Introduction to Work Psychology PDF

Highcroft Hospital MH00005268 INTRODUCTION TO ZIEL BERGH EDITOR OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS SOUTHERN AFRICA OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS SOUTHERN AFRICA Oxford University Press Southern Africa (Pty) Ltd Vasco Boulevard, Goodwood, Cape Town, Republic of South Africa P O Box 12119, NI City, 746...

Highcroft Hospital MH00005268 INTRODUCTION TO ZIEL BERGH EDITOR OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS SOUTHERN AFRICA OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS SOUTHERN AFRICA Oxford University Press Southern Africa (Pty) Ltd Vasco Boulevard, Goodwood, Cape Town, Republic of South Africa P O Box 12119, NI City, 7463, Cape Town, Republic of South Africa Oxford University Press Southern Africa (Pty) Ltd is a subsidiary of Oxford University Press, Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP. The Press, a department of the University of Oxford, furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offices in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in South Africa by Oxford University Press Southern Africa (Pty) Ltd, Cape Town Introduction to Work Psychology ISBN 978 0 19 599507 7 O Oxford University Press Southern Africa (Pty) Lid 2011 The moral rights of the author have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press Southern Africa (Pty) Ltd (maker) First published 2011 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press Southern Africa (Pty) Ltd, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate designated reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press Southern Africa (Pty) Ltd, at the address above. You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer. Publishing Manager: Alida Terblanche Commissioning Editor: Astrid Meyer Development Editor: Ilka Lane Project Manager: Nicola van Rhyn Editor: Mark Ronan Designer: Oswald Kurten Cover design: Sharna Sammy and Oswald Kurten Cover image: iStockphoto.com Indexer: Ethne Clarke Set in Adobe Caslon Pro Std 10 pt on 12 pt by PH Setting cc Printed and bound by ABC Press, Cape Town 115967 Contents 1Introduction to — and applied fields in — psychology and industrial and organisational psychology (1-0 psychology).. 1 1.1 Introduction to the nature of psychology and related disciplines. 2 1.2 Subfields of psychology.. 2 1.3 Industrial and organisational psychology 5 1.4 Subfields and practice areas of 1-0 psychology.. 6........ 1.4. I Organisational psychology. 6 1.4.2 Personnel psychology. 7 1.4.3 Career/vocational psychology and counselling.... 8 1.4.4Employment relations.......... 8 1.4.5 Ergonomics. 9 1.4.6 Consumer psychology. 9 1.4.7 Research methodology 9 1.4.8 Psychological assessment/psychometrics......... 9 1.4.9 Employee and organisational well-being. 10 1.4.10 Human-resource management.......... 10 1.5 Ibe nature and identity of 1-0 psychology.... 12........ 1.6 The history and development of 1-0 psychology. 14 1.6.1 International and general trends........... 15 1.6.1.1 Early influences before the World Wars.. 15 1.6.1.2 World War 1 16 1.6.1.3 Between World Wars I and Il. 16 1.6.1.4 period during World War 11. 18 1.6.1.5 Contemporary times: 1950s—1970s. 18 1.6.1.6 Contemporary times: 1980s to modern  times........... 20 1.6.2 The development of industrial psychology in South Africa. 21 1.6.2.1 Contributing institutions and people.. 22 1.6.2.2 Important controlling bodies....... 22 1.6.2.3 Current state of affairs in South African psychology. 23 1.7 Professional training, registration and practice issues in South Africa.... 24 1.7.1 Practice framework: Registration categories...... 24  1.8 Summary and reflection....... 26 1. 9 Assessment tasks.. 27 2 Frameworks for thinking and practice in 1-0 psychology. 29 2.1 Introduction and background. 29 2.2 Various psychological schools of thought. 31 2.2.1 Structuralism and functionalism....... 31 2.2.2 Behaviourism. 32 2.2.3 Gestalt psychology. 33 2.2.4 The psychoanalytic school.......... 34 2.2.5 Humanism (phenomenology). 37 2.2.6 Cognitive psychology. 38 2.2.7 trait psychological (psychometric) approach 39 2.2.8 Biological and evolutionary perspectives....... 41 2.2.9Positive psychology........... 42 2.2.10 African and Asian perspectives........ 43 2.2.11 Contextual approaches. 47 2.3 Approaches unique to 1-0 psychology 48 2.3.1 Approaches relating to the nature of employees... 49 2.3.2 Classical and neoclassical organisational theory ,.. 49 2.3.3 Neoclassical approaches to organisational functioning 50 2.3.4 Contemporary management thinking.. 51 2.3.4.1 Organisational systems theory...... 51 2.3.4,2 Information-processing approach of organisations. 52 2.3.4.3 Contingency or situational approach 52 Learning organisations. 52 2.3.4.5 A new paradigm: Developing human capital — the intelligent enterprise...... 53 2.3.4.6 Utilising multiple perspectives......... 54 2.4 Enduring themes in psychology. 55 2.5 Summary and reflection. 55 2.6 Assessment tasks.. 56 3 Biology in work 59 3.1 Introduction. 59  3.2 Genetic and environmental influences.......... 60 3.2.1 Implications of hereditary factors in the workplace 61 3.3 Structure of the neuron.. 3.4 Types and communication of neurons... 65...  3.4.1 Three types of neurons. 65 3.4.2 Communication of neurons. 65 3.5 Neurotransmitters..... 65 3.6 Structure of the nervous system. 66 3.7 The brain and its functions........ 68 3.7.1 Divisions of the brain....... 68 3.7.1.1 The hindbrain... 68 3.7.1.2 Ihe midbrain. 68 3.7.1.3 The forebrain. 68 3.7.2 Scientific investigation of the brain 70 3.7.3 Brain functioning and implications in the workplace 70 3.8 "lhe endocrine system 71 3.8.1 Categories of hormones 71 3.8.2 Major divisions of the endocrine system......... 71 3.8.3 Endocrine system — problems and implications for the workplace.... 71 3.9 The cardiovascular system. 73 3.9.1 Problems of the cardiovascular system and implications for the workplace. 73 3.10 The respiratory system....... 74 3.10.1 Respiratory system problems and implications for the workplace 74 3.11 immune system 75 3.11.1 Typical problems of the immune system 75 3.11.2 Implications of immune system problems in the workplace 76 3.12 The muscle system... 76 3.12.1 Problems associated with the muscle system...... 77 3.12.2 Implications of the muscle system for the workplace. 77 3.13 Summary and reflection. , ,.. 78 3.14 Assessment tasks.. 79 4 Human and career development across the lifespan........ 81.  4.4 Domains of human development...... 86 4.4.1 Physical or biological development...... 87 4.4.2 Cognitive development....... 87 4.4.3 Psychosocial development..... 89 4.4.4 Career development. 91 4.5 Life and career stages and tasks.. 91 4.5.1 Ihe early years..... 92 4.5.2 Lifespan development..... 93 4.5.2.1 Trust versus mistrust (first year of life — sensory, oral).. 94 4.5.2.2 Autonomy versus shame and doubt (two to three years — muscular, anal).. 94 4.5.2.3 Initiative versus guilt (four to five years — locomotor, genital) 94 4.5.2.4 Industry versus inferiority (6—11 years through to puberty — latency).... 94 4.5.2.5 Identity versus role diffusion (12—18 years — puberty or early adolescence).. 95 4.5.2.6 Intimacy versus isolation (late adolescence/ early adulthood).. 95 4.5.2.7 Generativity versus stagnation (adulthood) 95 4.5.2.8 Ego-integrity versus despair (ageing/ maturity) 95 4.1 Introduction. 81 4.2 'Ihe nature and characteristics of human development.... 82 4.3 Determinants of human development..... 83 4.3.1 Hereditary influences........... 83 4.3.2 Environment and learning. 83 4.3.3 The interaction between person and environment. 85 4.6 Specific career transitions and tasks. 96 4.6.1 Early work life — occupational choice and preparation 96 4.6.2 Young adulthood — job entry and establishment in the workplace. 98 4.6.3 Middle adulthood — consolidation, maintenance  and change. 100 4.6.4 Late adulthood — disengagement and retirement.. 101 4.7.4 Employment opportunities 105 4.7.5 Lifelong learning and employability.. 106 4.7.6 Career development planning...... 106 4.8 Summary and reflection..... 107 4.9 Assessment tasks..... 108  5 Sensory and perceptual processes in work behaviour........ 110 5.1 Introduction. 110 4.7 Some career development and management issues.... 103 4.7.1 Career anchors. 103 4.7.2 Gender-related career development issues....... 103 4.7.3 Cross-cultural-related career development issues.. 104 5.2 Ihe nature of sensation and related principles........... 