Educational Psychology: A Tool for Effective Teaching PDF

chapter 1 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: A TOOL FOR EFFECTIVE TEACHING chapter outline 1 Exploring Educational 3 Research in Educational Psychology Psychology Learnin...

chapter 1 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: A TOOL FOR EFFECTIVE TEACHING chapter outline 1 Exploring Educational 3 Research in Educational Psychology Psychology Learning Goal 1 Describe some basic ideas Learning Goal 3 Discuss why research is about the field of educational psychology. important to effective teaching and how Historical Background educational psychologists and teachers can conduct and evaluate research. Teaching: Art and Science Why Research Is Important Research Methods 2 Effective Teaching Program Evaluation Research, Action Research, and Learning Goal 2 Identify the attitudes and the Teacher-as-Researcher skills of an effective teacher. Quantitative and Qualitative Research Professional Knowledge and Skills Commitment, Motivation, and Caring I touch the future. I teach. —Christa McAuliffe American Educator and Astronaut, 20th Century © Jamie Grill/Getty Images RF 2 Chapter 1 Educational Psychology: A tool For Effective Teaching Connecting with Teachers Margaret Metzger Effective teachers know that principles of educational psychology homework? Did it help you learn the material? Was the assignment and educational research will help them guide students’ learning. too long or too short? How can we make the next assignment more Margaret Metzger has been an English teacher at Brookline High interesting? What should the criteria for assessment be?” Remember School, in Massachusetts, for more than 25 years. She gave the that we want students to take ownership of their learning.... following advice to a student teacher she was supervising, and it Useful research has been conducted lately on learning styles and frames of intelligence. Read that research. The basic idea to conveys her understanding of basic principles of educational psy- keep in mind is that students should think for themselves. Your job chology, such as teaching how to learn and the need to apply edu- is to teach them how to think and to give them the necessary tools. cational research to teaching practice: Your students will be endlessly amazed at how intelligent they are. Emphasize how to learn, rather than what to learn. Students may You don’t need to show them how intelligent you are.... never know a particular fact, but they always will need to know how In the early years of teaching you must expect to put in hours and to learn. Teach students how to read with a genuine comprehen- hours of time. You would invest similarly long hours if you were an in- sion, how to shape an idea, how to master difficult material, how to tern in medical school or an associate in a law firm. Like other profes- use writing to clarify thinking. A former student, Anastasia Korniaris, sionals, teachers work much longer hours than outsiders know.... wrote to me, “Your class was like a hardware store. All the tools You have the potential to be an excellent teacher. My only con- were there. Years later I’m still using that hardware store that’s in cern is that you not exhaust yourself before you begin. Naturally, my head....” you will want to work very hard as you learn the craft. Include students in the process of teaching and learning. Every day ask such basic questions as, “What did you think of this (Source: Metzger, 1996, pp. 346–351.) Preview In the quotation that opens this chapter, twentieth-century teacher and astronaut Christa McAuliffe commented that she touched the future through her chosen profession of teaching. As a teacher, you will touch the future because children are the future of any society. In this chapter, we explore what the field of educational psychology is all about and how it can help you make a positive contribution to children’s futures. LG 1  escribe some basic ideas about D the field of educational ­psychology. 1 EXPLORING EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Historical Background Teaching: Art and Science Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Educational psychology is the branch of psychology that specializes in understanding teaching and learning in educational settings. Educational psychology is a vast landscape that will take us an entire book to describe. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND The field of educational psychology was founded by several pioneers in psychology in the late nineteenth century just before the start of the twentieth century. Three pioneers—William James, John Dewey, and E. L. Thorndike—stand out in the early history of educational psychology. William James Soon after launching the first psychology textbook, Principles of Psychology (1890), William James (1842–1910) gave a series of lectures called “Talks to Teachers” (James, 1899/1993) in which he discussed the applications of educational psychology The branch of psychology psychology to educating children. James argued that laboratory psychology experi- that specializes in understanding teaching and learning in ments often can’t tell us how to teach children effectively. He emphasized the impor- educational settings. tance of observing teaching and learning in classrooms for improving education. www.mhhe.com/santedu6e Exploring Educational Psychology 3 James, Dewey, and Thorndike created and shaped the field of educational psychology. What were their ideas about educational psychology? (Left to Right) © Paul Thompson/FPG/Getty Images; © Hulton Archive/ Getty Images; Source: The Popular Science Monthly, 1912 William James John Dewey E. L. Thorndike One of his recommendations was to start lessons at a point just beyond the child’s level of knowledge and understanding to stretch the child’s mind. John Dewey A second major figure in shaping the field of educational psychology was John Dewey (1859–1952), who became a driving force in the practical application of psychology. In 1894 at the University of Chicago, Dewey established the first major educational psychology laboratory in the United States. Later, at Columbia University, he continued his innovative work. We owe many important ideas to John Dewey. First, we owe to him the view of the child as an active learner. Before Dewey, it was believed that children should sit quietly in their seats and passively learn in a rote manner. In contrast, Dewey (1933) argued that children learn best by doing. Second, we owe to Dewey the idea that education should focus on the whole child and emphasize the child’s adaptation to the environment. Dewey reasoned that children