Developmental Psychology PDF

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY B. Cognitive Development: pattern of change in Lesson 1: Study of the Human Development mental abilities, such as learning language, Human Development...

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY B. Cognitive Development: pattern of change in Lesson 1: Study of the Human Development mental abilities, such as learning language, Human Development thinking, reasoning, and creativity Is the scientific study of processes of change C. Psychosocial Development: pattern of change and stability throughout the human life span in emotions, personality, and social Life Span Development relationships Is a concept that views human development as Periods of the Life Span a lifelong process Social Construction: a concept or practice that Can be studied scientifically may appear natural and obvious to those who Development is from womb (conception) to accept it (ex: the existence of age periods in the tomb (death) major part of the world, but its inexistence in the Changes affect both the child and the mother other part of the world; like on the parts of the Goals of the Human Development world where the only age periods are being a Describe: defining the situation (ex: A child’s child and being an adult. Whereas, in a major delay in language acquisition) part of the world, we believe that there are other Explain: making sense of the situation (ex: Why stages of age periods; like adolescence and and how do the delay in the child’s language others). acquisition happens?) Note: Although the differences exist in so many ways, Predict: making a prognosis (ex: Thinking what Developmentalists believe that there are still certain will happen in the future if the situation persists) basic needs must be met for normal development to occur. Intervene: control the situation (ex: Having Influences on Development multiple session of speech practice and other intervention with the child) Individual Differences: differences in Developmentalists or Developmental characteristics, influences, or developmental Psychologists/Scientists outcome - Challenge that Developmentalists have: The scientists who are studying Human identifying the universal influences on Development development and then apply those to Focus of Human Development: understanding individual differences in 1. Changes (younger ages) developmental trajectories 2. Stability and Growth (adulthood and older Heredity, Environment, & Maturation ages) Notes: Heredity: inborn traits or characteristics inherited from biological parents The research industry on human development (the questions that Developmentalists try to Environment: totality of nonhereditary, or answer, the methods they use, and experiential, influences on development explanations they propose) now is way more Maturation: unfolding of a natural sequence of sophisticated than it was five years ago physical and behavioral changes It was all because of the changes in the lifestyle Note: Only when deviation from average is extreme of the humans, and the laboratories, should we consider development exceptionally equipment, experiment present today advanced or delayed Contexts of Development These shifts reflect progress in understanding as new investigations build on or challenge Nuclear Family: a household with one or two those that went before parents and their children, whether biological, adopted, or stepchildren These also reflect advances in technology Domains of Development Extended Family: multigenerational network of A. Physical Development: any growth in the body grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, and more and the brain, including patterns of change in distant relatives sensory capacities, motor skills, and health  Socioeconomic Status (SES): family income, it was its mother, and will instinctively and the educational and occupational levels of follow it the adults in the household - Usually automatic and irreversible Risk Factors: conditions that increase the - Lorenz assert that it is the result of a likelihood of a negative developmental outcome predisposition toward learning: the Culture: a society or group’s total way of life; all readiness of an organism’s nervous system the behavior and attitudes that are learned, to acquire certain information during a brief shared, and transmitted among members of the critical period in early life social group Critical Period Ethnic Group: a group united by ancestry, race, - is a specific time when a given event, or its religion, language, or natural origins which absence, has a specific impact on contribute to a sense of shared identity development Normative Influences - If a necessary event does not occur during a Normative: characteristics of an event that occurs in a critical period of maturation, normal similar way for most people in a group; root word: norm development will not occur; and the Normative Age-Graded Influences: are highly resulting abnormal patterns may be similar for people in a particular age group (ex: irreversible 10-15 y/o women are experiencing their first Sensitive Period menstruation) - Times in development when a person is Normative History-Graded Influences: are particularly open to certain kinds of significant events that shape the behavior and experiences attitude of a historical generation (ex: - Is useful to think because many aspects of Experiencing the COVID-19 in 2020-2023) development, event in the physical domain, Historical Generation: a group of people who have been found to show plasticity experienced the event at a formative time in - Plasticity: modifiability of one’s behavior/s their lives (People who experienced WW1 Life-Span Developmental Approach and/or 2); cohorts included Paul B. Baltes (1936-2006) and his colleagues (1987; Cohort: a group of people born at about the Baltes & Smith, 2004; Baltes, Lindenberger & Staudinger, same time (ex: Millennials experiencing 1998; Staudinger & Bluck, 2001) identified 7 key COVID19 in 2020-2023) principles of a life-span developmental approach: Non-Normative Influences 1. Development is life-long: no period is less or - These are the unusual events that have a major more important than any other impact on individual lives because they disturb 2. Development is multidimensional: biological, the expected sequence of the life cycle psychological, and social - Example: A child’s mother