111 5.2.1 Ihe sensation process. 111 5.2.2 Thresholds.... 113 5.2.2.1 Absolute thresholds...... 113 5.2.2.2 Just-noticeable difference...... ,...... 113 5.2.3 Signal detection 114 5.2.4 Subliminal perception.... 114 5.2.5 Sensory adaptation...... 115 5.3 Visual perception. 117 5.3.1 Form perception. 117 5.3.2 Depth and distance perception........... 120 5.3.3 Perceptual constancy. 120 5.3.4 Perception of movement.. 121 5.3.5 Visual or perceptual illusions.... 121 5.3.6 Colour vision. 123 5.4 Factors influencing sensation and perception..... 123 5.4.1 Attributes of the perceiver....... 123 5.4.2 Attributes of stimuli. 123 5.4.3 The role of situations in perception....... 124 5.5 Person (or interpersonal) perception......... 124 5.5.1 The nature of person perception......... 124 5.5.1.1 Cognitive and relationship schemas..... 125 5.5.1.2 Primacy effect. 125 5.5.1.3 Effects of physical appearance...... 125 5.5.1.4 Stereotypes. 125 5.5.1.5 Halo effect. 127 5.5.1.6 Contrast effect. 127  127 5.5.1.7 Projection......................... 5.5.2 Attribution. 128 5.5.2.1 Types of attributions. 128 5.5.2.2 Attribution errors and biases..... 128 5.5.3 Perception in impression management......... 130 5.6 Summary and reflection. 131 5.7 Assessment tasks.. 132 6 Cognitive processes......... 134 6.1 Introduction. 134 6.2 Productive thinking and concept formation.. ,..... 135 6.2.1 Concept formation.... 135 6.3 Memory..... 136 6.3.1 Stages of memory.. 136 6.3.1.1 Sensory memory.... 136 6.3.1.2 Short-term memory........ 136 6.3.1.3 Long-term memory.... 137 6.3.2 Enhancing memory. 138 6.3.3 Forgetting... 141 6.3.3.1 Interference effects 141 6.3.3.2 Motivated forgetting. 141 6.3.3.3 Distortion..... 141 6.3.3.4 False memories.... 141 6.3.3.5 Mood 142 6.4 Language..... 142 6.5 Intelligence.... 144 6.5.1 The intelligence quotient (IQ 145 6.5.2 Approaches to intelligence................ 6.5.2.1 The structural approach. 146 6.5.2.2 Flhe dynamic approach. 147  6.6 Problem solving and decision making 150 6.6.1 Problem-solving strategies. 151 6.7 Creativity 154 6.7.1 "Ihe creative process...... 154 6.7.2 Characteristics of creative people and managers... 155 6.7.3 Developing the creative potential of employees. 156 6.8 Implications for managers............ 157.... 6.9 Summary and reflection... 158 6.10 Assessment tasks 158 7 Workplace learning. 161 7.1 Introduction 161 7.2 Core concepts in workplace learning....... 162 7.3 Approaches to adult learning. 163 7.3.1 Understanding the process of learning through different theories of learning... 164 7.3.2 Adults as learners. 166 7.3.3 Different ways of learning.... 167 E 7.4 lhe purpose of workplace learning......... 169 7.5 Conducting workplace learning in a systematic manner... 169 7.5.1 Analysing performance deficits..... 171 7.5.1.1 Analysis techniques. 172 7.5.1.2 Collection of the data required for an analysis. 173 7.5.2 Designing learning interventions.......... 175 7.5.2.1 Specifying outcomes, goals and objectives 175 7.5.2.2 Developing an instructional plan. 175 7.5.3 Delivering learning: Different training methods.. 176 7.5.3.1 Instructor-led classroom methods. 177 7.5.3.2 Workplace-centred training methods.... 177 7.5.3.3 Distance education, training and learning 177  7.5.3.4 Blended methods. 177 7.5.4 Delivering workplace learning interventions...... 180 7.5.4.1 Training versus facilitation.........180 7.5.4.2 Materials that support the delivery of learning 181 7.5.5 Managing the learning experience............. 182 7.5.6 Assessment of learning........... 182 7.5.7 Evaluating the effectiveness of workplace learning. 182 7.5.7.1 Evaluating the effectiveness of the learning experience — Kirkpatrick's Hierarchy. 184 7.5.7.2 Measuring the economic value of training — Phillips's Return on Investment.185 7.5.7.3 Evaluating the design and development of training — Nadler's model.. 186 7.6 Workplace learning in the South African context....... 186 7.6.1 Training legislation in South Africa............ 187 7.6.1.1 The National Qualifications Framework 187 7.6.1.2 Developing skills in the workplace...... 189 7.6.1.3 "Ihe National Occupational Learning System 190 7.7 Summary and reflection. 193 7.8 Assessment tasks. 194 8 Workplace motivation and emotion 196 8.1 Introduction.. 196 8.2 The nature of motivation.......... 197 8.2.1 Extrinsic versus intrinsic motivation...... 197 8.3 Theories of motivation and their applications.......... 198 8.3.1 Motivators brought into the organisation by the employee.. 198 8.3.1.1 Physiological needs — homeostatic drive theory.. 198 8.3.1.2 Personality differences and values that  direct motivations.......... 200 8.3.1.3 Talents, abilities and motivation...... 200 8.3.2 Motivation theories focusing on organisational factors. 200 8.3.2.1 Quality of work life. 200 8.3.2.2 Herzberg's two-factor theory. , 201 8.3.2.3 Job design.. 201 8.3.3 Motivation theories focusing on employee factors. 202 8.3.3.1 Maslow's hierarchy of needs....... 203 8.3.3.2 Alderfer's ERG theory.... 204... 8.3.3.3 McClelland's needs theory...... 204 8.3.4 Motivating people by facilitating change in behaviours.... 205 8.3.4.1 Goal-setting theory...... 205 8.3.4.2 Behaviour modification.......... 206 8.35 Theories focusing on people's beliefs.. 206 8.3.5.1 Expectancy theory...... 206 8.3.5.2 Equity theory... 207 8.3.5.3 Self-efficacy theory..... 207 8.3.5.4 Cognitive evaluation theory..... 208 8.3.6 Management-centred theories of motivation..... 209 8.3.6.1 McGregor's Theories X and Y and the self-fulfilling prophecy............. 209 8.3.6.2 Facilitating and stimulating performance: Practical management strategies........ 209 8.4 'Ihe nature of emotion 212 8.4.1 Mood, temperament and the expression of emotions... 214  8.5 Theories of emotion........ 216 8.5.1 Physiological theories of emotion............ 216 8.5.1.1 The James-Lange theory of emotion.... 216 8.5.1.2 The Cannon-Bard theory of emotion.... 217 8.5.2 Evolutionary theories of emotion...... 217 8.5.3 Theories of emotion based on cognitive appraisal.. 218 8.5.3.1 The two-factor theory of emotion 218 8.5.3.2 Arnold and Lazarus's theory. 218 8.6 Culture and emotion...... 220 8.7 Summary and reflection. 222 8.8 Assessment tasks.. 223 9 Social processes in the workplace ,. 226 9.1 Introduction. 226 9.2 The organisation as a system........... 227 9.3 Organisational design........ 227 9.3.1 Traditional organisational designs....... 230 9.3.1.1 Simple organisational structure...... 230 9.3.1.2 Bureaucracy. 232 9.3.1.3 Matrix structure.. 232 9.3.2 Contemporary organisational designs.......... 233 9.3.2.1 Ihe virtual organisation....... 233 9.3.2.2 Team-based organisations......... 233 9.4 Groups. 234 9.4.1 Group development...... 234 9.4.1.1 The five-stage model of group development..... 234 9.4.1.2 Ihe punctuated equilibrium model.. 235 9.5 Group structure. 236  9.5.1 Leadership. 237 9.5.2Roles............... 237.. 9.5.2.1 Role identity. 237 9.5.2.2 Role perception.......... 238 9.5.2.3 Role expectation. 238 9.5.2.4 Role conflict. 238 238 9.5.3Norms.................. 9.5.3.1 Performance-related norms........ 239 9.5.3.2 Appearance-related norms............ 239 9.5.3.3 Social-arrangement norms............ 239 9.5.3.4 Allocation of resources............... 239 9.5.4 Conformity. 240 9.5.5 Status 240 9.5.6 Size 240 9.5.7 Composition. 241 9.5.8 Cultural diversity. 241 9.6 Group processes......... 242 9.6.1 Group dynamics..... 242 9.6.2 Group  cohesion....... 9.6.3 Group communication.... 245 9.6.4 Influence, power and organisational politics...... 246 9.6.5 Conflict and cooperation............... 246 9.6.6 Trust and ethics. 247 9.6.7 Group decision making.. 247 9.6.8 Group-think and group-shift....... 248 9.6.8.1 Group-think.. 248 9.6.8.2 Group-shift. 248 9.7 Group decision-making techniques........ 249 9.7.1 Brainstorming.... 249 9.7.2 The nominal group technique.... 249 9.7.3 The Delphi technique....... 249 9.7.4 SWOT analysis. 250 9.7.5 Electronic meetings. 251 9.8 Organisational culture. 251 9.8.1 How organisational culture is formed... 252  9.8.2 Organisational socialisation...... 252 252 9.8.2.1 The process of organisational socialisation 253 9.8.2.2 Stages of socialisation..... 254 254 256 9.9 Organisations and social change..... 256 9.9.1 The organisational change process...... 257 260 9.9.2 Types of social interventions....... 260 261 9.10 Summary and reflection..... 263 263 9.11 Assessment tasks.... 264 10 Work-related attitudes and values............ 10.1 Introduction.... 