should not be just narrowly educated in academic topics but should learn how to think and adapt to a world outside school. He especially thought that children should learn how to be reflec- tive problem solvers. Third, we owe to Dewey the belief that all children deserve to have a competent education. This democratic ideal was not in place at the beginning of Dewey’s career in the latter part of the nineteenth century, when quality education was reserved for a small portion of children, especially boys from wealthy families. Dewey pushed for a competent education for all children—girls and boys—as well as children from different socioeconomic and ethnic groups. E. L. Thorndike A third pioneer was E. L. Thorndike (1874–1949), who focused on assessment and measurement and promoted the scientific underpinnings of learn- ing. Thorndike argued that one of schooling’s most important tasks is to hone chil- dren’s reasoning skills, and he excelled at conducting detailed scientific studies of teaching and learning. Thorndike especially promoted the idea that educational psy- chology must have a scientific base and should focus strongly on measurement. Diversity and Early Educational Psychology The most prominent figures in the early history of educational psychology, as in most disciplines, were mainly White males such as James, Dewey, and Thorndike. Prior to changes in civil rights laws and policies in the 1960s, only a few dedicated non-White individuals obtained the necessary degrees and broke through racial exclusion barriers to take up research in DIVERSITY the field (Spring, 2014; Webb & Metha, 2017). Two pioneering African American psychologists, Mamie and Kenneth Clark, conducted research on African American children’s self-conceptions and identity (Clark & Clark, 1939). In 1971, Kenneth Clark became the first African American president of the American Psychological Association. In 1932, Latino psychologist George Sanchez conducted research showing that intelligence tests were culturally biased against ethnic minority children. 4 Chapter 1 Educational Psychology: A tool For Effective Teaching Like ethnic minorities, women also faced barriers in higher education and therefore have only gradually become prominent contributors to psychological research. One often overlooked person in the history of educational psychology is Leta Hollingworth. She was the first individual to use the term gifted to describe children who attained exceptionally high scores on intelligence tests (Hollingworth, 1916). The Behavioral Approach Thorndike’s approach to the study of learning guided educational psychology through the first half of the twentieth century. In American psychology, B. F. Skinner’s (1938) view, which built on Thorndike’s ideas, strongly influenced educational psychology in the mid- dle of the century. Skinner’s behavioral approach involved attempts to precisely determine the best conditions for learn- Mamie and Kenneth Clark ing. Skinner argued that the mental processes proposed by Like other disciplines, educational psychology had few ethnic minority individuals and psychologists such as James and Dewey were not observable women involved in its early history. The individuals shown here were among the few and therefore could not be appropriate subject matter for a from such backgrounds to overcome barriers and contribute to the field. scientific study of psychology, which he defined as the sci- © Courtesy of Kate C. Harris ence of observable behavior and its controlling conditions. In the 1950s, Skinner (1954) developed the concept of pro- grammed learning, which involved reinforcing the student after each of a series of steps until the student reached a learning goal. In an early technological effort, he created a teaching machine to serve as a tutor and reinforce students for correct answers (Skinner, 1958). The Cognitive Revolution The objectives spelled out in the behavioral approach to learning did not address many of the actual goals and needs of classroom educators (Hilgard, 1996). In reaction, as early as the 1950s, Benjamin Bloom created a taxonomy of cognitive skills that included remembering, comprehend- ing, synthesizing, and evaluating, which he suggested teachers should help stu- dents develop and use. The cognitive revolution in psychology began to take hold by the 1980s and ushered in an era of enthusiasm for applying the concepts of cognitive psychology—memory, thinking, reasoning, and so on—to help stu- dents learn. Thus, toward the latter part of the twentieth century, many educa- tional psychologists returned to an emphasis on the cognitive aspects of learning advocated by James and Dewey at the beginning of the century. Both cognitive and behavioral approaches—especially cognitive—continue to be a part of edu- cational psychology today (Fuchs & others, 2016; Wang & others, 2016). We will have much more to say about these approaches later in this text. More recently, educational psychologists have increasingly focused on the socioemo- tional aspects of students’ lives. For example, they are analyzing the school as a social context and examining the role of culture in education (Gauvain, 2016; Koppelman, 2017; Rowe, Ramani, & Pomerantz, 2016; Wentzel & Ramani, 2016). We explore the socioemotional aspects of teaching and learning in many chapters of this text. TEACHING: ART AND SCIENCE How scientific can teachers be in their approach to teaching? Both science and the art of skillful, experienced practice play important roles in a teacher’s success. RESEARCH Educational psychology draws much of its knowledge from broader theory and research in psychology (Graham & Taylor, 2016; Ryan & Deci, 2016). For example, the theories of Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky were not created in an effort to inform teachers about ways to educate children, but in other chapters you will see that both www.mhhe.com/santedu6e Exploring Educational Psychology 5 of these theories have many applications that can guide your teaching. The field also draws from theory and research cre- ated and conducted directly by educational psychologists, and from teachers’ practical experiences. For example, you will read about Dale Schunk’s (2016) classroom-oriented research on self-efficacy (the belief that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes). Educational psy- chologists also recognize that teaching sometimes must depart from scientific recipes, requiring improvisation and spontaneity (Borich, 2017; Parkay, 2016). As a scientific discipline, educational psychology aims to provide you with research knowledge that you can effec- tively apply to teaching situations and with