Introduction To Psychology Reviewer PDF

WEEK 1: SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY 4. Social Psychology Psychology A. How the behavior of a person or a Scientific study of behavior and mental group influences the behavior of another processes...

WEEK 1: SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY 4. Social Psychology Psychology A. How the behavior of a person or a Scientific study of behavior and mental group influences the behavior of another processes person or group. Goal: B. How people learn attitude and - Describe emotions, skills, actions, new perceptions, - Explain new ways of speaking and of living with - Predict others. - Control C. These behaviors are learned through interaction, communication and Psychology and Theory interpersonal relationships. Allows one to: D. How social contexts shape thinking and - Propose reasons for relationships among behavior. events - Derive explanations 5. Industrial/Organizational - Make predictions Psychology Psychological theories combine A. Behavior of workers at working places; statements about behavior, mental industries, companies, institutions or at processes, and biological processes. any working situation. B. Various aspects of behavior in relation to work interest, efficiency, satisfaction, Fields of Psychology diligence and commitment leading to 1. Clinical Psychology maximum production and profit. A. It deals with behavior problems, C. causes of low production as related to emotional disorders and behavior that human behavior. indicate that the person is abnormal. D. Workers’ level of motivation, morale, B. Employs Psychotherapy working schedules, working routines as - a procedure of treating abnormal related to their attitudes and values. behavior using interview techniques. 6. Counseling Psychology A. It deals with helping people to make 2. Developmental Psychology decisions about life; work, education or A. How human beings grow and change marriage. This is applied in institutions, from conception to death. schools or in society. B. Domains of development; physical and B. Clinical and counseling psychology are motor, intellectual, personal, emotional, interrelated. They tackled almost the same moral and social. problems and use the same methods but C. Sequences and rate of maturation, size differ in degree of severity. and ability in relation to age. 7. Experimental Psychology 3. Personality Psychology A. Studies basic causes of behavior, A. Studies human differences, factors that biological and social, that cut across make the differences and development. different species. B. Understanding of personality is based B. Formulate theories that can be applied on many perspectives; psychoanalytic, in other situations. social learning, behavioral, humanistic, cognitive.  8. Physiological Psychology Psychophysics A. It studies the biological basis of Gustav Theodor Fechner behavior, the function of the body and - Published Elements of Psychophysics behavior. (1860). B. Example the causes of anger, brain and - One of his most notable theories was the memory, secretion of hormones and Weber-Fechner law, which focuses on emotional arousal, genes and behavior just-noticeable differences. patterns. Functionalism 9. Educational Psychology - School of psychology that emphasizes A. Is an applied branch of psychology the uses of functions of the mind rather because it applies knowledge of general than the elements of experience. psychology in teaching and learning. - Founded by William James B. Understanding the scope of other - Focused on behavior in addition to the branches of psychology is important for mind or consciousness. the teacher. - Used direct observations to supplement introspection. Ancient Contributors to Psychology 1. Aristotle Behaviorism 2. Socrates - Defines psychology as the study of 3. Democritus observable behavior and studies relationships between stimuli and Aristotle responses. - More than 2,000 years ago, Aristotle - Founded by John Broadus Watson wrote a book on psychology with contents (JB Watson) similar to the one being used today. - Focus is on learning observable - He argued that science could rationally behaviors. treat only information gathered by senses. Observable behaviors - behaviors observable by specialized instruments. Socrates “Little Albert Experiment” - Socrates suggested a research method that is still psychology used B.F. Skinner - believed that learned - "Know thyself" behavior is behavior that is reinforced. - Operant Conditioning Psychology as Laboratory Science - Stimulus that follows a response and Structuralism increases the frequency of the response. - School of psychology that argues that the mind consists of elements of Operant Conditioning sensations, feelings, and images that Specific consequences are associated combine to form experience. with voluntary behavior. - Founded by Wilhelm Wundt - Rewards introduced to increase a Belief - Mind functions by combining behavior objective and subjective elements of - Punishment introduced to experience. decrease a behavior Gestalt Psychology - Max Wertheimer (1880-1943) - Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967)  - Kurt Koffka (1886-1941) - Humanists believe that self-awareness, - Focuses on perception and its influence experience, and choice permit us, to a on thinking and problem solving large extent, to “invent ourselves” - Emphasizes the tendency to organize perceptions into wholes and to integrate Existentialism (Carl Rogers) - Stresses separate stimuli into meaningful patterns. on free choice and holds people - Learning is active and purposeful. responsible for the choices made. - Accomplished by insight and not mechanical repetition Psychodynamic Perspective - Neoanalysts - Contemporary Gestalt psychologists showed that we tend psychologists who follow theories derived to perceive separate pieces of information from Freud as integrated wholes depending on the - Famous psychologists include Karen contexts in which they occur. Horney and Erik Erikson - Focus more on conscious choice and Psychoanalysis self-direction than unconscious processes. - Emphasizes the importance of unconscious motives that originate in Sociocultural Perspective childhood, and conflicts as determinants - Focuses on the influence of ethnicity, of human behavior. gender, culture, and socioeconomic status - Founded by Sigmund Freud on behavior and mental processes. Theory of personality - Ethnicity Members of an ethnic group - Proposes that people’s lives are share cultural heritage, race, language, or influenced by unconscious ideas. history. - Gender - culturally defined concepts of Influential Perspectives in Psychology masculinity and femininity Biological Perspective (Charles Darwin) - Involves cultural expectations and social - Seeks relationship between: roles. Brain, hormones, heredity, and evolution Steps involved in the Scientific Method - Most adaptive organisms manage Psychological theory, Daily to mature and reproduce. experiences, Commonly held beliefs → Research questions and Hypotheses → Cognitive Perspective Examining the research questions and - Look at mental processes to understand Hypothesis testing → Evidence human nature. (observations) → Drawing conclusions - Studies those things that are referred to → Theory construction or modification as the mind. → New research questions or - Examines the nature of the mind and hypotheses how mental processes influence behavior. - Formulate a research question Humanistic-Existential Perspective - State the hypothesis (Abraham Maslow) - Test the hypothesis - Humanism - Stresses on human - Draw conclusions based on findings capacity for self-fulfillment, roles of - Apply critical thinking consciousness, self-awareness, and - Do not confuse correlation with cause decision making. and effect. - Consider the selection factor in - Suggests, but does not prove, cause correlations. and effect Scientific method - organized way of Experimental Method using experience and testing ideas to Demonstrates cause and effect through expand and refine knowledge. scientific method with the help of: - Independent and dependent Hypothesis - specific statement about variables behavior or mental processes that is - Experimental and control groups tested through research. Blind study Placebos - are administered on the Correlation - association or relationship participants among variables. Double-blind study - participants and observers are unaware of who is taking a Selection factor - source of bias that may drug and who is taking a placebo. occur in research findings when participants are allowed to choose for Ethics of Research with Humans themselves a certain treatment in a - Ethics review committee and ethical scientific study. standards: - Review proposed studies Samples and Populations according to ethical guidelines Sample - segment of population before granting approval. Population - complete group of interest - Weigh the potential benefits of research against the potential Random and Stratified sample harm. Random sample - each member of a - Individuals need to provide informed population has an equal chance of consent before participation. selection. - Records of research participants and Sample - subgroups are represented clients are kept confidential. proportionally. Ethics of Research with Animals Methods of Observation - Animals are used when research cannot Case studies be carried out with humans. - Clinical studies Animals may be harmed only when: - Sometimes used investigate - There is no alternative rarities - Benefits of the research justify the harm. Surveys - used to collect information that cannot be observed directly or studied WEEK 2: BIOLOGY AND experimentally. PSYCHOLOGY Naturalistic observation - observe Neurons subjects in their environment natural - Specialized cells of the nervous system - Unobtrusive measure that receive and pass messages. Correlation - Vary according to function and location. - Follows observation Glial cells - Correlation coefficient - Remove dead neurons and waste - Expresses strength and direction of the products relationship between variables - Nourish and insulate neurons - Form myelin and play a role in the neural transmission of messages Neurotransmitters - Increase with the development of the - Chemical substances involved in nervous system the transmission of neural impulses from one neuron to The Anatomy of a Neuron another - Neural impulse - Present in the synaptic vesicles of - Axon axon terminals - Axon terminals - Have unique chemical structures - Dendrites and fit into specific receptor sites - Nucleus - Loose neurotransmitters are either - Cell body (soma) broken down or reabsorbed by the - Myelin sheath axon terminal (reuptake) Parts of a Neuron Types of Neurotransmitters 1. Dendrites - receive incoming - Acetylcholine messages from other neurons. - Dopamine 2. Axon - Transmits impulses to other - Norepinephrine neurons from bulb-shaped structures - Serotonin called axon terminals or terminal or - Gamma aminobutyric acid terminal buttons - Endorphins 3. Myelin - Fat that insulates the axon from electrically charged atoms or ions. Effects of Neurotransmitters - Minimizes leakage of the electrical ACETYLCHOLINE (ACH): current which allows messages to Controls muscle contractions be conducted more efficiently. - Prevalent in the hippocampus (part of brain involved in the Types of Neurons formation of memories) Afferent Neurons (Sensation) - Decrease of ACh in the brain - Transmit messages from sensory impairs learning and memory receptors to the spinal cord and brain. formation - Known as sensory neurons. Efferent Neurons (Reaction) DOPAMINE - Transmit messages from the brain or - Affects the ability to perceive pleasure, spinal cord to muscles and glands. voluntary movement, and learning and - Known as motor neurons. memory Nicotine & other drugs Firing - Heighten dopamine levels. Synapse - a neuron relays its - Deficiencies are linked to Parkinson’s message to another neuron across disease a junction called a synapse. This consists of: NOREPINEPHRINE 1. Axon terminal from the - Excitatory neurotransmitter that transmitting neuron, dendrite, or increases heart rate. the body of a receiving neuron. - Involved in general arousal, learning and 2. Fluid-filled gap (synaptic cleft) memory, and between the axon and the eating dendrite. - Excesses and deficiencies are linked to Central Nervous System mood disorders (e.g., BRAIN depression) and impairment in memory - True core of the nervous formation. system. - “Command center” of the nervous SEROTONIN system. - Involved in mood, ,emotional arousal, - Makes decisions and sends commands and sleep to the rest of the body. - Deficiencies are linked to eating disorders, alcoholism, depression, SPINAL CORD aggression, and insomnia. - Transmits messages from sensory receptors to the brain and from the brain ENDORPHINS to muscles and glands. - Inhibit pain and increase sense of competence. SPINAL REFLEX - Enhance the functioning of the - Simple, unlearned response to a immune system. stimulus Involves only a sensory neuron and a motor neuron in most instances. GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC - Neural impulse is transmitted by ACID (GABA) interneurons from the sensory neuron - Inhibitory neurotransmitter that through the spinal cord to the motor may help calm anxiety reactions. neuron in some reflexes. Branches of Peripheral Nervous Spinal cord and brain contain gray System matter and white matter Gray matter - consists of non-myelinated SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM neurons; for processing - Messages received from the brain White matter - consists of myelinated and spinal cord control purposeful axons, carry messages to and from the body movements. brain; allows COMMUNICATION between gray matter areas. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM - Regulates the glands and muscles of ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPH internal organs. (EEG) - Sympathetic and parasympathetic - Helps record the natural electrical activity divisions have largely opposing of the brain effects. - Detects brain waves that pass between the electrodes SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM - Most active during emotional responses, Structures and Functions of the Brain such as fear and anxiety, that spend the HINDBRAIN body’s reserves of energy. MEDULLA - basic functions; regulation of heartbeat, blood pressure, movement, and PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION respiration. - Most active during processes, such as digestion, that restore the body’s reserves PONS - latin word for “bridge” transmits of energy. information about body movement and is involved in respiration, attention, and - Connects the two hemispheres of sleep and arousal. the cerebrum created by fissures CEREBELLUM - muscle coordination and CEREBRAL CORTEX balance. - Outer layer of the cerebrum - Involved in bodily activities, sensations, RETICULAR FORMATION - involved in and perceptions. attention, sleep, and arousal, sends messages to the cerebral cortex when Hemispheres - Left and right lobes stimulated, and makes one alert to - Occipital lobe deals with vision sensory