or father dies when 3. Development is multidirectional: as people gain he was just 3 years old in one area, they may lose in another, Timing of Influences sometimes, at the same time Imprinting 4. Development has relative influences: biology - According to Konrad Lorenz (1957), and culture shift over the life span Australian Zoologist, it is an instinctive form 5. Development involves changing resource of learning in which, during a critical period allocations: growth, maintenance or recover, in early development, a young animal dealing with loss (including humans) forms and attachment 6. Development shows plasticity: having the ability to the first moving object it sees, usually the to modify behavior mother 7. Development is contextual: influenced by the - Example: A duck egg hatches, and a historical and cultural context chicken passes by. Although the chicken was not the duck’s mother, it will treat it like Lesson 2: Theory & Research Theory and is shaped by this input over time Is a set of logically related concepts or statements that seek to describe and explain 2. Jean Jacques Rousseau development and to predict the kinds of French Philosopher behavior that might occur under certain He believed that children are born “noble conditions savages”, meaning, they possess their own Hypotheses individual freedom Are explanations or predictions that can be His theory is aligned with active tested by further research development Additional Information Developmental science cannot be completely Organismic Model objective Sees people as active, growing To be objective, researchers must scrutinize organisms that that set their own how they and their colleagues conduct their development in morion work, the assumption on which it is based, and The driving force: internal how they arrive at their conclusion. This process Pioneer: Jean Jacques Rousseau is called Peer Review/Evaluation/Assessment Active Development Theories of development had to be changed to Argues that people create experiences for accommodate these findings themselves and are motivated to learn The way theorists explain development depends about the world around them in part of their assumptions about the 2 basic Issue 2: Is Development Continuous or issues: 1. Whether people are active (you Discontinuous? control your life) or reactive 9you only act base Mechanist Theorists on an environment stimuli) on their own See development as continuous: as occurring development, 2. Whether development is in small incremental stages continuous (has no stages) or discontinuous Development is always governed by the same (occurs in stages) processes and involves the gradual refinement Issue 1: Is Development Active or Reactive? and extension of early skills into later abilities 1. John Locke Quantitative Change: a change in number or 18th century English Philosopher amount; measuring fundamentally the same He believed that a young child is a “tabula thing over time, even if there might be more or rasa”, meaning “a blank slate”, upon which less of it society writes Organismic Theorists His theory is aligned with reactive Are the proponents of stage theories (ex: development Psychoanalytic Perspective/Psychosexual Mechanistic Model Development of S. Freud, and Psychosocial Mechanistic researchers believe that Development of E. Erikson) people are like machines that react to Sees development as discontinuous; as environmental input marked by the emergence of new phenomena Mechanistic researchers are mostly that could not be easily predicted on the basis behaviorists; they believe that outside of past functioning factors affect the behavior of people Qualitative Change: change in kind, structure, or They also wanted to identify the factors that organization, not just in number make people behave as they do Each stage is fundamentally different from Pioneer: John Locke previous stages Reactive Development Stages build upon each other Conceptualizes the developing child as a Stages cannot be skipped, and development hungry sponge that soaks up experiences only proceeds in positive direction  Believed that these processes are universal and Like the oral stage, it has no basic account for the development of all humans distinction between female or male everywhere psychosexual growth Theoretical Perspectives Children of either gender can also develop I. Psychoanalytical Perspective an active or passive orientation Sigmund Freud 3. Phallic Phase (3 to 6 Years) Views human development as shaped by Zone of gratification: genital region unconscious forces that motivate human “Anatomy vs. Destiny" behavior Child becomes attached to a parent of the Reactive development other sex and later identifies with same-sex Qualitative changes parent Discontinuous Identification: S.F believed that an infant S. F. believed that early experiences shaped boy (preceding the phallic stage) wanted to later functioning; and he drew attention to be his father childhood as an important precursor to Later, he develops a sexual desire for his adult behavior mother S. F. also promoted the idea that there was Male Oedipus Complex: rivalry towards the a vast, hidden reserve to our psyche father, incestuous feeling towards the (unconscious) mother Non-falsifiable and low in parsimony Castration Anxiety: worrying that his father Freud’s Psychosexual Development might cut his penis because of his desires 1. Oral Stage (Birth to 12-18 Months) Once MOC (Male Oedipus Complex) is Source of pleasure: mouth-oriented dissolved or repressed, the boy surrenders activities his incestuous desires, and begins to Sexual aim: to incorporate or receive into develop primitive superego one’s body the object-choice, the nipple After MOC completely disappears, boy will Composed of the oral-receptive phase and no longer wants to be his father, instead, he the oral-sadistic phase will use his father as a role model when No basic distinction between female or determining right and wrong behavior male psychosexual growth Penis Envy: S.F believed that it is a powerful Children of either gender can develop an force in the formation of girls’ personality active or passive orientation Upon developing an identification with her 2. Anal Phase (12-18 Months-3 Years) mother, she fantasizes being seduced by Early Anal Period: children receive her mother satisfaction by destroying or losing objects The incestuous desires will be turned into Late Anal