research skills that will enhance your understanding of the factors that influence student learning (Glesne, 2016). But your teaching will still remain an art. In addition to what you can learn from research, you will also continually make important judgments in the classroom based on your personal skills and experiences as well as the accumulated wisdom shared with you by other teachers (Estes & Mintz, 2016). Karen Mirkovich, an elementary school teacher in Woodbridge, Virginia, works with students during a group reading session. Recognized as an outstanding Review, Reflect, and Practice teacher, Karen has a coveted National Board Certificate. To what extent is her teaching likely art, ­science, or both? 1 Describe some basic ideas about the field of educational psychology. © Margaret Thomas/The Washington Post/Getty Images REVIEW ∙ How is educational psychology defined? Who were some key thinkers in the history of educational psychology, and what were their ideas? ∙ How would you describe the roles of art and science in the practice of teaching? Thinking Back/Thinking Forward REFLECT Self-efficacy plays an important role in ∙ John Dewey argued that children should not sit quietly in their seats and learn in a motivation. Connect to “Motivation, Teaching, and Learning.” rote manner. Do you agree with Dewey? Why or why not? PRAXIS™ PRACTICE 1. Mr. Smith believes that all children are entitled to an education and that this education should focus on the whole child. His views are most consistent with those of a. Benjamin Bloom b. John Dewey c. B. F. Skinner d. E. L. Thorndike 2. Four teachers are discussing the influences that contribute to effective teaching. Which of the following four statements is likely to be most accurate? a. Applying information from scientific research is the most important factor in being an effective teacher. b. You can’t beat a teacher’s own personal experiences for becoming an effective teacher. c. Being an effective teacher is influenced by scientific research knowledge, teaching skills, and personal experiences. d. A teacher’s innate skills trump all other factors in being an effective teacher. Please see answer key at end of book.... 6 Chapter 1 Educational Psychology: A tool For Effective Teaching LG 2 Identify the attitudes and skills of an effective teacher. 2 EFFECTIVE TEACHING Professional Knowledge and Skills Commitment, Motivation, and Caring Because of the complexity of teaching and individual variation among students, effective teaching is not achievable through a “one size fits all” prescription. Teachers must master a variety of perspectives and strategies and be flexible in their applica- tion. This requires the following key ingredients: (1) professional knowledge and skills, and (2) commitment, motivation, and caring. PROFESSIONAL KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS Effective teachers have good command of their subject matter and a solid core of teaching skills (Mayer & Alexander, 2017). They have excellent instructional strate- gies supported by methods of goal setting, instructional planning, and classroom management. They know how to motivate, communicate, and work effectively with students who have different levels of skills and come from culturally diverse back- grounds. Effective teachers also understand how to use appropriate levels of technol- ogy in the classroom. Subject-Matter Competence In their wish lists of teacher characteristics, second- ary school students increasingly have mentioned “teacher knowledge of their sub- jects” (NAASP, 1997). Having a thoughtful, flexible, conceptual understanding of subject matter is indispensable for being an effective teacher (Hamilton & Duschi, 2017). Of course, knowledge of subject matter includes more than just facts, terms, and general concepts. It also includes knowledge about organizing ideas, connections among ideas, ways of thinking and arguing, patterns of change within a discipline, beliefs about a discipline, and the ability to carry ideas from one discipline to another. Clearly, having a deep understanding of the subject matter is an important aspect of being a competent teacher (Anderman & Klassen, 2016; Burden & Byrd, 2016; Guillaume, 2016). Instructional Strategies At a broad level, two major approaches characterize how teachers teach: constructivist and direct instruction. The constructivist approach was at the center of William James’ and John Dewey’s philosophies of education. The direct instruction approach has more in common with E. L. Thorndike’s view. The constructivist approach is a learner-centered approach that emphasizes the importance of individuals actively constructing their knowledge and understanding with guidance from the teacher. In the constructivist view, teachers should not attempt to simply pour information into children’s minds. Rather, children should be encouraged to explore their world, discover knowledge, reflect, and think criti- cally with careful monitoring and meaningful guidance from the teacher (Robinson- Zanartu, Doerr, & Portman, 2015; Van de Walle, Karp, & Bay-Williams, 2016). Constructivists argue that for too long children have been required to sit still, be passive learners, and rotely memorize irrelevant as well as relevant information constructivist approach A learner-centered (Parkay, 2016). approach to learning that emphasizes the importance of Today, constructivism may include an emphasis on collaboration—children individuals actively constructing knowledge and under- working with each other in their efforts to know and understand (Gauvain, 2016). standing with guidance from the teacher. A teacher with a constructivist instructional philosophy would not have children direct instruction approach A structured, teacher- memorize information rotely but would give them opportunities to meaningfully centered approach characterized by teacher direction construct knowledge and understand the material while guiding their learning and control, high teacher expectations for students’ (Bendixen, 2016). progress, maximum time spent by students on aca- By contrast, the direct instruction approach is a structured, teacher-centered demic tasks, and efforts by the teacher to keep nega- approach characterized by teacher direction and control, high teacher expectations tive affect to a minimum. for students’ progress, maximum time spent by students on academic tasks, and www.mhhe.com/santedu6e Effective Teaching 7 efforts by the teacher to keep negative affect to a minimum. An important goal in the direct instruction approach is maxi- mizing student learning time (Borich, 2017; Joyce, Weil, & Calhoun, 2015). Some experts in educational psychology