information. - Temporal lobe deals with hearing and auditory functions FOREBRAIN - Parietal lobe contains the Limbic system somatosensory cortex - Frontal lobe contains the motor cortex THALAMUS - relay station for sensory stimulation Language Functions HYPOTHALAMUS - regulates body - Brain hemispheres mirror and differ in temperature, concentration of fluid, function storage of nutrients, motivation, and - Left hemisphere contains language emotion. functions for nearly all right-handed - Involved in hunger, thirst, sexual people behavior, caring for offspring, and - If damaged before the age of 13, speech aggression functions can transfer to the right hemisphere AMYGDALA - connected with aggression, fear, vigilance, emotions, learning, and Key language areas memory. - Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area - Damage in either causes aphasia MIDBRAIN - Is the topmost part of the brainstem, the Broca’s and Wernicke’s Area of the connection central between the brain and Cerebral Cortex the spinal cord (Queensland Brain WERNICKE’S AREA Institute, n.d.) - Lies in the temporal lobe - Important functions in motor movement, - Wernicke’s aphasia: Impairs the ability particularly movements of the eye, and in to comprehend speech and to think of auditory and visual processing (Britannica, words to express one's thoughts. T. Editors of Encyclopaedia, 2020) BROCA’S AREA CEREBRUM - Located in the frontal lobe - Responsible for thinking and language - Influences speech - Broca’s aphasia: One is able to Cerebral cortex understand language but speaks slowly - Surface of the cerebrum and laboriously. - Wrinkled or convoluted with ridges and valleys (fissures) Endocrine System - Connected with cognitive abilities - Comprises ductless glands that release hormones into the bloodstream. Corpus callosum  Hormones - Enables development of male sex - Regulate growth, metabolism, and some characteristics behaviors - Maintain steady bodily states Estrogen and Progesterone - Negative feedback loop: gland is - Produced by the ovaries along with small signaled to stop when the right amount of amounts of testosterone a hormone has been secreted. - Estrogen fosters reproductive capacity, and female secondary PITUITARY GLAND characteristics. While Progesterone - Lies below the hypothalamus stimulates growth of female - The “master gland” reproductive organs. - Secretes hormones that regulate the functioning of other glands Steroids, Behavior, and Mental - Growth hormone, prolactin, vasopressin, Processes and oxytocin STEROIDS - Hypothalamus regulates pituitary activity - Increase muscle mass - Heighten resistance to stress PINEAL GLAND - Increase the body’s energy supply Secretes melatonin that: - Regulates sleep-wake cycle Anabolic steroids - May affect the onset of puberty - Enhance athletic prowess - Connected with aging - Outlawed in sports - Acts as a mild sedative - Connected with self-confidence and aggressiveness THYROID GLAND - Produces thyroxine that affects the Evolutionary Psychology body’s metabolism. - Studies the ways in which adaptation - Variation in levels can lead to: and natural selection are connected with Hypothyroidism, mental processes and behavior. Hyperthyroidism, - Behavior patterns evolve and can be Cretinism transmitted genetically from generation to generation. ADRENAL GLANDS - Behavior patterns are called instinctive or - Located above the kidneys species-specific behaviors. - Comprise an outer layer (cortex) and an inner core (medulla) INSTINCT - Secrete cortical steroids (corticosteroids) - Stereotyped patterns of behavior that are - Secreted by the adrenal cortex triggered in a specific situation - Adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine - Species-specific and norepinephrine to cope with - Resists modification or results in threatening situations punishment TESTES AND OVARIES Heredity, Genetics, and Behavioral Testosterone Genetics - Produced by the testes (produced in HEREDITY small amounts by the adrenal - Biological transmission of traits from gland) parent to offspring through genes. GENETICS Perception - Subfield of biology that studies heredity - Active process by which sensations are - Behavioral genetics:Focuses on the organized and interpreted. contributions of genes to behavior. - To form an inner representation of the world. Genes and Chromosomes GENE Psychophysics (Gustav Theodor - Basic unit of heredity Fechner) - Regulates the development of specific - This is the study of the relationship traits between the physical aspects of stimuli and or psychological experience of them. CHROMOSOMES - Made up of strings of genes Six Major Human Senses: - Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 - Vision pairs) - Hearing - Formed by DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) - Balance - Double helix - Contains the genetic code - Taste - Olfaction Some traits are determined by a single - Touch pair of genes - Other traits are polygenic (combination of Absolute Threshold (minimum genes) stimulation) - Weakest level of a stimulus necessary to GENOTYPE produce a