Period: children take a friendly hostility because she will blame her mother interest toward their feces, which stems for not giving her a penis from the erotic pleasure of defecating After, her libido will be turned toward the Anal Character: people who continue to other sex parent, someone that can satisfy receive erotic pleasure by keeping and her wish for a penis by giving her a baby possessing objects, and by arranging them Female Oedipus Complex (FOM): the desire in an excessively neat and orderly fashion of sexual intercourse with the parent of Anal Triad: orderliness, stinginess, and opposite sex, and hostility with the parent of obstinacy same sex Anal Eroticism: for girls, according to S.F., it FOM is broken up more slowly and less is due to penis envy during the phallic stage, completely than the males which can be expressed by giving birth According to S.F., female superego is usually weaker 4. Latency (6 Years to Puberty)  Time of relative calm between more Events in the earlier stages does not cause later turbulent stages personality development Libido is turned towards hobbies and social 1. Basic Trust vs. Basic Mistrust (Birth to 12-18 activities, rather than on sexual impulses Months) 5. Genital (Puberty to Adulthood) Babies develop sense of whether the world Reemergence of sexual impulses of phallic is a good and safe place stage, channeled into mature adult Virtue/Basic Strength: Hope sexuality Core Pathology: Withdrawal Adolescents give up their autoeroticism 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (12-18 (masturbation) and direct their sexual months to 3 Years) energy toward another person Child develops a balance of independence Reproduction is now possible and self-sufficiency over shame and doubt According to S.F., penis envy may still Virtue/Basic Strength: Will continue in girls, but the vagina finally Core Pathology: Compulsion obtains the same status for them that the 3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3 to 6 Years) penis had during infancy Child develops initiative when trying out The entire sexual drive takes on a more new activities and is not overwhelmed by complete organization and the component guilt drives now gained synthesis Virtue/Basic Strength: Purpose Additional Information Core Pathology: Inhibition S.F. considered the first 3 stages to be crucial 4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6 Years to Puberty) for personality development Child must learn skill of the culture or face Fixation: an arrest in development that can feelings incompetence show up in adult personality Virtue/Basic Strength: Competence/Skill Children may be at risk if they receive too much Core Pathology: Inertia (stagnant; not or too little gratification in any of the first 3 improving) stages 5. Identity vs. Identity Confusion (Puberty to S. F. based his theories about normal Young Adulthood) development, not on a population of average Adolescent must determine own sense of children, but on clientele of Victorian upper- self (“Who am I?”) or confusion about roles middle-class adults, mostly women, in therapy Virtue/Basic Strength: Fidelity 2. Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Core Pathology: Role Repudiation E.E. modified and extended Freudian theory by emphasizing the influence of society on the 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood) developing personality Person seeks to make commitments to Pioneer in taking a life-span perspective others; if unsuccessful, one may suffer from Qualitative changes isolation and self-absorption Crisis: a major psychosocial challenge that is Virtue/Basic Strength: Love important at a particular time and will remain an Core Pathology: Exclusivity issue to some degree throughout the rest of life 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Epigenetic: step-by-step process Adulthood) Throughout the stages, one must have both Mature adult is concerned with establishing harmonious (syntonic) and disruptive (dystonic) and guiding the next generation or else feels experiences personal impoverishment Basic Strength: the ego strength produced by Virtue/Basic Strength: Care the conflict between the harmonious and Core Pathology: Rejectivity disruptive elements Core Pathology: too little basic strength at any 8. Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood) one of the stages  Older adults achieve acceptance of own Association of behavior with its life, allowing acceptance of death, or else consequences despairs over inability to relieve life Pioneer: Burrhus Frederic Skinner Virtue/Basic Strength: Wisdom Reinforcement: process by which a Core Pathology: Disdain behavior is strengthened, increasing the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated; it is most effective when it II. Learning Perspective immediately follows a behavior View of human development that holds that Punishment: process by which a behavior is changes in behavior result from experience or weakened, decreasing the likelihood of from adaptation to the environment repetition Learning theorists see development as Note: the key to operant conditioning is continuous immediate reinforcement 1. Behaviorism Shaping: a procedure where the A mechanistic theory; describes observed experimenter or the environment first behavior as a predictable response to rewards gross approximations of the experience behavior, then closer approximations, and Behaviorists consider development as finally the desired behavior itself; reactive and continuous Operant Discrimination: responding only to Associative Learning: a mental link is formed discriminative stimulus, not the similar between two events stimuli (ex: A child, Rome, asks money to A. Classical Conditioning his father, he knows that he will always be Associating a stimulus that does not given a penny; but he also knows that if he ordinarily elicit a response with another asks his mother or any other person, he will stimulus that does not elicit the response not receive any) Pioneer: Ivan Pavlov Stimulus Generalization: a response to a Example: A dog salivates when seeing food. similar environment in the absence of the His owner experimented and rang a bell previous reinforcement (ex: A child, Ron, every time he feeds the dog. After always asks money from his father, and he continuous conditioning, the dog always receives a penny; with this, he associated the bell with food. In