motivation for behavior is social in nature. Personality and developmental change occurs throughout the life span. Both early and later experiences are important. © McGraw Hill 42  Psychoanalytic Theories 5 Erikson’s theory: includes eight stages of human development, each representing a crisis that must be resolved. Trust versus mistrust: first year of infancy. Autonomy versus shame and doubt: 1 to 3 years. Initiative versus guilt: 3 to 5 years. Industry versus inferiority: 6 years to puberty. Identity versus identity confusion: 10 to 20 years. Intimacy versus isolation: twenties and thirties. Generativity versus stagnation: forties and fifties. Integrity versus despair: sixties to death. © McGraw Hill 43  Psychoanalytic Theories 6 Evaluating psychoanalytic theories: Contributions include an emphasis on a developmental framework, family relationships, and unconscious aspects of the mind. Criticisms of psychoanalytic theories: Lack of scientific support. Too much emphasis on sexual underpinnings. An image of people that is too negative. © McGraw Hill 44  Cognitive Theories 1 Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory: Piaget’s theory: children go through four stages of cognitive development as they actively construct their understanding of the world. Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years of age). Preoperational stage (2 to 7 years of age). Concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years of age). Formal operational stage (11 years of age through adulthood). Two processes underlie this: organization and adaptation. © McGraw Hill 45  Cognitive Theories 2 Sensorimotor Stage, Preoperational Stage, 2 to Concrete Operational Formal Operational Birth to 2 Years of Age: 7 Years of Age: The infant constructs an Stage, 7 to 11 Years Stage, 11 Years of understanding of the world The child begins to of Age: Age Through by coordinating sensory represent the world with Adulthood: experiences with physical words and images. These The child can now actions. An infant progresses from reflect increased symbolic reason logically about The adolescent reflexive, instinctual action thinking and go beyond the concrete events and reasons in more at birth to the beginning of connection of sensory in symbolic thought toward classify objects into abstract, idealistic, and the end of the stage. formation and physical different sets. logical ways. action. FIGURE 13: PIAGET’S FOUR STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT. According to Piaget, how a child thinks—not how much the child knows—determines the child’s stage of cognitive development. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill (Photo credit left to right) Stockbyte/Getty Images; Jacobs Stock Photography/BananaStock/Getty Images; Fuse/image100/Corbis; Purestock/Getty Images 46  Cognitive Theories 3 Vygotsky’s sociocultural cognitive theory: Vygotsky’s theory: emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide and are inseparable from cognitive development. The information-processing theory: Information-processing theory: emphasizes that individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it. Central to this theory are the processes of memory and thinking. © McGraw Hill 47  Cognitive Theories 4 Evaluating cognitive theories: Contributions include: A positive view of development. An emphasis on the active construction of understanding. Criticisms of cognitive theories: Skepticism about the pureness of Piaget’s stages. Inadequate attention to individual variations. © McGraw Hill 48  Cognitive Theories 5 FIGURE 14: COMPARING INFORMATION PROCESSING IN HUMANS AND COMPUTERS. Psychologists who study cognition often use a computer analogy to explain how humans process information. The brain is analogous to the computer’s hardware, and cognition is analogous to the computer’s software. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill Creatas/Getty Images 49  Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories 1 Skinner’s operant conditioning: Development consists of the pattern of behavioral changes brought about by rewards and punishments. Bandura’s social cognitive theory: Emphasizes behavior, environment, and cognition as the key factors in development. Relations between behavior, person/cognitive, and environmental factors are reciprocal. Using forethought, individuals guide and motivate themselves by creating action plans, formulating goals, and visualizing positive outcomes of their actions. © McGraw Hill 50  Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories 2 FIGURE 15: BANDURA’S SOCIAL COGNITIVE MODEL. The arrows illustrate how relations between behavior, person/cognitive, and environment are reciprocal rather than one-way. Person/cognitive refers to cognitive processes (for example, thinking and planning) and personal characteristics (for example, believing that you can control your experiences). © McGraw Hill 51  Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories 3 Evaluating behavioral and social cognitive theories: Contributions include an emphasis on scientific research and environmental as determinants of behavior. Criticisms: Little emphasis on cognition in Skinner’s theory. Inadequate attention paid to developmental changes. © McGraw Hill 52  Ethological Theory 1 Ethology: stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, and is characterized by experiences during critical or sensitive periods. Konrad Lorenz helped bring ethology to prominence by showing the developmental importance of