10.2 The nature of attitudes....... 10.3 Attitude change...... 10.3.1 Factors that inhibit attitude change. 10.3.2 Self-induced attitude change..... 10.3.2.1 Correcting cognitive dissonance..... 264  10.3.2.2 Self-perception..........265 10.3.3 Persuasive communication......265 10.3.3.1 The communicator.....265 10.3.3.2 message.266 10.3.3.3 The channel..267 10.3.3.4 Rlhe audience.....267 268 268 270 271 273 273 273 274 274 274 275 275 278 278 279 280 281 282 10.4 Work-related attitudes.. 10.4.1 Job satisfaction.. 10.4.2 Organisational commitment........ 10.4.3 Engagement........... 10.5 Flhe nature of values. 10.6 Values as part of personality. 10.6.1 The theoretical person...... 10.6.2 The economic person.......  10.6.3 "The social person. 10.6.4 The power person.. 10.6.5 The religious person....... 10.6.6 "Ihe aesthetic person........... 10.7 Cultural values in an organisational context. 10.7.1 Power distance (large versus small)..... 10.7.2 Individualism versus collectivism........ 10.7.3 Masculinity versus femininity.. 10.8 Organisation-specific values......... 10.9 Ethical values. 10.10 Work as a central value. 283 10.11 Implication of values and attitude systems for the manager. 284 10.12 Summary and reflection.. 284 10.13 Assessment tasks. 285 11 Psychological well-being and maladjustment at work. 288 11.1 Introduction.. 288 11.2 Work and psychological adjustment. 289 11.3 Defining psychological health and maladjustment. 291 11.4 Approaches to understanding psychological health.. 293 11.4.1 A pathological or wellness orientation? 293 11.4.2 Classical psychological theories........... 293 11.4.3 Positive psychology and related concepts...... 294 11.4.4 Stress approaches.. 295 11.4.5 Socio-cultural perspectives.............. 296 11.5 Determinants of psychological health and maladjustment 297 11.5.1 Personal unique factors...... 297 11.5.2 External factors 297 11.5.3 Stressors 297 11.5.3.1 An integrated model of work stress.. 298 11.6 Criteria and classification of psychological adjustment and maladjustment.. 300 11.7 Psychological disorders 302  11.8 Work dysfunctions 304 11.8.1 Disturbances in the capacity to work. 304 11.8.2 Patterns of undercommitment....... 304 11.8.3 Patterns of overcommitment. 305 11.8.3.1 Workaholism 305 11.8.3.2 Type A personality.. 305 11.8.3.3 Burnout. 305 11.8.4 Work-related anxiety, fear and depression..... 305 11.8.5 Personality and behavioural dysfunctions at work 306 11.8.6 Work and non-work conflict. 306 11.87 Career-development problems.............. 307 11.9 Organisational and community health problems...... 307 11.10 Promoting and managing employee and organisational well- being. 311 11.10.1 Responsibilities and roles in health promotion.. 311 11.10.2 Types of service-delivery approaches in health promotion. 311 11.10.3 Specific health-promotion outcomes, needs and activities.... 312 11.11 Summary and reflection...... 315 11.12 Assessment tasks.... 316 12 Psychological assessment and research in the work context. 319 12.1 Introduction 319 12.2 Definitions used in psychological assessment. 320 12.3 Approaches used in psychological assessment......... 320 12.4 Applications of psychological assessment in the work context.. 321 12.4.1 Psychological assessment in personnel selection. 322 12.4.1.1 Benefits of psychological assessment in selection. 322 12.4.2 Psychological assessment for development purposes.. 323 12.4.2.1 Benefits of psychological assessment in development.. 324  12.4.3 Psychological assessment in promotion..... 324 12.4.3.1 Benefits of psychological assessment in promotion................... 324 12.4.4 Value of psychological assessment in downsizing 325 12.4.4.1 Benefits of psychological assessment in the downsizing process......... 326 12.5 Domains of psychological assessment....... 326 12.5.1 Cognition.... 327 12.5.2 Intelligence 327 12.5.3 Personality. 329 12.5.4 Values. 330 12.5.5 Affective behaviour or emotional states....... 331 12.5.6 Interests.... 331 12.5.7 Job knowledge/skills......... 331 12.6 Methods of psychological assessment.............. 332 12.6.1 CV screening and bio data..... 332 12.6.2 Interviews. 333 12.6.3 Assessment centres..... 333 12.6.4 Psychological testing. 334 12.7 Psychological research. 335 12.7.1 Approaches used in psychological research.. 336 12.7.2 Data-collection techniques in research.. 336 12.7.2.1 Observation. 336 12.7.2.2 Interviews..... 337 12.7.2.3 Experiments. 337 12.7.2.4 Psychological and other questionnaires 337 12.7.3 Steps in planning and executing research.. 338 12.7.3.1 Selecting a research topic...... 338 12.7.3.2 Formulating the research problem. 338 12.7.3.3 Reviewing previous related research. 338  12.7.3.6 Choosing research samples (sampling) 339 12.7.3.7 Data collection and processing...... 339 12.7.3.8 Interpretation, conclusions and recommendations. 339 12.7.3.9 Reporting of findings and feedback. 339 12.8 Requirements for effective assessment and research 339 12.8.1 Reliability and validity in psychological assessment and research...... 340 12.9 Professionalism, ethical codes and legal issues........ 341 12.9.1 Specific ethical codes...... 341 12.10 Summary and reflection............. 342 12.11 Assessment tasks. 343 References 345 Glossary of terms and acronyms , 361 Index.... 371 12.7.3.4 Formulating objectives or research questions. 338 12.7.3.5 Formulating research hypotheses.... 338.... About the authors Content editor: Ziel Bergh is an 1-0 practitioner and author. He is also involved at the department Industrial & Organisational Psychology at Unisa as lecturer and consultant. Contributing authors: Dr Elrie Botha is a Senior Lecturer in Industrial Psychology at the School of Behavioural Sciences, North West University. Jerome Kiley is a lecturer at the Cape Peninsula University ofTechnology in the department of Human Resource Management. He also manages the first year Industrial Psychology programme at the University of the Western Cape. Dr Amanda Werner is Senior Lecturer at the Department of Human Resources Management in the Faculty of Business and Economic Sciences at the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University. Preface and orientation Introduction to Work Psychology is a new textbook that introduces the learner and reader to the studv of employee, group and organisational behaviour, which is the study and practice area of industrial and organisational psychology (1-0 psychology) and all its subfields. "Ihe development of this book arises from an expressed need in the market for a focused and applied textbook aimed at a broad range of students. This book introduces students who are studying psycholuy, 1-0 psychology and human-resource management for the first time to fundamental concepts and assumptions and their application in the workplace. 1-0 psychology utilises psychological knowledge to enhance the fit between employees and workplaces, facilitate employee and organisational health and enhance employee engagement and business performance. "Ihis book offers fundamental knowledge of human behaviour and psychological processes, which is necessary to understand people in their work contexts. Human behaviour is complex and its various aspects are interrelated; these notions are illustrated through cross- references in the book and to the knowledge body of 1-0 psychology, and through the use of concepts in the various contexts of 1-0 psychology. Ihe content provides a balanced mix of theory and more practical and applied examples. In terms of practical applications, most chapters contain examples, illustrations, case studies, scenarios and methodology that will help students solve practical problems in the work context. Ethical readers, practical readers and other extracts provide additional practical back-up material to support and illustrate the theoretical content of each chapter. 'Ihe applied nature of the book will also serve as a valuable resource for senior students of 1-0 psychology and related fields, as well as for practising psychologists and practitioners in the field of human-resource management. Selected academic content from South Africa and the rest of the world is presented in a manner that is scientifically relevant and acceptable. "Ibe book aims, among other things, to foster a respect for people's dignity in diverse environments, and since this book is an educational resource, it alludes, where applicable, to the ethical and legislative implications of 1- 0 psychology practices. book also takes into account the broader cultural context of human behaviour.  