assumed that if he asks his mother or any conclusion, the dog salivates whenever it other person, he will still receive money) hears the bell ring. Positive Reinforcement: a behavior is Unconditioned Stimulus: the stimulus followed by a favorable stimulus and in before conditioning (e.g. Food) return increases its frequency (ex: One Unconditioned Response: the response to time, when John washed the dishes, her the unconditioned stimulus, before mother gave him 20 pesos. John thought conditioning (e.g. Salivation) that whenever he washes the dishes, he will Conditioned Stimulus: the stimulus used in always get 20 pesos. In conclusion, he the conditioning (e.g. Bell) always volunteers to wash the dishes Conditioned Response: the response to the Negative Reinforcement: the removal of an conditioned stimulus, after conditioning aversive stimulus from a situation that also (e.g. Salivation) increases the probability of the behavior; Neutral Stimulus: the conditioned stimulus eliminating the negative stimulus (ex: One before associating it with the previous night, June forgot to wash the dishes. When stimulus (e.g. Bell, before conditioning the morning came, his mother gave him a and/or pairing) spank. From then on, he thought that to not B. Operant Conditioning to receive this reinforcement, he must not forget to wash the dishes next time) Schedules of Reinforcement Is a form of operant conditioning used to Continuous Schedule: the reinforcement eliminate undesirable behavior for every response but is an inefficient use Social Cognitive Theory of the reinforcer; will also cause the person Previous name: Social Learning Theory to be uninterested and overwhelmed (ex: Developer: Albert Bandura Whenever Chelsea gets a perfect score in Reciprocal Determinism: states that the their quizzes, her mom would give her impetus for development is bidirectional, the chocolate. In order to get chocolate, she person acts on the world as the world acts on always studies hard to get a perfect score. the person This was effective, until she got tired of the Observational Learning (Modeling): chocolates and never wanted them again) people learn appropriate social behavior chiefly Intermittent Schedule: provision of by observing and imitating models; reinforcers at irregular intervals; it has 4 - the characteristics of the model are basic types: important; 1. Fixed-Ratio Schedule: the organism is - the characteristics of the observer affect being reinforced intermittently according to the likelihood of modeling; the number of responses it makes (ex: A - the consequences of the behavior being teacher giving +1 point to the student after modeled may have an effect on the giving 2 correct answers, +1 point for observer another 2 correct answers the next day, and so on and so forth) 2. Variable-Ratio Schedule: the organism is Processes Governing Modeling being reinforced after the nth response A. Attention (unpredictable) on the average; the We are most likely to attend to the reinforcer must increase gradually to people that we are frequently with prevent extinction (ex: A teacher giving +1 Attractive models are more likely to be point to the student after 1 correct answer, observed than unattractive ones +2 after 4th correct answer, and +3 points The nature of behavior being modeled after 10th correct answer) affects our attention Extinction: the state of a behavior being B. Representation eliminated after no longer being reinforced, Patterns must be symbolically therefore, returning to its original (baseline) represented in memory level Memorizing steps to copy 3. Fixed-Interval Schedule: the organism is C. Behavioral Production being reinforced for the first response After attending to a model and retaining following a designated period of time (ex: what we have observed, we then A teacher getting her salary after teaching produce the behavior for 25 days) D. Motivation 4. Variable-Interval Schedule: the organism Modeling is most effective when the is being reinforced after the lapse of varied learners are motivated to perform the periods of time (ex: A teacher giving +1 on modeled behavior her students, first, on 1st week, second: 5th week, third: 8th week) Effects of Punishment Merely suppresses the behavior III. Cognitive Perspective Conditioning of a negative feeling Cognitive Stage Theory: Jean Piaget It spreads its effect Is the forerunner of the today’s “cognitive Behavior Modification revolution” Emphasizing the mental processes  J.P believed development to be organismic and Children have developed a theory of discontinuous mind J.P suggested that Cog. Dev., begins with an They still have difficulties taking on the inborn ability to adapt to the environment perspective of other people Babies/kids are born noble savages, and they Conservation: states that irrelevant act on their natural tendencies changes in the external appearance Organization: the creation of categories or does not have an effect on the object’s systems of knowledge quantity Schemes: the organized patterns of thought and 4. Formal Operational (11 Years to behavior used in particular situations Adulthood) Adaptation: the adjustment to new information Adolescents can: about the environment, achieved through the - Think systematically process of assimilation and accommodation - Reason about abstract concept 1. Assimilation (SS=Sinasali): the incorporation - Understand ethics of new information into an existing cognitive - Understand scientific reasoning structure - Generate hypotheses 2. Accommodation (CC=Change): the changes - Understand that rules are a result in a cognitive structure to include new of mutual agreement; based on information their Moral Reasoning Equilibration: the tendency to seek a stable Sociocultural Theory: Lev Vygotsky balance among cognitive elements Contextual factors affect children’s development Stages of Cognitive Development Zone of Proximal Development: the difference 1. Sensorimotor (Birth to 2 Years) between what a child can do alone and what Infants and toddlers understand the the child can do with help world in terms of physical actions on Scaffolding: temporary support to help a child the environment (sensory input and master a task motor activity coordination) Information Processing Approach Object Permanence: understanding Approach to the study of Cog. Dev., by that a person or object still exists even observing and analyzing the mental