the imprinting behavior of geese. John Bowlby determined that attachment to a caregiver over the first year of life has important consequences for optimal social relationship development throughout the life span. Critical period: a certain, very early point at which imprinting must take place. Sensitive period: the time attachment should optimally occur. © McGraw Hill 53  Ethological Theory 2 Contributions of ethological theory include: A focus on the biological and evolutionary basis of development. The use of careful observations in naturalistic settings. Criticisms: Too much emphasis on biological foundations. The critical and sensitive period concepts might be too rigid. © McGraw Hill 54  Ecological Theory 1 Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory: development reflects the influence of five environmental systems. Microsystem: setting in which the individual lives and helps to construct. Mesosystem: the relations between microsystems or connections between contexts. Exosystem: links between a social setting in which the individual has a passive role and their immediate context. Macrosystem: the culture in which individuals live. Chronosystem: the patterning the environmental events and transitions over the life course. All are affected by each other and by events occurring over time. © McGraw Hill 55  Ecological Theory 2 FIGURE 16: BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory consists of five environmental systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem. Access the text alternative to slide image © McGraw Hill 56  Ecological Theory 3 Contributions of ecological theory include: The systematic examination of macro and micro dimensions of environmental systems. Attention to connections between environmental systems. An emphasis on a range of social contexts besides family that influence a child’s development. Criticisms: Inadequate attention to biological factors. Too little emphasis on cognitive factors. © McGraw Hill 57  Ecological Theory 4 ISSUES: Continuity/discontinuity, THEORY early versus later experiences ISSUES: Biological and environmental factors Psychoanalytic Discontinuity between stages—continuity Freud’s biological determination interacting with between early experiences and later early family experiences; Erikson’s more development; early experiences very important; balanced biological-cultural interaction later changes in development emphasized in perspective. Erikson’s theory. Cognitive Discontinuity between stages in Piaget’s theory; Piaget’s emphasis on interaction and adaptation; continuity between early experiences and later environment provides the setting for cognitive development in Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories; structures to develop; information-processing no stages in Vygotsky’s theory or information- view has not addressed this issue extensively but processing theory. mainly emphasizes biological-environmental interaction. Behavioral and Continuity (no stages); experience at all points of Environment viewed as the cause of behavior in social cognitive development important. both views. Ethological Discontinuity but no stages; critical or sensitive Strong biological view. periods emphasized; early experiences very important. Ecological Little attention to continuity/discontinuity; change Strong environmental view. emphasized more than stability. FIGURE 17: A COMPARISON OF THEORIES AND ISSUES IN LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT © McGraw Hill 58  An Eclectic Theoretical Orientation An eclectic theoretical orientation does not follow any one theoretical approach. Selects from each theory whatever is considered its best features. Allows for seeing the study of development as it actually exists. For example, different theorists making different assumptions, stressing different empirical problems, and discovering information using different strategies. © McGraw Hill 59  Research on Life-Span Development: Topics Methods for collecting data. Research designs. Time span of research. Conducting ethical research. Minimizing bias. © McGraw Hill 60  Methods for Collecting Data 1 Observation: Laboratory: a controlled setting where many of the complex factors of the “real world” are absent. Naturalistic observation: observing behavior in real-world settings, making no effort to manipulate or control the situation. Survey and interview: Survey: a standard set of clear and unbiased questions used to obtain people’s reported attitudes or beliefs about a particular topic; sometimes referred to as a questionnaire. Interview: individuals are directly asked to self-report. © McGraw Hill 61  Methods for Collecting Data 2 FIGURE 18: PARENTS’ EXPLANATIONS OF SCIENCE TO SONS AND DAUGHTERS AT A SCIENCE MUSEUM. In a naturalistic observation study at a children’s science museum, parents were three times more likely to explain science to boys than to girls (Crowley & others, 2001). The gender difference occurred regardless of whether the father, the mother, or both parents were with the child, although the gender difference was greatest for fathers’ science explanations to sons and daughters. © McGraw Hill 62  Methods for Collecting Data 3 Standardized test: a test administered and scored utilizing uniform procedures to compare performance across individuals. Case study: an in-depth look at a single individual. Physiological measures: Measure of hormones such as cortisol. Neuroimaging or fMRI. Electroencephalography (EEG). Heart rate. Eye tracking. Gene