emphasize that many effective teachers use both a constructivist and a direct instruction approach rather than relying exclusively on one or the other (Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005). Further, some circumstances may call for a constructivist approach, others for a direct instruction approach. For example, experts increasingly recommend an explicit, intellectually engaging direct instruction approach when teaching students who have a reading or a writing disability (Berninger & others, 2015). Whether you teach more from a constructivist approach or more from a direct instruction approach, you can be an effec- tive teacher. What characterizes constructivist and direct instruction Thinking Skills Effective teachers model and communicate good thinking skills. approaches to educating students? Among the most important thinking skills for teachers to engage in and guide © Ariel Skelley/Blend Images LLC RF their students in developing are critical thinking skills, which involve thinking reflectively and productively and evaluating evidence. Getting students to think critically is not easy; many students develop a habit of passively learning material and rotely memorizing concepts rather than thinking deeply and reflectively (Sternberg & Sternberg, 2017). Thinking critically also means being open-minded and curious on the one hand, yet being careful to avoid making mistakes in inter- preting something. Throughout this text, we will encourage you to think critically about topics and issues. At the end of each main section in a chapter, you will encounter “Reflect” questions related to a topic that you have just read about. Later you will read more extensively about critical thinking and other higher-level thinking processes such as reasoning, decision making, and creative thinking, and you will learn how to encour- age your students’ critical thinking by building it into your lessons. Goal Setting and Instructional Planning Whether they take a constructivist or more traditional approach, effective teachers don’t just “wing it” in the classroom. They set high goals for their teaching and organize plans for reaching those goals (Senko, Thinking Back/Thinking Forward 2016). They also develop specific criteria for success. They spend considerable time In planning, teachers need to figure out in instructional planning, organizing their lessons to maximize students’ learning which things students should do, when, in (Burden & Byrd, 2016). As they plan, effective teachers reflect and think about how what order, and how. Connect to they can make learning both challenging and interesting. Good planning requires “Planning, Instruction, and Technology.” consideration of the kinds of information, demonstrations, models, inquiry opportu- nities, discussion, and practice students need over time to understand particular con- cepts and develop particular skills. Although research has found that all of these features can support learning, the process of instructional design requires that teach- ers figure out which things students should do when, in what order, and how (Darling-Hammond & others, 2005). Developmentally Appropriate Teaching Practices Competent teachers have a good understanding of children’s development and know how to create instructional materials appropriate for their developmental levels (Bredekamp, 2017; Morrison, 2017). U.S. schools are organized by grade and to some degree by age, but these DEVELOPMENT are not always good predictors of children’s development. At any grade level, there is usually a two- or three-year span of ages with an even wider span of skills, abilities, and developmental stages. Understanding devel- opmental pathways and progressions is extremely important for teaching in ways critical thinking Thinking reflectively and productively that are optimal for each child (Feeney, Moravcik, & Nolte, 2016). and evaluating the evidence. 8 Chapter 1 Educational Psychology: A tool For Effective Teaching Throughout this text, we call attention to developmental aspects of educating chil- dren and provide examples of teaching and learning that take into account a child’s developmental level. Two chapters are devoted exclusively to development: “Cognitive and Language Development” and “Social Contexts and Socioemotional Development.” Classroom Management Skills An important aspect of being an effective teacher is keeping the class as a whole working together and oriented toward classroom tasks (Emmer & Evertson, 2017). Effective teachers establish and maintain an environ- ment in which learning can occur. To create this optimal learning environment, teachers need a repertoire of strategies for establishing rules and procedures, organiz- ing groups, monitoring and pacing classroom activities, and handling misbehavior (Evertson & Emmer, 2017; Jones & Jones, 2016). Motivational Skills Effective teachers have good strategies for helping students become self-motivated and take responsibility for their learning (Kitsantas & Cleary, “My mom told me to tell you that I am the educational 2016; Soloman & Anderman, 2017; Wentzel & Miele, 2016). Educational psycholo- challenge you were told about in college.” gists increasingly stress that this is best accomplished by providing real-world learning Reprinted by permission of Heiser Zedonek. opportunities of optimal difficulty and novelty for each student. Students are motivated when they can make choices in line with their personal interests. Effective teachers give them the opportunity to think creatively and deeply about projects. In addition to guiding students to become self-motivated learners, it is essential to establish high expectations for students’ achievement (Schunk & DiBenedetto, 2016). High expectations for children’s achievement need to come from teachers and Thinking Back/Thinking Forward parents. Too often children are rewarded for inferior or mediocre performance, and as a result they do not reach their full potential. When high expectations are created, The best teachers have very few disci- a key aspect of education is to provide children—especially low-achieving ­children— pline problems, not because they are effective instruction and support to meet these expectations. The chapter on motiva- great disciplinarians but because they are tion, teaching, and learning covers the topic of motivation in detail. great teachers. Connect to “Managing the Classroom.” Communication Skills Also indispensable to teaching are skills in speaking, listening, overcoming barriers to verbal communication, tuning in to students’ nonverbal com- munication, and constructively resolving conflicts (Beebe, Beebe, & Redmond, 