processes when out of sight involved in perceiving and handling information 2. Pre-Operational (2-7 Years) Young children concentrate on constructing a world full of permanent IV. Contextual Perspective objects Development can only be understood only They can use mental symbols to in its social context represent objects and events Contextualists see the individual, not as a Language is developing rapidly through separate entity interacting with the dramatic play environment, but inseparable part of it Social games, and games with rules Bioecological Theory: Urie Bronfenbrenner emerge as they become increasingly Microsystem: the everyday environment: home, involved in social play with peers school, work (family, friends, classmates, Egocentricism: self=interest without workmates) minding others Mesosystem: the interlocking of various microsystems (ex: Introducing your friend to 3. Concrete Operational (7-11 Years) your family) Thinking becomes decentered, Exosystem: consists of the interactions dynamic, and reversible between a microsystem and an outside system or institution/s (ex: TES or CHED offering  scholarships to the students, even if it is not - Can provide first-hand information their responsibility to do so) - Participants may not be able to remember Macrosystem: consists of overarching cultural information accurately or distort responses patterns (dominant beliefs, ideologies, and in a socially desirable way economic & political systems) - How question is asked or by whom may Chronosystem: change or constancy in the affect answer person and the environment Naturalistic Observation - People are observed in their normal setting (ex: Observing students in their classroom) V. Evolutionary/Sociobiological Perspective - No attempt to manipulate behavior View of human development that focuses - Provides good description of behavior on the evolutionary and biological bases of - Lack of control behavior - Observer bias Proposed by E.O. Wilson Laboratory Observation Evolved Mechanisms are behaviors that - Participants are observed in the laboratory developed to solve problems in adapting to - No attempt to manipulate behavior an earlier environment - Provides good description Ethology: the study of the adaptive behavior - Offers greater control of animal species in natural contexts - Observer bias Evolutionary Psychology: application of - Controlled situation can be artificial Darwinian principles of natural selection Behavioral and Performance Measures and survival of the fittest to individual - Participants are tested on abilities, skills, behavior knowledge, competencies, or physical responses Research Methods - Provides objectively measurable Quantitative Research: objectively measurable, information numerical data - Avoids subjective distortions Scientific Method - Cannot measure attitudes or other non- Identification of a problem behavioral phenomena Formulation of hypotheses - Results may be affected by extraneous Collection of data factors Basic Research Design Statistical Analysis of data Case Study Formation of tentative conclusions - In-depth study of single individual Dissemination of findings - Flexibility; provides detailed picture of one Qualitative Research: focuses on the how and why of person’s behavior and development behavior - Can generate hypotheses Sampling - May not generalize to others Sample: a smaller group within a population - Conclusions not directly testable Random Selection: each person in a population - Cannot establish cause and effect has an equal independent chance of being Ethnographic Study chosen - In-depth study of a culture or subculture Forms of Data Collection - Can help overcome culturally based biases Self-Reports in theory and research - Diary, visual reports, interview, or - Can test universality of developmental questionnaire phenomena - Participants are asked about some aspects - Subject to observer bias of their lives Correlational Study - May be highly structured or more flexible - Self-report may be verbal or visual  -Attempt to find positive or negative Justice relationships between variables - Enables prediction of one variable on basis of another - Can suggest hypotheses about causal Lesson 3: Forming A New Life relationships Fertilization: conception; the process by which - Cannot establish cause and effect a sperm and ovum combine to create a single Experiment cell called zygote - Controlled procedure in which an Zygote: duplicates itself again and again by cell experimenter controls the independent division to produce all the cells that make up a variable to determine its effect on the baby dependent variable Multiple Births - May be conducted in the laboratory or field A. Dizygotic Twins - Establishes cause and effect relationships Fraternal twins - Is highly controlled and can be repeated by The result of two separate eggs being another investigator fertilized by two separate sperm to form 2 - Degree of control, greatest in the laboratory unique individuals - Findings may not be generalized to Two siblings born at the same time situations outside the laboratory They can be same or different sex Developmental Research Designs This tendency may have a genetic basis and Cross-Sectional Study seems to be passed down from a woman’s - Designed to assess age-related differences, mother in which people of different ages are Will only stop if the offsprings are male assessed on one occasion (ex: Behavior B. Monozygotic Twins differences of Gen Zs and Gen Alpha) Twins resulting from the division of a single zygote after fertilization Identical twins Genetically similar Longitudinal Study Mechanisms of Heredity - Designed to assess age changes in a Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)l: chemical that sample over time (ex: The state of mental carries inherited instructions for the health of batch 2023, now, and 5 years development of all cellular forms of life; after) blueprint Sequential Study Genetic Code: sequence of bases within the − Combines cross-sectional and longitudinal DNA molecule; governs the formation of techniques (ex: Behavioral and mental proteins that determine the structure and health changes of Gen Zs and Gen Alpha, functions of living cells over the course of 5 years) Chromosomes: coils of DNA that consists of Ethics of Research genes Informed Consent Genes: small segments of DNA located in Avoidance of Deception definite positions on particular