Introduction to Rad Tech History of Medicine PDF

Introduction to Radiologic Technology with Health Care History of Medicine Dr. Chona D. Cabatay Learning Objectives: 1. List the main contribution in medicine from the ancient Egypt, India, China and Greece. 2. Describe the medical practice of the anc...

Introduction to Radiologic Technology with Health Care History of Medicine Dr. Chona D. Cabatay Learning Objectives: 1. List the main contribution in medicine from the ancient Egypt, India, China and Greece. 2. Describe the medical practice of the ancient Hebrews 3. Outline the teachings of Hippocrates 4. Describe the impact of Christianity in Medicine 5. List events during the Renaissance that were significant in the progress of medicine 6. List the significant developments in medicine during the 20th century. Prehistoric and Primitive Medicine History of medicine abounds with tales of cooperation and confrontation with nature. Disease were present on earth long before human life. Fractures were the most common injuries. Egyptian mummies show characteristics of arteriosclerosis, pneumonia, urinary infection, stones, parasites, cavities, teeth erosions, abscesses, pyorrhea, and tubercular disease of the spine. Prehistoric people probably treated their wounds similarly to the way the animals treat themselves- by immersing themselves in cool water and applying mud to irritated areas, sucking stings, licking wounds, and exerting pressure on wounds to stop the bleeding.  From primitive medicine well into the 19th century, medical treatment was intertwined with religion and magic. Some cultures treated their sick and disabled with kindness. Other cultures, during times of famine, sent the elders out into unsheltered environment and killed and ate disabled tribe members. Disease was thought to be caused by gods and spirits, and magic was used to drive away evil forces. Tribal healers held high political and social positions and were responsible for performing religious ceremonies and protecting the tribe from bad weather, poor harvest, and catastrophe. Along with sucking, cupping, bleeding, fumigating, and steam baths, medicinal herbs were used to treat wounds. Surgery was used to treat bone fractures and to sew up wounds.  Mesopotamians studied hepatoscopy, detailed examinations of the liver. They believed the liver was the seat of life and collecting point of blood. Even though gods and magic still played an important role in medicine, rational thought concerning nature’s relationship to health began to increase. The ancient Hebrews still consider disease to be divine punishment and a mark of sin. Plagues and epidemics such as leprosy were often mentioned in the Bible, as were medications including balsams, gums, spices, oils, and narcotics. Surgery was performed only during ritual circumstances. Hebrew medicine was influenced by the Greeks around 4th century B.C., with an emphasis placed in anatomy and physiology, diet, massage, and drugs. Disease was considered an imbalance of four humors of the body: phlegm, blood, yellow bile, and black bile. Ancient Egypt The deities of ancient Egypt were all associated with health, illness, and death. Isis was the healing goddess; Hathor was the mistress of heaven and the protector of women during childbirth; and Keket ensured fertility. The elaborate embalming practices of the Egyptians have provided much of our knowledge of ancient medicine. The most elaborate embalming required that the liver, lungs, stomach, and intestines be preserved in stone jars where they could function for eternity. Cranial contents were removed with hooks through the nostrils The skull and abdominal cavities were washed with spices, soaked for 70 days in a solution of clay and salts of carbonate, sulfate, and chloride, and then washed. The corps was then coated with gums and wrapped in fine linen.  Ancient Egyptians linked anatomy and physiology with theology – each body part has a special diety as its protector. They believed that the body was composed of a system of channels, with the heart at the center. They thought air came in through the ears and nose, entered the channels, went to the heart, and was then delivered to the rest of the body. They believed the channels also carried blood, feces, urine, tears and sperm. Even though the main water source, the Nile river, was probably clean in ancient Egypt, public health was also a concern. Egyptian homes were immaculate, and personal hygiene was practiced regularly. Diseases included intestinal ailments, malaria, trachoma, night blindness, cataracts, arteriosclerosis, and epidemic diseases. Ancient India The ancient Indians believed that life was eternal cycle of creation, preservation, and destruction. Their religion and mysticism allowed secular medicine and sound, rational health care practices, which is remarkable in light of their emphasis on the spiritual rather than the material. They detected diabetes by the sweetness of the patient’s urine and treated snake bites by applying torniquets. Surgery was a common procedure on the nose, ear lobes, harelips, and hernias and to remove bladders tones and perform amputations. The Indians also performed cesarean sections. Ancient China In ancient China harmony was considered to be a delicate balance between yin and yang, and tao was considered “the way”. Illness was a result of disregard to tao, or acting contrary to natural laws. Chinese medicine focused on prevention of disease. Because Confucius forbade any violation of the body, dissections were not performed in China until the 18th century. According to Nei Ching there were 5 methods of treatment: cure the spirit, nourish the body, give medications, treat the whole body, and use acupuncture and moxibustion. By the 11th century the Chinse found an inoculation against smallpox Ancient Greek In the 6th century B.C., the Greeks built the healing temples of Asclepios in Thessaly. The temples contained a statue of a god to whom gifts were often given as a sign of worship. There was usually a round building, the thalos, which encircled a poor or sacred spring of water for purification. The abaton was a building considered an incubation site where the cure take place. The patient went to sleep there until visited and cured by the god. Very early, the ancient Greeks began applying scientific thought to medical history, Pre-Hippocratic medicine Thales (625-547 B.C.) professed that the basic element in all animal and plant life was water, from which came the earth and air. Anaximander (610-547 B.C.) believed that all living creatures originated in water. Anaximenes, born in 546 B.C. believed that air was the element necessary for life. Heraclitus (540-480 B.C.) believed that fire was the principal element of life. By the 6th century B.C., earth, air, fire, and water were accepted as the basic components of life on earth. Hippocrates During the sixth, fifth, and fourth centuries B.C., the Greeks advanced medicine with their understanding of the place of humanity within the cosmos. Pythagoras, Empedocles, and Democritus approached harmony with the universe in an objective, scientific manner. Mathematics, anatomic theory, and the basic elements of nature were used to describe health and diseases. During this period Hippocrates established himself as “the father of medicine” Hos approach revolutionized medicine from the ancient past and began turning it into an objective science.  