sensation. - Individual's genetic makeup (nature) - Detected 50% of the time Some people are more sensitive than PHENOTYPE others. - Actual appearance, based on genotype The same person might have a slightly and environmental influences (nature and different response at different times. nurture) Subliminal Threshold Chromosomes - Sensory stimulation that is below a - One receives 23 chromosomes from person’s absolute threshold for conscious each parent perception. - The 23rd pair of chromosomes are sex - Perception is called subliminal chromosomes perception XX - Female - Visual stimuli flashed too briefly can be XY - Male processed. - Auditory stimuli can be played: WEEK 3: SENSATION AND - At a volume too low to consciously hear PERCEPTION - Backward Sensation - Stimulation of sensory receptors in the sense organs. - Transmission of sensory information to the central nervous system (to interpret) Difference Threshold - Minimum difference in magnitude of two stimuli required to tell them apart. - Detected 50% of the time (gets information → optic nerve → brain) - Photoreceptors - cells that are Signal Detection Theory sensitive to light - A person’s ability to detect stimuli - Rods, cones, bipolar cells, and ganglion depends NOT only on INTENSITY, but cells (occipital) also on training, motivation, and Rods - brightness (acquisition of light) psychological states (ex. Fatigue or Cones - color (acquisition of lightness and Alertness) darkness) - Factors that determine one’s perception - Axons of ganglion cells in the retina of sensory stimuli or signals. converge - Perception of sensory stimuli involves 1. Light from an object is refracted by the interaction of physical, biological, and the cornea. psychological factors. 2. The light passes through the iris - Degree to which the signal can be and pupil. distinguished from background noise. 3. The lens refracts the light more. 4. Signal There’s no Detect signal Visual Acuity (sharpness of our vision) - Connected to the shape of the eye Observer Hit False - Nearsighted people have to be close to responded Alarm an object to discriminate its details. - Farsighted people face difficulty in Observer Miss Correct did not Rejection focusing on nearby objects. respond Presbyopia (brittleness of the lens) Signal Detection Theory - Makes it difficult to perceive nearby visual stimuli. Sensory Adaptation Sensitization (positive adaptation) Dark Adaptation - process of adjusting to - One becomes more sensitive to stimuli of lower lighting. low magnitude. - Cones each maximum adaptation in approximately 10 minutes. Desensitization (negative adaptation) - Rods continue to adapt to 45 minutes. - One becomes less sensitive to stimuli of the same intensity. Perceptual Dimensions of Color Hue - wavelength of light VISION Value - degree of brightness or darkness Light (VISION) Saturation - intensity of color perceived Spectrum of electromagnetic energy - Colors have psychological associations - Varies in wavelength within cultural settings. - Cosmic rays are only trillionths of an inch long Afterimage - persistent sensations of - Radio waves can extend for miles color that are followed by perception of the Within visible light, color is determined by complementary color when the first color wavelength. is removed. Retina - optic nerve Theories of Color Vision Trichromatic Theory Similarity - group together objects that - Three types of cones that are selectively are similar in appearance. sensitive to red, green, and blue light Continuity - perceive a series of points or help in color vision lines as having unity. Opponent-process Theory Common fate - perceive elements that - Three types of color receptors that are more together as belonging together. selectively respond to red-green, Closure - the illusion of seeing an blue-yellow, and difference in brightness incomplete stimulus as though it were help in color vision. whole (definition from google) Color Blindness Top down versus Bottom up Trichromats Bottom up processing (what am I - Have normal color vision seeing?) - Sensitive to red-green, blue-yellow, and - Taking sensory informations and then light-dark assembling and integrating it Monochromats Top down processing (is that - Totally color-blind something I’ve seen before?) - Sensitive only to lightness and darkness - Using models, ideas, and expectations to interpret sensory information Dichromats - Use of contextual information or - Have partial color blindness knowledge - Discriminate between two colors (red-green or blue-yellow) Perception of Motion - Color blindness is from X chromosomes - Visual perception of motion is based on XX - female change of position relative to other XY - male objects. - Illusions of movement have been studied Visual Perception by psychologists. - Process used to organize sensory Eg., stroboscopic motion impressions caused by the light that - Illusion generated by a series or strikes one’s eyes continuous motion. Principle of Closure Perceptual Constancies - Perceive a broken figure as being Size Constancy complete or whole. - Tendency to perceive an