chromosomes; Protection of participants from harm and loss of functional units of heredity dignity Human Genome: complete sequence of genes Privacy and Confidentiality in the human body The right to decline or withdraw Mutation: permanent alterations in genes or Responsibility of investigators to correct any chromosomes that may produce harmful undesirable effects characteristics Beneficence: maximizing the benefits Autosomes: 22 pairs of chromosomes that are Nonmaleficence: minimizing the harm/danger not related to sexual expression  Sex Chromosomes: 23rd pair, governs the Small testes baby’s sex Learning disability Alleles: 2 or more alternative forms of a gene D. Turner’s Syndrome (XO) that occupy the same position on paired Female chromosomes and affect the same trait Short stature Homozygous: possessing 2 identical alleles for Webbed neck a trait Impaired spatial abilities Heterozygous possessing 2 different alleles for No menstruation a trait Infertility Dominant Inheritance: when a child receives Underdeveloped sex organs different alleles, only the dominant one is Incomplete development of secondary sex expressed characteristics Recessive Inheritance: when a child receives E. Fragile X identical recessive alleles, resulting in Minor to severe intellectual disabilities expression of a nondominant trait Symptoms are more severe in males Polygenic Inheritance: multiple genes at Delayed speech and motor development different sites on chromosomes affect a Speech impairments complex trait Hyperactivity Phenotype: observable characteristics Most common inherited form of “mental Genotype: genetic makeup, containing both retardation” expressed and unexpressed characteristics Chromosomal Abnormalities Multifactorial Transmission: genetic + Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21) environmental factors=certain complex traits - Most common chromosomal disabilities Epigenesis: turns genes on or off; determines - Moderate to severe intellectual disability functions of body cells - Physical signs: downward sloping skin fold Incomplete Dominance: when a child receives 2 at the inner corners of the eyes different alleles, resulting in partial expression of a trait Nature and Nurture Sex-Linked Inheritance: when certain Reaction Range: potential variability, depending characteristics carried on the X chromosome on environmental conditions, in the expression inherited from the mother are transmitted of a hereditary trait differently to her male and female offsprings Canalization: limitation on variance of Sex Chromosome Abnormalities expression of certain inherited characteristics A. XYY Syndrome Genotype-Environment Interaction: the portion Male of phenotypic variation that results from the Tall stature reactions of genetically different individuals to Tendency toward low IQ, especially, verbal similar environmental conditions B. XXX (Triple X) Syndrome Genotype-Environment Correlation/Covariance: Female tendency of certain genetic and environmental Normal appearance influences to reinforce each other Menstrual irregularities 1. Passive Correlation Learning disorders 2. Reactive or Evocative Correlation Intellectual disability 3. Active Correlations Possible infertility Prenatal Development C. XXY (Klinefelter Syndrome) Gestation Male - Period of development between conception Sterility and birth Underdeveloped secondary sexual - 37-41 weeks characteristics Gestational Age  - Age of unborn baby Typically lasts about 1-2 hours - Usually dated from the 1st day of an Crowning: begins when the baby’s head expectant mother’s last menstrual cycle begins to move through the cervix into the Stages of Prenatal Development vaginal canal A. Germinal Stage (Fertilization to 2 weeks) Ends when the baby emerges completely Rapid cell division from the mother’s body Blastocysts formation: fluid-filled sphere; 3. Stage 3 (Expulsion of Placenta) floats freely in the uterus until 6th day after Lasts 10 mins-1 hour fertilization The placenta and the remainder of the Implantation in the uterine wall: attachment umbilical cord will be expelled from the of blastocysts; at 6th day mother Quickening: the kicking of the fetus Vaginal vs. Cesarean Delivery Lie: the fetus’ favorite position Vaginal Delivery: the usual method of childbirth B. Embryonic Stage (2-8 Weeks) Cesarean Delivery: surgical removal of the baby 2nd stage of gestation from the uterus Rapid growth and development of major body When to Perform Cesarean Delivery? systems and organs Labor progresses too slowly Organogenesis The fetus seems to be in trouble Spontaneous Abortion: natural expulsion of an The mother is bleeding vaginally embryo from the uterus that cannot survive The fetus is the breech position outside the womb from the uterus; miscarriage 1. Complete Breech: una paa Stillbirth: a miscarriage that occurs after 20 2. Franck Breech: makasalampak paa weeks of gestation The fetus is in the transverse position: pahalang C. Fetal Stage (8 Weeks to Birth) The baby’s head is too big to pass through the Final stage of gestation mother’s pelvis Characterized by increase differentiation of the The Newborn Baby body parts and greatly enlarged body size 1. Size & Appearance Teratogen: environmental agent that can interfere with Neonatal Period: 1st 4 weeks; transition normal prenatal development and cause developmental from intrauterine dependency to disabilities independent existence Neonate: newborn baby, up to 4 weeks Fontanels: areas on a baby’s head where the bones of the skull do not meet; soft Lesson 4: Birth & Physical Development (1st 3 Years of spots Life) Lanugo: a fuzzy prenatal hair The Birth Process Vernix Caseosa: cheesy varnish, an oily Parturition: the act or process of giving birth; protection against infection that dries within typically begins 2 weeks before pregnancy the first few days Braxton-Hicks Contractions: “false” or Witch’s Milk: a secretion from the swollen “practice” contractions; does not cause labor breasts of newborn boys and girls around nor is a sign of labor the 3rd day of life 1. Stage 1 (Dilation of the Cervix) 2. Body Systems Longest stage; 12 to 14 hours for a woman Anoxia: lack of oxygen, which may cause who’s having her first child brain damage Contractions are 15-20 minutes apart Hypoxia: reduced oxygen supply Toward the end: 2-5 minutes interval Neonatal Jaundice: caused by the Lasts until the cervix is fully open (10cm or immaturity