2017; Zarefsky, 2017). Communication skills are critical not only in teaching but also in inter- acting with parents. Effective teachers use good communication skills when they talk “with” rather than “to” students, parents, administrators, and others; keep criticism at a minimum; and have an assertive rather than aggressive, manipulative, or passive com- munication style. Effective teachers work to improve students’ communication skills as well. This is especially important because communication skills have been rated as the skills most sought after by today’s employers. Paying More Than Lip Service to Individual Variations Virtually every teacher knows that it is important to take individual variations into account when teaching, but this is not always easy to do. Your students will have varying levels of intelligence, use different thinking and learning styles, and have different temperaments and personality traits (Hill & Roberts, 2016; Sternberg, 2016). You also are likely to have some gifted students and others with disabilities of various types (Van Tassell-Baska, 2015). Consider Amber Larkin’s challenges and experiences as a beginning teacher (Wong Briggs, 2007). Her classroom was housed in a trailer, and her students included children who were homeless, non–English speaking, had disabilities, or were refugees who had never worn shoes Amber Larkin helps fifth-grade student Miya Kpa improve his academic or experienced any type of formal education. After four years of teach- skills. What are some strategies for paying more than lip service to ing, she was named one of USA Today’s National All-Star Teachers. ­individual variation in students? Almost all of her students pass state-mandated No Child Left Behind © Davis Turner tests, but she is just as pleased about her students’ socioemotional www.mhhe.com/santedu6e Effective Teaching 9 growth. Her principal described her in the following manner: “There’s an unspoken aura that great things are going to happen, and that’s how she goes about her day” (Wong Briggs, 2007, p. 6D). Effectively teaching students with such diverse characteristics requires much thought and effort. Differentiated instruction involves recognizing individual varia- tions in students’ knowledge, readiness, interests, and other characteristics, and tak- ing these differences into account in planning curriculum and engaging in instruction (Taylor, 2015). Differentiated instruction emphasizes tailoring assignments to meet students’ needs and abilities. It is unlikely that a teacher can generate 20 to 30 dif- ferent lesson plans to address the needs of each student in a classroom. However, differentiated instruction advocates discovering “zones” or “ballparks” in which stu- dents in a classroom cluster, thus providing three or four types/levels of instruction rather than 20 to 30. In the chapters titled “Individual Variations” and “Learners Who Are Exceptional” we provide strategies to help you guide students with differ- ent levels of skills and different characteristics to learn effectively. Working Effectively with Students from Culturally Diverse Backgrounds Today, one of every five children in the United States is from an immigrant family, and by DIVERSITY 2040 it is estimated that one of every three U.S. chil- dren will fit this description. Nearly 80 percent of the new immigrants are people of color from Latin America, Asia, and the Caribbean. Approximately 75 percent of the new immigrants are of Spanish- speaking origin, although children speaking more than 100 different languages are entering U.S. schools. In today’s world of increasing intercultural contact, effective teachers are knowledgeable about people from different cultural backgrounds and are sensitive to their needs (Bucher, 2015; Koppelman, 2017). Effective teachers encourage students to have positive personal contact with diverse students and think of ways to create such settings. They guide students in thinking critically about cultural and eth- nic issues, forestall or reduce bias, cultivate accep- tance, and serve as cultural mediators (Gollnick & Chinn, 2017). An effective teacher also needs to be a broker, or middle person, between the culture of the school and the culture of certain students, espe- cially those who are unsuccessful academically (Sarraj & others, 2015). What are some strategies effective teachers use Here are cultural questions that competent teachers ask themselves (Pang, 2005): regarding diversity issues? ∙ Do I recognize the power and complexity of cultural influences on students? © Blend Images/SuperStock RF ∙ Are my expectations for my students culturally based or biased? ∙ Am I doing a good job of seeing life from the perspective of students who come from cultures different from my own? Thinking Back/Thinking Forward ∙ Am I teaching the skills students may need to develop in order to talk in Teachers can follow a number of guide- class if their culture is one in which they have little opportunity to practice lines for effective multicultural teaching. “public” talking? Connect to “Sociocultural Diversity.” ∙ Are my assessments fair and unbiased? Assessment Knowledge and Skills Competent teachers also have good assessment differentiated instruction Involves recognizing indi- knowledge and skills. There are many aspects to effectively using assessment in the vidual variations in students’ knowledge, readiness, inter- classroom (Brookhart & Nitko, 2015; Popham, 2017). You will need to decide what ests, and other characteristics, and taking these types of assessments you want to use to document your students’ performance after differences into account when planning curriculum and instruction. You also will need to use assessment effectively before and during engaging in instruction. 