object as being the same size even as the size of its Perceptual Organization retinal image changes according to the - Integration of bits of sensory stimulation object’s distance. into a meaningful whole. Brightness Constancy Figure-ground Perception - Tendency to perceive an object as being - Ambiguous relationships lead to… just as bright even though lighting conditions change its intensity. Gestalt rule for Gestalt Principles Proximity - group together objects that Shape Constancy are near one another. - Tendency to perceive an object as being - Funnels sound waves to the eardrum, a the same shape although the retinal thin membrane in which vibration image varies in shape as it rotates. responds to sound waves. SOUND Middle ear - Sound waves require a medium such as - Contains eardrums, hammer, anvil, and air or water to travel. stirrup (transmit sound by vibrating) - Compressing and expanding the - Acts as the amplifier molecules of the medium create pressures or vibrations. Inner ear - One cycle of compression and expansion - Oval window transmits vibrations into the is one wave of sound. cochlea - Human ear is sensitive to sound waves - Basilar membrane lies coiled within the with frequencies of 20,000 cycles per cochlea second. - Organ of Corti is attached to the basilar membrane Pitch and Loudness (Ear → middle → inner → cochlea → Pitch - determined by a sound’s frequency impulses → interpretation of the brain) Frequency - number of cycles per second expressed in hertz (HZ) Deafness - Hertz is a unit of frequency of Conductive deafness sound waves (haba ng audio) - Due to damage of the middle ear - Greater the frequency, the higher the - Hearing aids can help pitch of the sound Sensorineural deafness Loudness (laki ng audio) - Due to damage to the structures of the - Height (amplitude) of sound waves inner ear or auditory nerve. - Frequency and amplitude are - Cochlear implants may help but cannot independent adopt auditory. - Expressed in… 60-60 RULE SMELL - People should listen at no more - Contributes to the flavor of foods than 60% of full volume for no Eg., “ang pangit ng lasa, lasang tae” more than 60 minutes per day. - Odors are sample molecules of substances in the air. IPod oblivion - Trigger firing of receptor neurons in the - Listeners pay less attention to their olfactory membrane. environments when they listen to music. - Sensory information about odors is sent to the brain through the olfactory nerve. The Ear - Shaped and structured to: TASTE External - Sensed through test cells Middle Test cells: receptor neurons on taste buds Internal - Taste qualities Sweet, sour, salty, and bitter Outer ear Umami (fifth basic taste) - savory - May undergo reorganization of the motor - The flavor of food depends on odor, and somatosensory cortex that is texture, temperature, and taste. consistent with the pain. - Some people have superior taste sensitivity than others. Gate Theory of Pain - Nervous system can process only a TOUCH AND PRESSURE limited amount of stimulation at a time. - Sensory receptors within the skin fire - Rubbing the pain area competes for when the surface is touched. neural attention. Remedies that compete - Active touching: continuous movement for attention help relieve the pain. of one’s hand along the surface of an - Prevents nerves from transmitting pain object. muscles to the brain. - Receives information about pressure, texture, temperature, and feedback from Kinesthesis the muscles. - Kinesthesis informs one about the - Some areas of the body are more position and motion of parts of the body. sensitive. - Sensory information is sent to the brain - Nerve endings are more densely packed. from sensory organs in joints, tendons, and muscles. Temperature - Receptors are located beneath the skin Vestibular sense - When the skin temperature increases - Informs the brain as to whether one is physically upright. Pain - Sensory organs in the semicircular - Results when nociceptors in the skin are canals and other parts of the ears monitor stimulated motion and position… - Sharply felt where nerve endings are densely packed Extrasensory Perception - ESP - Can be felt deep within the body Parapsychological or psi phenomena - No nerve endings for pain in the body Perception through means over than - Originates at the point of contract sensory organs. Prostaglandins are chemicals/lipids Precognition - ability to perceive future responsible for the: events in advance (future). - Transmission of the pain message to the Psychokinesis - mental manipulation or brain movement of objects. - Group of lipids present on the damage Telepathy - direct transmission of tissues/muscles (control of inflammation) thoughts or ideas from one person to another. Phantom Limb Pain Clairvoyance - perception of objects that Pain occurs in the absence of limbs do not stimulate sensory organs - Reported by two out of three (present). combat veterans with amputated Psi communication - transfer of limbs. information through an irregular and - May involve activations of nerves in the unusual process. slump of missing limb