Chapters 1 and 2 outline psychology and 1-0 psychology as the scientific study of human behaviour in various contexts. In Chapter 1 the various subfields of psychology and 1-0 psychology and their applications are discussed, and possible work and career opportunities are introduced. The origins and development of 1-0 psychology, both globally and in South Africa, and issues concerning psychological practice in South Africa are highlighted. Chapter 2 looks at the various schools of thought in psychology and 1-0 psychology. "Ihese different perspectives provide psychological 'thinking caps', or interpretation frameworks, for understanding and influencing employee and organisational behaviour. Chapters 3 to 8 focus on basic biological and psychological behaviour and related processes, such as the biological basis of behaviour, human and career development, workplace learning, sensation and perception, cognitive processes and workplace motivation and emotion, which contribute to important differences and similarities among employees, and represent crucial input factors in the interaction between employees and organisations. Chapters 9 and 10 introduce social processes, such as group functioning, organisational culture, and attitudes and values, which are imperative in a world of work that is characterised by diversity, teamwork, networking and other social systems. Chapter 11 deals with issues related to the psychological health or wellbeing of employees and organisations. This chapter not only emphasises a positive perspective on well-being and organisational health with a view to optimising human strengths, but also offers an introduction to psychological disorders and impaired work behaviours in employees. 1-0 psychology is a science with ample methodologies to support its theoretical assumptions. Chapter 12 concludes with an assessment of psychological behaviour in the work context and how scientific research or inquiry is applied in psychological disciplines. One of the features in this book is the use of bold terms, which refer the reader to important technical terms and concepts that are defined in the glossary for ready reference. Other useful terms are emphasised in italic text. Ziel Bergh Author team C H A PTE R 1 Introduction to and applied fields in - psychology and industrial and organisational psychology (1-0 psychology) Ziel Bergh LEARNING OUTCOMES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: define the nature and study fields of psychology; explain how psychology is related to 1-0 psychology and other disciplines; describe the fields of 1-0 psychology and related practice areas; give examples of tasks, jobs and careers related to the various applied fields of 1-0 psychology; describe and compare the tasks of 1-0 psychologists and human-resource specialists; outline the origins of 1-0 psychology in general and in South Africa in particular; comment on the identity of 1-0 psychology in general and in South Africa; and explain issues related to the training, registration and practice of psychologists in South Africa. 2 INTRODUCTION TO WORK PSYCHOLOGY 1.1 Introduction to the behaviour. It can also be used to explain one's psychological wellness, or health, nature of psychology and psychological problems or and related disciplines maladjustment. In order to address these various domains, psychology utilises Psychology is the umbrella concept and scientific inquiry or research and many discipline that refers to the scientific study other methods to assess human behaviour of human behaviour and all the mental and and to obtain and process information. related processes (feelings, thoughts and F lhese processes of inquiry lead to findings actions) that underpin human behaviour in on and knowledge of human behaviour all its possible nuances and contexts which can be utilised or applied to (Morris & Maisto, 2010; Wade & Tavris, influence human behaviour. 2009). In this regard, psychology is a field Psychology is the study of human behaviour; that is continuously growing and its therefore, in a sense, your study of psychology meanings will only be understood in full if involves you as the subject of your study in all possible psychological approaches, psychology. This makes psychology a very study and research areas, applied areas and practical field of study because it is about relations with other disciplines are ourselves, our daily lives and living. It is considered. posSible to find examples of and applications Psychology mostly has as its emphasis for psychological theories and concepts in our the individual as a unit of study. In some own contexts of living, for example in areas, however, human behaviour in social individual behaviour, between couples, in and group contexts is also examined — for groups, in sport, in the workplace and in the example, in the study of work behaviour, wider community. groups and work organisations. Industrial and organisational (1-0) Psychology, however, is also an applied psychology and its related subfields, such as science and profession which utilises organisational psychology and human-resource psychological knowledge and methods in management (HRM), are applied fields related many practice areas in order to understand, to psychology. Although 1-0 psychology (and influence and develop human behaviour. other subfields) has developed its own theories, In this regard too, psychology and concepts and practices, it also shares a common industrial or work psychology can provide history with psychology and makes use of many interesting career opportunities. psychological concepts and practices. An Psychology and all its subfields, understanding of this common history and theories and research provide explanations nature is a useful foundation for the exploration for the 'what', 'how' and 'why' of human of behaviours and processes involved in behaviour in many contexts. It explains, employee and organisational functioning. for example, what personality is, how The aim of this chapter is to introduce the personality and behaviour develop or form, sciences of psychology and 1-0 psychology and why people behave as they do and the their subdisciplines as fields of study and causes and reasons for behaviour. practice or applied areas which are utilised in the Psychology provides explanations for all workplace to acquire and develop employees domains of human behaviour, including, and to manage workplaces. for example, biological, cognitive, emotional, social, moral and work  Chapter 1 Introduction to — and appliedfields in —psychology and1-0 psychology 3 1.2 Subfields of psychology and schoolpsychology is primarily involved in studying factors, behaviour, processes and Some of the well-known subfields and applied learning problems, and learning, teaching, areas of psychology include clinical psychology, assessment and management methods at pre- counselling psychology, educational and school school, school and adult levels. It may also psychology and 1-0 psychology; in addition, include aspects of career or occupational neuro-psychology and forensic psychology development. represent the most prominent areas of Developmentalpsychology is concerned professional specialisation or practice. The main with age-related changes throughout a research areas in contemporary psychology are in person's lifespan. It involves motor, the fields of developmental, social, experimental, emotional, social, intellectual and moral physiological, cognitive and personality elements, all of which contribute to work psychology, as well as in psychometrics competencies and career development. (psychological measurement). Although these Socialpsychology involves studying human areas may be more theoretical in nature, many of social interaction by understanding the their aspects are utilised in the practice areas. influence of people's behaviour, beliefs and main subfields of psychology are as follows: feelings. Study topics include attitudes and Clinicalpsychology aims to study psychological values, pro-social behaviour (such as disorders and methods by using various types of interpersonal attraction and affliation), therapy to alleviate psychological and emotional antisocial behaviour (such as conflict and distress caused by psychological disorders. In aggression) and human communication. this sense, clinical psychology emphasises the These social processes form the basis for promotion of psychological well-being