10 Chapter 1 Educational Psychology: A tool For Effective Teaching instruction (Chappuis & others, 2017). For example, before teaching a unit on plate Thinking Back/Thinking Forward tectonics, you might decide to assess whether your students are familiar with terms like continent, earthquake, and volcano. An important aspect of assessment is to During instruction, you might want to use ongoing observation and monitoring make it compatible with contemporary to determine whether your instruction is at a level that challenges students and to views of learning and motivation. Connect detect students who need your individual attention (Veenman, 2017). You will need to “Classroom Assessment and Grading.” to grade students to provide feedback about their achievement. Other aspects of assessment you will be involved with include state-man- dated tests to assess students’ achievement and teachers’ knowledge and skills (Popham, 2017). The federal government’s No Child Left Behind (NCLB) leg- islation requires states to test students annually in mathematics, English/language arts, and science, and holds states accountable for the success and failure of their students (McMillan, 2014). More recently, in 2009, the Common Core State Standards Initiative was endorsed by the National Governors Association in an effort to implement more rigorous state guidelines for educating students. The Common Core Standards specify what students should know and the skills they should develop at each grade level in various content areas (Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2016). The most recent initiative in U.S. education is the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) that was passed into law in December 2015 and will be fully implemented in the 2017–2018 school year (Rothman, 2016). The law replaced No Child Left Behind, in the process modifying but not completely eliminating standardized testing. ESSA retains annual testing for reading and writing success in grades 3 to 8, then once more in high school. The new law also allows states to scale back the role that tests have played in holding schools accountable for student achievement. And schools must use at least one nonacademic factor—such as student engagement— when tracking schools’ success. Other aspects of the new law include continuing to require states and districts to improve their lowest-performing schools and to ensure that they improve their work with historically underperforming students, such as English-language learners, ethnic minority students, and students with a disability. Also, states and districts are required to put in place challenging academic standards, although they can opt out of state standards involving Common Core. Because of NCLB, and more recently the Common Core State Standards Initiative and ESSA, the extent to which instruction should be tied to standards, or what is called standards-based instruction, has become a major issue in educa- tional psychology and U.S. classrooms. The focus is on establishing standards of excellence and determining what it takes to get students to pass external, large- scale tests. Many educational psychologists stress that the challenge is to teach creatively within the structure imposed by the legislation (McMillan, 2014). Much more information about No Child Left Behind, the Common Core State Standards Initiative, and the Every Student Succeeds Act is provided in the chapter on stan- dardized tests and teaching. Before you become a teacher, your subject-matter knowledge and teaching skills are also likely to be assessed by the state in which you plan to teach. A large major- ity of states now use the PRAXISTM test to determine whether prospective teachers are qualified to teach. Because of the increasing use of the PRAXISTM test, this text includes a number of resources to help you prepare for this test. Technological Skills Technology alone does not necessarily improve students’ ability to learn, but it can support learning (Maloy & others, 2017; Roblyer, 2016). Conditions that support the effective use of technology in education include vision and support from educational leaders; teachers skilled in using technology for learning; content standards and curriculum resources; assessment of effectiveness of technology for learning; and an emphasis on the child as an active, constructive learner (ISTE, 2007). www.mhhe.com/santedu6e Effective Teaching 11 Students benefit from teachers who increase their technology knowledge and integrate computers appropriately into classroom learning (Lever-Duffy & McDonald, 2015; Maloy & others, 2017). This integration should match up with students’ learn- ing needs, including the need to prepare for tomorrow’s jobs, many of which will TECHNOLOGY require technological expertise and computer-based skills (Aleven & others, 2017). In addition, effective teachers are knowledgeable about various assistive devices to support the learning of students with disabilities (Marchel, Fischer, & Clark, 2015). Recently the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE, 2016) updated technology standards for students. These standards involve being a(n): ∙ Empowered Learner. Students actively use technology to reach learning goals. ∙ Digital Citizen. Students demonstrate responsibility and are ethical in their use of technology. ∙ Knowledge Constructor. Students use a variety of resources and digital tools to construct knowledge, become more creative, and engage in mean- ingful learning. ∙ Innovative Designer. Students use various technologies to solve problems and craft useful and imaginative solutions to these problems. ∙ Computational Thinker. Students develop strategies in using technology to create solutions and test them. ∙ Creative Communicator. Students communicate effectively and think cre- atively in their use of digital tools to attain goals. ∙ Global Collaborator. Students use technology to widen their perspectives and enhance their learning by connecting with others locally and globally. Further, there is considerable concern about the enormous number of hours children and adolescents spend in screen time—how much time is spent watching television or DVDs, playing video games, and using computers or mobile media such as iPhones— and how this time can influence their school success as well as their health (Branscum & Crowson, 2016; Calvert, 2015; Wu & others, 2016). There is also concern about the huge increase in media multitasking and how this might impair children and adoles- cents’ ability to focus on an academic task while connected to some form of media unrelated to their schoolwork (Cain & others, 2016; Courage & others, 2015). ­ Considerable concern also surrounds the extensive time students spend on social media and how it might influence aspects of their academic and socioemotional development, such as being a perpetrator or target of cyberbullying (Fisher, Gardella, & Teurbe-Tolon, 2016; Marino & others, 2016; Selkie, Fales, & Moreno, 2015). Much more about these aspects of technology will be discussed in the chapter on planning, instruction, and technology. COMMITMENT, MOTIVATION, AND CARING Being an effective teacher also requires commitment, motivation, and caring. This includes having a good attitude and What are some important aspects of incorporating technology in the classroom? caring about students. © BananaStock/age fotostock RF 12 Chapter 1 Educational Psychology: A tool For Effective Teaching Beginning teachers often report that the investment of time and effort THROUGH THE needed to be an effective teacher is