Hippocrates believed that people practicing medicine should be pure and holy. He taught to: 1. Observe all 2. study the patient rather than the disease 3. evaluate honestly 4. assist the nature Christianity The dawn of Christianity changed many attitudes about medicine. Christians sought to bring the “healing message of Christ” to those in need. The church dominated medicine during the Dark Ages, and practices involved prayer, exorcism, holy oil, relics of saints, supernaturalism, and superstition. During Jesus’ personal ministry and that of his immediate followers, “healing” was not differentiated into physical, mental, or spiritual categories. Renaissance The Renaissance brought new beginnings in medicine. Paracelsus, the “father of pharmacology”, combined alchemy with the treatment of disease to produce new science. John Fernel professed that physiology, pathology, and therapeutics were the standard disciplines of medicine. Ambroise Pare was a forerunner in clinical surgery. An explosion of knowledge of human anatomy was led by Andreas Versallus. His dissections and drawings propted his designation as “father of anatomy”.  Jan Baptisa van Helmont made the first measurement of the relative weight of urine by comparing its weight by that of water. Galileo presented the law of motion in a mathematical manner that could be applied to life on earth Isaac Newton discovered gravity William Harvey found that there is a continuous circulation of blood in a contained body system. Christian Huygens developed the centigrade system Gabriel Daniel Farenheight developed the system named after him as method of measuring temperature. Marcelo Malpighi and Anton van Leeuwenhoek were forerunners in the invention of the microscope; and quinine was discovered as a treatment for malaria. Leonardo da Vincci explored human anatomy via dissection. His anatomical sketches disseminated his findings. 18th Century Significant discoveries continued into the 18th century Albert von Haller did in-depth studies of the nervous system, discovered the relationship of the brain cortex to peripheral nerves, and became the founder of modern physiological theory. Lazzaro Spallanzi discarded the theory of spontaneous generation and became a pioneer in experimental fertilization. Stephen Hales demonstrated the dynamics of blood circulation, stressed the importance of the capillary system, and became the first person to record blood pressure with a manometer. Giovanni Batista Morgagni the “father of pathology”, correlated anatomy with pathology. Edward Jenner formulated the smallpox vaccination, considered one of the greatest discoveries in medical history.  William Hunter specializing in obstetrics John Hunter developed a method of closing off aneurysms, thus eliminating many unnecessary amputations. Philip Pinel gave dramatic changes in the care and treatment of mentally ill patients. 19th Century Autopsies were the major focus during the 19th century. Carl Rokitansky was the most outstanding morphological pathologist of his time. Rudolf Virchow professed that “all cells come from other cells” and revolutionized the understanding of cells. Claude Bernard was the founder of experimental physiology and discovered the principles of homeostasis, clarified the multiple functions of the liver, studied the digestive activities of the pancreas, and the first to link pancreas with diabetes. Ephraim McDowell performed the first successful abdominal operation to remove a huge cyst from an ovary. J. Marion Sims laid the foundation for gynecology, also invented Sim’s position and later the speculum and the catheter. Joseph Lister discovered that bacteria were often the origin of disease and infection  Louis Pasteur discovered that the decay of food could be forestalled by heating the food and destroying harmful bacteria. Robert Koch performed extensive research into microorganisms and founded bacteriology. Benjamin Rush the first American psychiatrist. Gregor Mendel founded the modern genetics with his experiments in heredity of plants. Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen discovered and described x-rays. Pierre and Marie Curie discovered radium 3 years later and provided the foundation for the use of radioactivity in the treatment of diseases. 20th Century Paul Ehlich became the father of chemotherapy. Abel Rowntree, and Turner invented the first artificial kidney, which led to kidney dialysis. Willem Einthoven made the first electroencephalogram. Christiaan Barnard performed the first successful heart transplant Microminiaturization invented for space travel soon found its way into medicine. Coupled with evolving computer technology, the final four decades of the century have vastly extended our abilities to diagnose and treat an entire array of medical conditions. Such electronics are used to monitor heart and brain activity with extreme accuracy.  Major organ transplants, involving the heart, liver, lungs and kidneys are performed today. Coronary bypass is commonplace. Anthroscopic surgery works in the joint spaces of the body without major incisions. Lithotripsy allows painless passing of stones from the urinary system by first blasting them with sonic waves. Lasers are used routinely in countless procedures as clean, painless way of removing growths. Artificial hips and knees are inserted for those degenerating due to age or arthritis or destroyed from injury. Plastic surgery allows reconstruction of the most areas of the body disfigured due to disease or injury.