by interaction in work organisations and facilitating more adjusted and optimal behaviour groups. in people, such as, for example, independence, Cognitivepsychology revolves around the decision-making skills, effective coping skills, a theory and research relating to the so- healthy sense of self and the maintenance of called 'higher mental processes', such as successful interpersonal relationships. language, problem solving, reasoning, Counsellingpsychology is related to clinical creativity, decision making, memory and psychology in many ways, but is primarily information processing. involved in reducing psychological pain caused Personality psychology entails the study of by everyday problems in life. the more or less consistent patterns of Counselling psychologists try to facilitate an behaviour and individual differences in improved understanding of life by fostering people across time and situations. "Ihe the use of effective coping skills to enable one study of personality involves the study of to live more meaningfully and to adapt to and factors that influence personality solve problems in life by making good development and motivation, the structure decisions and choices in life and work. or organisation of personality, personality CareerPsychology involves studying and adjustment and personality assessment. facilitating occupational development Physiological/neurologicalpsychology, throughout one's professional life, with the also known as biopsychology, involves the emphasis on adult career development. It is often study of the relationship between human utilised in counselling psychology. Educational  4 INTRODUCTION TO WORK PSYCHOLOGY behaviour, feelings and thoughts on the one human strengths and resilience so people hand, and neurological and physiological function optimally in all walks of life. systems on the other. These neurological Forensic psychology involves studying the and physiological systems include elements causes of criminal behaviour in context. It such as genetic factors, the brain, the involves obtaining and giving evidence in nervous system, the endocrine system and legal procedures with regard to crime, as bodily hormones and chemicals. Research well as in law suits in divorce and child- in physiological psychology is usually custody cases. Forensic psychology also undertaken to determine the relationship involves determining loss of abilities, and between body and mind in human occupational functioning (as a result of behaviour in order to allow corrective neurological damage, for example). action in cases of neurological and Communitypsychology involves using, psychological trauma. Psychometrics developing and adapting psychological entails the development of psychological knowledge and practices to improve the measuring instruments, such as quality of life in human communities, psychological tests to measure ability and especially for deprived and disadvantaged personality, and the statistical analysis of individuals and groups. It also involves assessment results to determine the value of training community workers. Cross- psychological assessment and assessment cultural psychology focuses on diversity instruments. Psychological research and management, or the consideration of experimental psychology involve scientific differences in and among groups of people inquiry (i.e. asking questions and finding with regard to psychological phenomena. It answers) into many questions and problems emphasises the role of cultural factors and in psychology. Research findings can be socialisation in the shaping of human utilised in many psychological disciplines behaviour, and covers topics such as and applications because the basis for good prejudice, discrimination and racism. In this theory and application is that knowledge subfield the relevance and validity of must be objectively established and tested psychological theory for specific cultures or (verified). Experiments are used to groups are explored, and concepts and establish patterns of human behaviour in theories may be indigenised, or adapted to controlled situations. Health psychology specific cultures. utilises psychological knowledge to Consultingpsychology is one of the more identify the causes and symptoms of recent applied fields in psychology and physical health and illness, and related entails the professional involvement of dysfunctions. It also focuses on the psychologists with individuals, groups and prevention, treatment, maintenance and organisations. Consultation services cover promotion of health, including most aspects of work life, including, for occupational health. example, assessment, training and Positive psychology, sometimes considered development, employee and organisational part of health psychology, is concerned health and organisational change. with the enhancement of human Consulting psychology integrates and functioning. The emphasis is on positive builds on knowledge and applications from rather than negative aspects of human various psychological disciplines, such as behaviour and well-being. Positive 1-0 psychology, clinical psychology and psychology examines how to enhance social psychology. 1-0 psychology is a  Chapter 1 Introduction to — and appliedfields in —psychology and1-0 psychology 5 specialised applied field in psychology and theoretical approaches and methods (see Chapter can be described as the scientific study of 2) that can be used as paradigms, or thinking people in their workplaces. It includes the frameworks, to explain and influence human application of psychological knowledge behaviour. (principles, theory, research findings and However, there are still mixed views of where methods) to work environments (Coetzee & psychology belongs (Pawlik & Rosenzweig, Schreuder, 2010; Dunnette & Hough, 1990; 2000). Psychology is sometimes classified as Riggio, 2009) (see Section 1.3). belonging to the human sciences, natural sciences, biological or life sciences, medical "Ihere are also other subfields and applications, science, business and social sciences (economics, such as environmental, sports, military, sociology, anthropology and political science) or therapeutic and individual psychology. The latter educational sciences. With regard to the latter, in entails the study of personal and personality South Africa at the University of South Africa factors and how they influence human behaviour. (Unisa), educational psychology was for many Recently, coaching and mentoring emerged as a years recognised and managed as a separate possible separate applied field because it seems faculty, but quite recently integrated with the that these applied psychological skills add unique humanities. value to other efforts that involve influencing Psychology and its subfields are often people in general and in the workplace (Lane, also taught as a service module in other 2008). academic departments, such as natural and medical sciences, building, engineering and FIGURE 1.1 Psychologists influence and facilitate design, law, human resources and human behaviour marketing. A logical approach would be to view psychology as a separate, independent human science, to recognise that the domain of psychology overlaps with many other sciences and that psychology is a necessary support discipline in many areas. The following section relates to the subdiscipline of 1-0 psychology and its various subfields. With regard to the scientific status of psychology 1.3 Industrial and and all its subfields, there is increasing organisational recognition of the science of psychology. Like psychology any science, psychological disciplines also use scientific inquiry and methods of research to 1-0 psychology utilises much of the theory understand, describe and predict human and methodology of psychology and its behaviour in order to achieve some form of subfields to study and influence human control in working with human behaviour in its behaviour and related processes in various manifestations. It is important to note that workplaces (organisations) in order to part of psychology's scientific status and research achieve optimal work and business is the fact that psychology has sound and diverse performance (Dunnette & Hough, 1990).  