huge. Some teachers, even experienced EYES OF STUDENTS ones, say they have “no life” from September to June. Even putting in hours on evenings and weekends, in addition to all of the hours spent in “You Are the Coolest” the classroom, might still not be enough to get things done. In the face of these demands, it is easy to become frustrated or to get I just want to thank you for all the extra time into a rut and develop a negative attitude. Commitment and motivation you took to help me. You didn’t have to do that help get effective teachers through the tough moments of teaching. Effective but you did and I want to thank you for it. teachers have confidence in their own self-efficacy, refuse to let negative Thanks also for being straight up with me and emotions diminish their motivation, and bring a positive attitude and enthu- not beating around the bush and for that you siasm to the classroom (Anderman & Klassen, 2016; Fives & Buehl, 2016). are the coolest. I’m sorry for the hard times I These qualities are contagious and help make the classroom a place where gave you. You take so much junk but through students want to be. all that you stay calm and you are a great So, what is likely to nurture your own positive attitudes and continued teacher. enthusiasm for teaching? As in all fields, success breeds success. It’s Jessica important to become aware of times when you’ve made a difference in an Seventh-Grade Student individual student’s life. Consider the words of one of the expert consul- Macon, Georgia tants for this book, Carlos Diaz, now a professor of education at Florida Letter to Chuck Rawls, Her Teacher, at the End of Atlantic University, about Mrs. Oppel, his high school English teacher: the School Year To this day, whenever I see certain words (dearth, slake) I recognize them fondly as some of Mrs. Oppel’s vocabulary words. As a teacher, she was very calm and focused. She also was passionate about the power of language and the beauty of literature. I credit her, at least partially, for my determination to try to master the English language and become a professor and writer. I wish I could bottle these characteristics and implant them in all of my students. The better teacher you become, the more rewarding your work will be. And the more respect and success you achieve in the eyes of your students, the better you will feel about your commitment to teaching. With that in mind, stop for a moment and think about the images you have of your own former teachers. Some of your teachers likely were outstanding and left you with a very positive image. In a national survey of almost a thousand students 13 to 17 years of age, having a good sense of humor, making the class interesting, and having knowledge of the subject matter were the characteristics students listed as the most important for teachers to have (NAASP, 1997). Characteristics secondary school students most frequently attributed to their worst teachers were having a boring class, not explaining things clearly, and showing favoritism. These characteristics and others that reflect students’ images of their best and worst teachers are shown in Figure 1. Characteristics of best teachers % Total Characteristics of worst teachers % Total 1. Have a sense of humor 79.2 1. Are dull/have a boring class 79.6 2. Make the class interesting 73.7 2. Don't explain things clearly 63.2 3. Have knowledge of their subjects 70.1 3. Show favoritism toward students 52.7 4. Explain things clearly 66.2 4. Have a poor attitude 49.8 5. Spend time to help students 65.8 5. Expect too much from students 49.1 6. Are fair to their students 61.8 6. Don't relate to students 46.2 7. Treat students like adults 54.4 7. Give too much homework 44.2 8. Relate well to students 54.2 8. Are too strict 40.6 9. Are considerate of students’ feelings 51.9 9. Don't give help/individual attention 40.5 10. Don't show favoritism toward students 46.6 10. Lack control 39.9 FIGURE 1 STUDENTS’ IMAGES OF THEIR BEST AND WORST TEACHERS  SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 The Best and Worst Characteristics of My Teachers When you studied Figure 1, were you surprised by any of the characteristics listed by students to describe their best and worst teachers? Which of the top five characteristics students listed for the best teachers surprised you the most? Which of the top five characteristics of the worst teachers surprised you the most? Now think about the top five characteristics of the best and the worst teachers you have had. In generating your lists, don’t be constrained by the characteristics described in Figure 1. Also, after you have listed each characteristic, write down one or more examples of situations that reflected the characteristic. FIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BEST TEACHERS I HAVE HAD Characteristics Examples of Situations That Reflected the Characteristic 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. FIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WORST TEACHERS I HAVE HAD Characteristics Examples of Situations That Reflected the Characteristic 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Think about the roles that a good sense of humor and your own THROUGH THE EYES OF genuine enthusiasm are likely to play in your long-term commitment as a teacher. Also, notice other characteristics in Figure 1 that relate to STUDENTS the caring nature of outstanding teachers. Effective teachers care for their students, often referring to them as “my students.” They really A Good Teacher want to be with the students and are dedicated to helping them learn. Mike, Grade 2: At the same time, they keep their role as a teacher distinct from student A good teacher is a teacher that does stuff that roles. Beyond their own caring, effective teachers also look for catches your interest. Sometimes you start ways to help their students consider others’ feelings and care about learning and you don’t even realize it. A good each other. teacher is a teacher that does stuff that makes To think about the best and worst characteristics of the teachers you you think. (Nikola-Lisa & Burnaford, 1994). have had, complete Self-Assessment 1. Use the self-assessment to further explore the attitudes behind your commitment to become a teacher. 