of the liver; yellowish about 4 inches) appearance; can cause brain damage if not 2. Stage 2 (Descent & Emergence) treated promptly 3. Medical and Behavioral Assessment a wider and more precise range of Developed by Dr. Viriginia Apgar movement and more control of the Apgar Scale: standard measurement of environment newborn’s condition; it assesses Ex: Pincer grip (thumb and index finger) appearance, pulse, grimace (reaction to Denver Developmental Screening Test: certain stimuli), activity, and respiration given to children 1 month to 6-year-old to Score of 7-10: baby is in good to excellent determine whether they are developing condition normally Score below 5-7: baby needs help to 1. Gross Motor Skills: large muscles establish breathing 2. Fine Motor Skills: small ranges of Score below 4: baby needs immediate muscles lifesaving treatment; if resuscitation is 10. Perception successful, bring the score to 4 or more Visual Guidance: the use of the eyes to guide w/in 10 mins, no long-term damage is likely the movement of the hands (or other parts of the to result body) 4. Motor Development Depth Perception: the ability to perceive objects Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment and surfaces in three dimensions Scale (NBAS): neurological and behavioral Haptic Perception: literally, the sense of touch; test to measure one’s neonate’s responses the ability to acquire information through touch to the environment Visual Cliff: was based on depth perception; 5. Complications of Childbirth apparatus designed to give an illusion of depth; Low-birth-weight Babies: neonates born used to assess depth perception on infants weighing less than 2,500 grams (5 pounds) Preterm (Premature) Infants: infants born before completing the 37th week of gestation Cognitive Development in the 1st 3 Years Small-for-Date (Small-for-Gestational-Age) Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage Infants: babies born weighing less than of A. Use of Reflexes (Birth to 1 Month) 90 percent of neonates at the same age; Infants exercise their inborn reflexes and result: slow fetal growth gain some control over them 6. Kangaroo Care They do not coordinate information from Skin-to-skin contact in which a newborn is their senses laid face down between the mother’s They do not grasp an object if they are breasts for an hour or so at a time after birth looking at it 7. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS): B. Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 Months) Also called crib death; sudden and Infants repeat pleasurable behaviors that unexplained death of an apparently healthy first occur by chance infant Focus: infant’s body, not on the 8. Principles of Development environment Cephalocaudal Principle: proceeds in a Infants make first acquired adaptation head-to-tail direction, that is, the upper They begin to coordinate sensory parts of the body develop before lower parts information and grasp objects of the trunk C. Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 Months) Proximodistal Principle: proceeds from They become more interested in the within to without, that is, the parts near the environment center develop before the extremities Repeating and prolonging interesting 9. Motor Development experiences Systems of Action: increasingly complex Actions are intentional but not initially goal combinations of motor skills, which permit directed  D. Coordination of Secondary Schemes (8-12 - Elicited Imitation: research method in which Months) infants /toddlers are induced to imitate a Behavior is more deliberate and purposeful specific series of actions they have seen but Goal directed; they coordinate previously not necessarily done before learned schemes and use previously Object Permanence: develops around 3rd to 6th learned behaviors to attain their goals substage; knowing that an object exists even They can anticipate events not on sight; recent findings: 3 months E. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 Months) Symbolic Development: depends on the Curiosity and experimentation representational thinking; they know that there They purposely vary their actions to see is a meaning to every object they see; develops results on 6th substage (18-24 months); recent findings: They deliberately explore their world to 19th month determine what is novel about an object, Categorization: the ability of a child to relate 2 event, or situation objects; depends on the representational They use trial and error thinking; develops on 6th substage (18-24 F. Mental Combinations (18-24 Months) months); recent findings: 3rd month No longer go for trial and error Causality: the ability of a child to know the Symbolic thoughts: enables them to begin cause behind an event; effects of own actions to think about events and anticipate their and then outside forces; develops slowly consequences w/o always resorting to between 4-6 months and 1 year based on action infant’s discovery; recent findings: later than They begin to demonstrate insight that; slowly develops They can use symbols and can pretend Number: depends on use of symbols, which Key Developments begins in the 6th substage (18-24 months); Imitation recent finding: 5th month - Invisible imitation: imitation with parts of Dual-Representation Hypothesis: proposal that one’s body that one cannot see (ex: children under 3 have difficulty grasping spatial imitating facial expressions like laughing, relationships because of the need to keep more smiling, angry face; they cannot see their than one mental representation in mind at the own face) same time - According to Piaget, it develops around 9 Habituation: type of learning in which familiarity months; but according to recent finding, it w/ a stimulus reduces, slows, or stops a actually starts at 6 weeks response; pagsasawa - Visible Imitation: imitation with parts of Dishabituation: increase in responsiveness after one’s body that one can see (ex: moving of presentation of a new stimulus hands and feet to imitate their mother’s Visual Preference: tendency of infants to spend dancing; they can see their own hands and more time on looking at one sight than another feet) Visual Recognition Memory: ability to - Deferred imitation: Piaget’s term for distinguish a familiar visual stimulus from an reproduction of an observed behavior after unfamiliar one when shown both at the same the passage of time by calling