6 INTRODUCTION TO WORK PSYCHOLOGY Specific examples are personality work life (including employee and psychology, psychological assessment, organisational health) and ergonomics. developmental psychology and This section briefly describes some counselling, used in personnel and career subfields and practice areas of 1-0 psychology (see Section 1.4). Aspects of psychology and mentions types of tasks and clinical, positive and individual psychology career opportunities. Most of these are used to enhance employee and subfields are applied in many types of organisational wellness and employee organisations, and the knowledge and skills motivation, and manage the development required for some of these roles would of leadership. Indeed, people qualified in appear in the competency profile of an various psychological subfields find experienced psychological or employment in work organisations or do organisational consultant. In South Africa, consulting in business and the community research in all the fields of 1-0 psychology at large as private practitioners. is published in the South African Journal The tasks and roles of industrial ofIndustrial Psychology, also available psychologists and HR specialists can be electronically atwww.sajip.co.za. Other varied and depend on the field in which journals, such as the South African they are qualified or specialised. In general, Journalfor Human Resource Management, their roles involve optimising the fit South African Journal ofLabour Relations, between employees and workplaces, and Industrial Relations Journal ofSouth Africa the study of organisational behaviour to and Southern African Business Review, benefit employees and the employing also publish research in the fields of 1-0 organisation (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2010; psychology. Dessler, 2009). The specific tasks and roles The main subfields of 1-0 psychology of industrial psychologists in various are often regarded as organisational practice areas will become clear in the psychology, personnel psychology, career following sections. psychology, consumer psychology, ergonomics and employment relations. However, many other areas have evolved 1.4 Subfields and practice or are used as support areas in the main areas of 1-0 psychology subdisciplines, such as psychological research and assessment, employee and 1-0 psychology has many subfields, and organisational well-being, HRM, psychologists qualified in these applied or leadership/management/entrepreneurial practice areas are employed in many types psychology and cross-cultural industrial of roles, including, for example, HR psychology. The following descriptions specialists and managers, organisational indicate the more typical tasks in the consultants, and lecturers and researchers various subfields; however, some overlaps in corporate business, government, private may occur. practice, schools, colleges and universities. Ihe professional activities of 1-0 psychologists may be in the fields of 1.4.1 Organisational psychology selection and placement, training and Organisational psychology is concerned with development, performance appraisal, work organisations as systems involving organisational development, quality of individual employees and work-group behaviour, as well as the structure and dynamics  Chapter 1 Introduction to — and appliedfields in —psychology and1-0 psychology 7 of organisations (Luthans, 2008). Study fields productivityenhancement interventions. within organisational psychology include Helping design and implement various types organisational theory and models, leadership and of programmes, such as the identification of decision making, organisational development management potential, training in job and design (re-engineering), organisational competencies, affirmative action, career culture, industrial or employment relations, management and counselling, performance cross-cultural aspects of 1-0 psychology and, evaluation and employee-health enhancement. more recently, matters relating to organisations' FIGURE 1.2 1-0 psychologists not only focus on external environments. Organisational the individual employee, but also the social psychology often includes the field of aspects of work and organisations managerial psychology. The basic aim of organisational psychological consulting is to facilitate employee satisfaction and productivity, organisational effciency and employee adjustment. In the continuously changing world of work, an important focus is planned organisational change and transformation in organisational structures, climate and culture. The aim of change through psychological consultation is improvement to enable organisations to adapt to and stay abreast of changes in labour and business markets, work processes, employees, technology and goods and services. In all these areas of practice an important instrument for organisational psychologists is the assessment of employee and 1.4.2 Personnel psychology organisational attributes and work-related Historically also referred to as industrial attitudes (for example, job satisfaction, job psychology and related to organisational engagement and work and organisational psychology, Personnel psychology has as its commitment). Work-related attitudes are used in main emphasis the scientific study and the assessment and change of organisational application of individual differences (i.e. climate and culture. personality and other personal differences 1-0 psychologists specialising in among employees and groups) in workplaces organisational psychology can be employed in (Coetzee Schreuder, 2010). Personnel corporate business, government, private psychologists use individual differences in practice and educational establishments in employees to predict the optimal fit between various types of jobs. The following are some the employee and the work organisation. 1-0 of their activities: psychologists specialising in personnel Assessing/researching employee or work- psychology are primarily involved in the related attitudes with regard to assessment and appraisal of employees, organisational climate, culture and trust, personnel selection and the placement and with a view to improving such attitudes. promotion of employees. Ihey are also e Involvement in organisational change and involved in training and development, transformation, such as in the restructuring of motivation, reward systems and organisations, and in humanresources assessment. Personnel  8 INTRODUCTION TO WORK PSYCHOLOGY psychologists may be involved in the Many personnel psychologists are construction and validation of personnel- involved in personnel or HRM as managers assessment procedures, performance-appraisal or consultants. 'Iheir jobs may include not procedures — used, for example, to evaluate only expert psychological tasks, but also all work performance on a regular basis — and the common managerial functions of other personnel management and planning, organising, leading, delegating, organisational procedures. controlling and developing in terms of an Qalified personnel psychologists, through organisation's personnel. They may also their in-depth psychological knowledge, and perform managerial tasks relating to as experts in methods, research and personnel administration, such as employee understanding human behaviour, have an financial or remuneration procedures, important function to inform HRM practices sickness and leave arrangements and (see Section 1.4.10) with regard to the nature disciplinary procedures. of individual differences and human behaviour, related methods and applications, 1.4.3 Career/vocational and the many factors that may influence psychology and counselling employee behaviours and personnel practices Career or vocational psychology and and decisions (Cartwright & Cooper, 2008). counselling are concerned with studying In-depth knowledge of individual differences issues related to the nature of work, career and their implications in the employment and development, the nature of employment retention of employees indicates an important and unemployment, career-related issues in difference between personnel psychology and organisations, as well as influencing factors HRM. Tie latter specifically concerns unrelated to work (Schreuder & Coetzee, employment management — that is, the 2006, 2009). This field is related to planning and management of policies, developmental and counselling processes and procedures with regard to the psychology. employment, retention, development and Specific areas of interest are career/job disciplining of employees. and organisation choices, career- In the literature and training courses development problems, factors influencing personnel