testing. © McGraw Hill 63  Methods for Collecting Data 4 FIGURE 19: BRAIN IMAGING OF 15-YEAR-OLD ADOLESCENTS. These two brain images indicate how alcohol can influence the functioning of an adolescent’s brain. Notice the pink and red coloring (which indicates effective brain functioning involving memory) in the brain of the 15-year-old nondrinker (left) while engaging in a memory task, and compare it with the lack of those colors in the brain of the 15-year-old heavy drinker (right) under the influence of alcohol. © McGraw Hill Dr. Susan F. Tapert, University of California, San Diego 64  Research Designs 1 Descriptive research: a research method designed to observe and record behavior. Correlational research: attempts to determine the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics. Correlation coefficient: a number based on statistical analysis that is used to describe the degree of association between two variables. Ranges from −1.00 to +1.00. The higher the correlation coefficient (whether positive or negative), the stronger the association between the two variables. Correlation does not equal causation. © McGraw Hill 65  Research Designs 2 FIGURE 20: POSSIBLE EXPLANATIONS OF CORRELATIONAL DATA Access the text alternative to slide image © McGraw Hill JupiterImages/Getty Images 66  Research Designs 3 Experimental research is designed to study causality. Experiment: a carefully regulated procedure in which one or more of the factors believed to influence the behavior being studied are manipulated while all other factors are held constant. The independent variable is a manipulated, influential, experimental factor that is a potential cause. The dependent variable is a factor that can change in response to changes in the independent variable. © McGraw Hill 67  Research Designs 4 Experiments can involve one or more experimental groups and one or more control groups. A control group is a comparison group that serves as a baseline. Random assignment is an important principle in experimental research. Participants are assigned to experimental and control groups by chance. © McGraw Hill 68  Research Designs 5 FIGURE 21: PRINCIPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH. Imagine that you decide to conduct an experimental study of the effects of meditation by pregnant women on their newborns’ breathing and sleeping patterns. You would randomly assign pregnant women to experimental and control groups. The experimental-group women would engage in meditation over a specified number of sessions and weeks. The control group would not. Then, when the infants are born, you would assess their breathing and sleeping patterns. If the breathing and sleeping patterns of newborns whose mothers were in the experimental group are more positive than those of the control group, you would conclude that meditation caused the positive effects. © McGraw Hill 69  Time Span of Research 1 Cross-sectional approach: a research strategy that compares individuals of different ages simultaneously. Longitudinal approach: a research strategy where the same individuals are studied over a period of time, usually several years or more. Cohort effects: characteristics determined by a person’s time of birth, era, or generation rather than the person’s actual age. © McGraw Hill 70  Time Span of Research 2 Generation Historical Period Reason for Label Generation Z/ Individuals born in 1997 and later More immersed in a technological world, Post-Millennials especially social media, more ethnically diverse, and better educated than millennials. Millennials Individuals born in 1980 First generation to come of age and enter and later emerging adulthood (18–25 years of age) in the twenty-first century (the new millennium). Two main characteristics: (1) connection to technology and (2) ethnic diversity. Generation X Individuals born between Described as lacking an identity and 1965 and 1980 savvy loners. Baby Boomers Individuals born between Label used because this generation represents 1946 and 1964 the spike in the number of babies born after World War II; the largest generation ever to enter late adulthood in the United States. Silent Individuals born between Children of the Great Depression and Generation 1928 and 1945 World War II; described as conformists and civic minded. TABLE 22: GENERATIONS, THEIR HISTORICAL PERIODS, AND CHARACTERISTICS © McGraw Hill 71  Conducting Ethical Research The American Psychological Association (APA) has developed ethics guidelines to address four issues: Informed consent: participants must know what their participation will involve and must be able to withdraw at will. Confidentiality: data must be kept confidential and, when possible, anonymous. Debriefing: after the study, participants should be informed of its purpose and methods. Deception: when necessary, deception may be used, but the psychologist must ensure it will not harm the participants and that the participants will be debriefed. © McGraw Hill 72  Minimizing Bias Gender bias: Conclusions are often drawn about females’ attitudes and behaviors from research conducted with males as the only research study participants. Cultural and ethnic bias: Life-span development research has not always included individuals from diverse ethnic groups. Ethnic gloss: superficial use of an ethnic label that portrays an ethnic group as being more homogeneous than it really is. © McGraw Hill 73  Because learning changes everything. ® www.mheducation.com © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.