up a stored time symbol of it (ex: imitating the act of cooking Cross-Modal Transfer: ability to use information during playtime because they saw it once at gained by one sense to guide another one time, even w/o their mother’s presence) Violation-of-Expectations: research method in - begins after development of mental which dishabituation to a stimulus that conflicts representations at 6th substage (18-24 w/ experience is taken as evidence that an months); recent findings: as early as 6 infant recognizes new stimulus as surprising weeks Language Development  Pre-linguistic Speech: forerunner of linguistic Pain Cry: a sudden onset of loud crying w/o speech; utterance of sounds that are not words preliminary moaning, sometimes followed by - Includes cooing, babbling, crying, and holding the breath accidental and deliberate imitation of Frustration Cry: 2 or 3 drawn-out cries, w/ no sounds w/o knowing and understanding the prolonged breath-holding meaning Temperament: is the characteristic disposition or style Linguistic Speech: verbal expression designed on approaching and reacting to situations to convey meaning Goodness of Fit: appropriateness of Holophrase: single world that conveys a environmental demands and constrains to a complete thought child’s temperament Telegraphic Speech: early form of sentence use A. Easy Child consisting of only a few essential words Has moods of mild to moderate intensity, Syntax: rules for forming sentences in a usually positive particular language Responds well to novelty and change Characteristics of Early Speech Quickly develops regular sleep and feeding Young children simplify schedules They understand grammatical relationships Take to new foods easily they cannot yet express Smiles at strangers Underextending word meanings Adapts easily to new situations Overextending word meanings Accepts most frustrations w/ little fuss Overregularizing rules Adapts quickly to new routines and rules of Code Mixing: use of elements of 2 languages, new game sometimes in the same utterance, by young B. Difficult Child children in households where both languages Adapts slowly to new situations are spoken Reacts to frustrations w/ tantrums Code Switching: changing one’s speech to Adjusts slowly to new routines match the situation, as in, people who are C. Slow-to-Warm-Up Child bilingual Has mildly intense reactions, both + and - Child-Directed Speech (CDS0: parentese, Responds slowly to novelty and change motherese; for of speech used in talking to Sleeps and eats more regularly than the babies; slow, simplified speech, a high-pitched difficult child, less regularly than the easy tone, exaggerated vowel sounds, short words child and sentences, and repetition Shows mildly negative initial response to Theory of Language Acquisition new stimuli Nativism: human beings have an inborn Gradually develops liking for new stimuli capacity for language acquisition after repeated, unpressured exposures Language Acquisition Device (LAD): an inborn Gender: significance of being male or female mechanism that enable children to infer Gender-Typing: socialization process by which linguistic rules from the language they hear children, at an early age, learn appropriate gender roles Psychosocial Development; 1st 3 Years Developmental Issues in Infancy Crying: the most powerful way infants can communicate Basic Trust vs. Baic Mistrust: Developing Attachments their needs Attachment: reciprocal, enduring tie between 2 Hunger Cry: a rhythmic cry, which is not always people, especially between infant and associated w/ hunger caregiver, each of whom contributes to the Angry Cry: a variation of the rhythmic cry, in quality of the relationship which excess air is forced through the vocal - Secure Attachment: pattern where an infant cords cries or protests when the primary caregiver  leaves and actively seeks out caregiver on interactions, including routine, chores, hygiene, his/her return and play - Avoidant Attachment: pattern where an Physical Abuse: any physical force that injures infant rarely cries when separated from the you or puts your health in danger. primary caregiver and avoids contact on Neglect: a disregard of duty resulting from his/her return carelessness, indifference, or willfulness. - Ambivalent/Resistant Attachment: pattern Sexual Abuse: any sexual activity without where an infant becomes anxious before consent. the primary caregiver leaves, is extremely Emotional Maltreatment: reflects a caregiver's upset during his/her absence, and both failure to provide a developmentally- seeks and resists contact on his/her return appropriate and supportive. environment, - Disorganized-Disoriented Attachment: including persistent, pervasive or patterned pattern where an infant, after separation, dehumanizing acts such as frequent. shows contradictory, repetitious, or Non-Organic Failure to Thrive: slow or arrested misdirected behaviors on his/her return physical growth w/ no known medical cause, Stranger Anxiety: manifested in crying when an accompanied by poor developmental and unfamiliar person approach emotional functioning Separation Anxiety: excessive concern, worry, Shaken Baby Syndrome: form of maltreatment, and even dread of the actual or anticipated in which, shaking an infant/toddler can cause separation from an attachment figure. brain damage, paralysis, or death Mutual regulation: process by which infant and caregiver communicate emotional states to each other and respond appropriately Developmental Issues in Toddlerhood Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Self-Concept: sense of self; descriptive and evaluative mental picture of one’s abilities or traits Socialization: development of habits, skills, values, and motives shared by responsible, productive members of a society Internalization: during socialization, process by which children accept societal standards of conduct as their own Self-Regulation: a child’s independent control of behavior to conform to understood social expectations Conscience: internal standards of behavior, which usually controls one’s conduct and produce emotional discomfort when violated Situational Compliance: obedience of a parent’s orders only in the presence of signs of ongoing parental control Committed Compliance: wholehearted obedience of parent’s orders w/o reminders or lapses Receptive Cooperation: eager willingness to cooperate harmoniously w/ a parent in daily