psychology sometimes also individuals in their careers, the fit between includes aspects of career psychology and/or individual employees and organisational employment relations (labour relations). What expectations and the changing nature of is referred to as 'work psychology' in Europe work that may affect careers. and the US is also sometimes included in With regard to research, assessment and personnel psychology. Work psychology, or intervention, 1-0 psychologists in this field psychology applied to work, may entail may be involved in the following: helping aspects such as task and job analysis, individuals choose jobs, careers and performance management, work motivation, organisations through assessment and personnel decisions, work teams, leadership, feedback; career planning and ergonomics and job design, accident development; and helping employees avoidance and response, work stress, safety resolve career conflicts and to work and occupational-health issues, and through conflicts that evolve from automation in work processes (Arnold & individual development, life changes and Randall et al., 2010; Muchinsky, 2006). transitions, personal problems or  Chapter 1 Introduction to — and appliedfields in —psychology and1-0 psychology 9 organisational changes. In contemporary 1-0 psychologists who are competent in work life, career psychologists have an employment relations may also be involved in important task to assist people to adapt to employment issues such as selection, promotion, change, to be entrepreneurial and to self- remuneration, grievance, retrenchment, dismissal manage their careers in order to stay and disciplinary procedures in organisations. employable. 1.4.5 Ergonomics 1.4.4 Employment relations Ergonomics is also referred to as 'engineering Employment relations, also referred to as and human-factors psychology' and 'labour relations' or 'industrial relations', is 'humanmachine systems'. It is concerned with concerned with behavioural dynamics, the study of work design and how employees communication and conflict management and the technical, physical and social aspects among individuals and groups of employees, of workplaces fit together and interact employers and other parties (such as the (McCleod, 1995). Tie focus is on the design of government and labour unions). 1-0 equipment, workplaces and the work itself to psychologists involved and interested in this take account of human factors such as people's practice area resolve or restructure conflict and physique, intelligence, emotions and patterns assist in negotiations over employee demands of social interaction. Ergonomic principles are and rights according to expectations and also involved in other places of human legislation. These psychologists may have legal interaction, such as in the design of homes and knowledge, especially with regard to labour other buildings and in transport design legislation; however, they are not legal experts. involving vehicles, aeroplanes and ships. They are concerned with the underlying dynamics of employer-employee-labour union 1.4.6 Consumer psychology relationships; the reasons why labour unions Consumerpsychology, sometimes also referred exist and how they function; why employees to as 'economic' and 'market' psychology, is choose to join or not join unions; and behaviour concerned with studying psychological aspects during negotiations and labour actions, such as of consumer or buyer commitment and strikes and other forms of protest. behaviour. These aspects encompass the needs, FIGURE 1.3 Labour disputes often follow distorted values, interests and other personal attributes employment relations that facilitate decision making and motivation in buyers as they search for, purchase, use and evaluate goods and services (Cant, Brink & Brijball, 2006). Du Plessis (2005) indicates how various brain and psychological processes — such as intelligence, learning, memory, attention, liking behaviours and emotions — can be utilised in advertising or marketing strategies. 1-0 psychologists in this field may be involved in behaviour and market research to determine marketing strategies that will elicit certain consumer responses, particularly decisions to buy goods or to use services (Du Plessis, 2005; Hofmeyr & Rice, 2000).  10 INTRODUCTION TO WORK PSYCHOLOGY Applications in consumer psychology are professional psychologists at institutions of the study and facilitation of effective higher education (universities and colleges). clientservice behaviours in business enterprises, the creation of positive customer 1.4.8 Psychological assessment/ perceptions and the facilitation of ongoing psychometrics support from clients. Consider, for example, the Like research methodology, psychometrics is fierce competition between car dealers to offer not a subfield of 1-0 psychology. However, excellent sales and after-sales service to attract psychological assessment is an application and keep their customers. In this regard, area or area of practice. It can be viewed as a customer-service experts may be involved in support discipline for many applied areas in making organisations aware of their own 1-0 psychology, especially organisational internal client relationships or customer and and personnel psychology, career counselling service relationships (for example, how and psychological research. Psychological interdependent departments in an organisation assessment involves psychometrics, which use and consume their specific goods and entails the development and utilisation of services). various types of assessment instruments to measure attributes and behaviours of 1.4.7 Research methodology employees in various applications, such as in Research involves scientific inquiry — that the selection, counselling and training of is, finding, exploring or verifying employees (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2009; psychological knowledge using various Moerdyk, 2009; Muchinsky, 2006). An methods of obtaining and processing important aspect of psychometrics research is information to reach certain findings (see determining whether techniques measure Chapter 12). This research may be of a basic what they are supposed to measure (i.e. their nature (e.g. developing or testing theory) or validity) and the reliability of measures, that applied (e.g. how existing knowledge can be is, whether measurement findings are used) with regard to work-related human consistent across users, similar techniques behaviour and processes in the various and situations. The establishment of ethical subfields of 1-0 psychology. Although codes for psychologists and other best- research psychologists may be specifically practice guidelines also falls within the scope qualified in the field of research, of psychometrics research. psychologists specialising in any of the other fields may be involved in employee and 1.4.9 Employee and organisational research. lhis is because organisational well-being research should be utilised as a support Employee and organisational well-being is activity to verify the knowledge and methods not often cited as a main field of 1-0 used in the work situation (Coetzee & psychology. However, it is often included Schreuder, 2010; Muchinsky, 2006). in topics or themes such as wokk stress and Research methodology is often included as a conflict, positive and disruptive employee major training area in professional and and organisational behaviour, work academic psychology courses. In South dysfunctions, employee counselling or in Africa, research contributions are now the use of employee assistance considered to be one of the major work programmes (EAPs) and health and safety performance requirements for academic and practices in work settings. EAPs are  Chapter 1 Introduction to — and appliedfields in —psychology and1-0 psychology 11 integrated health initiatives or programmes dysfunctions. Rlhe focus is on employee and offering various types of activities to organisational factors and behaviour that may promote employee and organisational facilitate or hinder effective work performance, health with regard to various needs. medical and psychological illness that may "Ihe author's contention is that impair work behaviour, specific types of employee and organisational health should employee and organisational dysfunctions, and be a major study and applied field; it is a methods of evaluating, managing and still a neglected field that has only recently promoting occupational health, including the been re-emphasised and redefined (Dejoy treatment of impaired work behaviours. & Wilson, 1995; Lowman, 1993). Some may also consider this area to be a part of 1.4.10 Human-resource career or organisational psychology. management However, the competencies of experts People qualified in HRM in workplaces are involved in this field suggest that it should involved in employment management, which be recognised as a separate professional entails the daily running and management of practice area, which is the case in South personnel, or human resources. This includes Africa and recognised as such by the acquiring, training, appraising, motivating, Health Professions Council of South Africa rewarding and disciplining employees and (HPCSA). providing a safe, ethical and fair work Many other disciplines, such as health environment for them (Coetzee & Schreuder, psychology, abnormal psychology, clinical 2010; Dessler, 2009). HRM, however, also psychology and consulting psychology contributes to the strategic development of a influence the theory and practice of employee competitive workforce in order to optimise and organisational well-being. Recently, the business results by utilising a variety of concept ofwellness, or well-being, for personnel management techniques. 'The employees and organisations has been function of HRM in business is the planning, emphasised from a positive-psychological designing and implementing of systems, approach. Wellness or health is seen as the procedures and practices to improve the presence of well-being and optimal effectiveness of workforces and the organisation performance. A positive health paradigm does at large. The HRM practitioner should have not concentrate on illness and negative aspects adequate knowledge of equal opportunities, only. The aim is to facilitate positive ethics, affrmative action, employee health and psychological capital or resources in safety, and experience of dealing with organisations and employees, and keep them grievances and labour relations. healthy and resilient in order to function HRM is not industrial psychology or optimally. Well-being in employees and personnel psychology, and HR professionals are organisations is encouraged and facilitated by given a different occupational profile by the developing and emphasising behaviours such as South African Organising Framework for positive emotions, hope, optimism, self-effcacy, Occupations (OFO code 2231) (Coetzee & personal hardiness and a sense of coherence (see Schreuder, 2010). Tie task specialities of HR Chapter 11). professionals are the planning, development, However, employee and organisational well- implementation and evaluation of recruited staff being is also concerned with maladjustment and and assisting in labour conflict resolution; and impaired work performance, or work they often represent various parties in  12 INTRODUCTION TO WORK PSYCHOLOGY Diversity management entails considering and cultures and how such attributes managing the many factors that can influence influence employees and employee human behaviour and, therefore, workplaces, relationships (Muchinsky, 2006). or contribute to the structure and composition Cultural factors can have a decisive of organisations. *Ihis is especially true in influence in the workplace, as they may diverse workforces — such as in South Africa give direction to certain work behaviours — and for 'alien workers' (employees from and demands, as well as phenomena such other countries). In addition to the many as prejudice, racism and discrimination. In personal differences among employees and workforces, differences between groups, their cultural values, habits, norms and employees can be intensified both by the preferences also create differences. In this values that different cultures uphold with regard, cross-cultural and multi-cultural regard to work and by the impact of industrial psychology constitute a rather new changes in the work scene, which may emphasis within 1-0 psychology. This area influence employees in different ways. studies how psychological concepts and For example, changing sociopolitical findings can be generalised to people in dispensations and labour laws affect different cultures, the work-related similarities different employees in different ways, as and differences among different workplaces in do mergers, acquisitions, personnel negotiations on issues such as pay and reductions and new technology in the working conditions. HR professionals are also workplace. involved in personnel issues, such as the Since then, many special-interest groups training and induction of new employees; (e.g. feminist psychologists) and cross- performance management; maintaining cultural researchers have created an personnel records on various issues; needs awareness of diversity by emphasising analysis, such as, for example, skills and gender stereotypes, sexual orientation and training; advising management on various related issues, as well as issues related to personnel-related issues, such as policies and race and ethnicity, minority groups and procedures; and understanding and cultural differences (Morris & Maisto, implementing labour laws. 2010). Scientific and practice contributions can Now that an understanding of the many be read in the South African Journal of subfields and practice areas of 1-0 Human Resource Management, see psychology is established, the next section www.sajhrm.co.za. Contributions may also explores the nature and identity of 1-0 appear in other scientific journals. psychology. The Ethical reader: Diversity management relates to the management of differences in and between people and cross- cultural industrial psychology, which are 1.5 The nature and important in contemporary industrial psychology and peoplemanagement identity of 1-0 practices. A consideration of human diversity was necessitated by the psychology It seerns that the term 'industrial overemphasis on white males in theory and psychology' — before the formation of 1-0 research during the early years of psychology as a discipline — was first used psychology.  Chapter 1 Introduction to — and appliedfields in —psychology and1-0 psychology 13 in 1904 by William Lowe Bryan when he the alternative titles 'industrial' or 'occupational' delivered an American Psychological psychologist. The OFO code 2723 defines the Association (APA) presidential address. tasks of the organisational psychologist as the However, it is possible that this was a study of occupational or work behaviour, typing error, and Bryan was referring to organisational structure and working individual psychology (McCarthy, 2002). conditions, and solving problems of work Industrial psychology, which has recently performance and organisational design by become referred to as industrial and applying psychological knowledge and organisational psychology, involves the techniques (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2010). More scientific study of human behaviour in the specifically, the role involves investigating, work context by applying psychological assessing and providing 'treatment' and knowledge and methods (Riggio, 2009; counselling to foster optimal personal, social, Schultz & Schultz, 2010). The term educational and occupational adjustment and 'organisational psychology' was added to development. 'industrial psychology' only in the 1970s Some are of the opinion that the term (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2010; Muchinsky, 'industrial psychology' should be eliminated Kriek & Schreuder, 2005), and the term '1- from indicating and defining this field of study 0 psychology' is still not generally agreed because in contemporary psychology, the study upon (Muchinsky, 2006). In South Africa ofwork and organisational behaviour and the and the US the field is referred to either as roles of psychologists employed in the work industrial psychology only or as industrial context have moved beyond the so-called and organisational psychology. However, industrial era of the last century. Terms such as both terms imply the same thing. In the UK 'work and business psychology' are mentioned. the name 'occupational psychology' is And recent terms, such as 'human and social used, and in mainland Europe the field is capital', 'talent management', 'psychological referred to variously as 'industrial capital' and 'positive psychological capital' psychology', 'work psychology' and (Luthans, Luthans & Lu