13 14 Chapter 1 Educational Psychology: A tool For Effective Teaching CONNECTING WITH STUDENTS: Best Practices Strategies for Becoming an Effective Teacher 1. Effective teaching requires teachers to wear many different in turtles and other animals, Susan takes students on three-day hats. It’s easy to fall into the trap of thinking that if you field trips to Edisto Island, South Carolina, to search for fossils and have good subject-matter knowledge, excellent teaching will study coastal ecology. Her students sell calendars that contain follow. Being an effective teacher requires many diverse their original poetry and art, and they use the proceeds to buy por- skills. In Through the Eyes of Teachers you can read about tions of a rain forest so it won’t be destroyed. how Susan Bradburn, who teaches fourth and sixth grades at West Marian Elementary School in North Carolina, brings many different skills to create effective lessons. 2. Engage in perspective taking. You want to be the very best teacher you can possibly be. Think about what your students need from you to improve their academic and life THROUGH THE EYES OF TEACHERS skills. Also reflect on how you perceive your students and The “Turtle Lady” how they perceive you. Susan Bradburn teaches grades 4 to 6 at West Marian Elementary 3. Keep the list of characteristics of effective teachers we have School in North Carolina. She created a school museum in which discussed in this chapter with you through your teaching students conduct research and create exhibitions. She has put her career. Looking at the list and thinking about the different school-museum con- areas of effective teaching can benefit you as you go through cept “on wheels” by your student teaching, your days as a beginning teacher, and having students take even your years as an experienced teacher. By consulting it carts to other classes from time to time, you might realize that you have let one or and into the commu- two areas slip and need to spend time improving yourself. nity, and she has 4. Stay committed and motivated. Being an effective teacher used award money to requires being committed and motivated to learn even in spread the use of mo- the face of difficult and adverse circumstances bile museums to (Anderman & Klassen, 2016). Work through your frustra- other North Carolina tions and develop good coping skills to face the tough Susan Bradburn (left) with several students schools. Nicknamed times that come in any career. Remember that a positive at West Marian Elementary School. “the turtle lady” be- attitude and a deep commitment to caring for children are © Alan Marler/AP Images cause of her interest key aspects to becoming a good teacher. Review, Reflect, and Practice 2 Identify the attitudes and skills of an effective teacher. REVIEW ∙ What professional knowledge and skills are required to be an effective teacher? ∙ Why is it important for teachers to be committed and motivated? REFLECT ∙ What is most likely to make teaching rewarding for you in the long run? PRAXIS™ PRACTICE 1. Suzanne spends a considerable amount of time writing lesson plans, developing ­criteria for student success, and organizing materials. Which professional skill is she demonstrating? a. classroom management b. communication (continued) www.mhhe.com/santedu6e Research in Educational Psychology 15 Review, Reflect, and Practice PRAXIS™ PRACTICE (CONTINUED) c. developmentally appropriate teaching practices d. goal setting and instructional management 2. Mr. Marcinello, who is midway through his first year of teaching, feels frustrated with his job. He is developing a negative attitude, and it is carrying over in his teaching. Which of the following areas does Mr. Marcinello need to work on the most at this point to become an effective teacher? a. classroom management and communication b. commitment and motivation c. technology and diversity d. subject-matter competence and individual variations Please see answer key at end of book.... 3 RESEARCH IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY LG 3  iscuss why research is important D to effective teaching and how edu- Why Research Program Evaluation Research, Action Research, cational psychologists and teachers Is Important and the Teacher-as-Researcher can conduct and evaluate research. Research Quantitative and Methods Qualitative Research Research can be a valuable source of information about teaching. We will explore why research is important and how it is done, including how you can be a teacher- researcher. WHY RESEARCH IS IMPORTANT It sometimes is said that experience is the best teacher. Your own experiences and experiences that other teachers, administrators, and experts share with you will make RESEARCH you a better teacher. However, by providing you with valid information about the best ways to teach children, research also can make you a better teacher (Smith & Davis, 2016). We all get a great deal of knowledge from personal experience. We generalize from what we observe and frequently turn memorable encounters into lifetime “truths.” But how valid are these conclusions? Sometimes we err in making these personal observations or misinterpret what we see and hear. Chances are, you can think of many situations in which you thought other people read you the wrong way, just as they might have felt that you misread them. When we base information only on personal experiences, we also aren’t always totally objective because we some- times make judgments that protect our ego and self-esteem. We get information not only from personal experiences but also from authorities or experts. In your teaching career, you will hear many authorities and experts spell out a “best way” to educate students. The authorities and experts, however, don’t always agree, do they? You might hear one expert one week tell you about a reading instruction method that is absolutely the best, yet the next week hear another expert tout a different method. One experienced teacher might tell you to do one thing with your students, while another experienced teacher tells you to do the opposite.  16 Chapter 1 Educational Psychology: A tool For Effective Teaching 30 How can you decide which one to believe? One way to clarify the situation is to in which parent explained science concepts look closely at research on the topic. Percent of parent-child interactions 25 RESEARCH METHODS 20 Collecting information (or data) is an important aspect of research. When educational 15 psychology researchers want to find out, for example, whether regularly playing video games detracts from student learning, eating a nutritious breakfast improves 10 alertness in class, or getting more recess time decreases absenteeism, they can choose from many methods of gathering research information (Gliner, Morgan, & Leech, 5 2017; Trochim, Donnelly, & Arora, 2016). The three basic methods used to gather information in educational psychology are descriptive, correlational, and experimental. 0 Boys Girls Descriptive Research Descriptive research has the purpose of observing and FIGURE 2 PARENTS’ EXPLANATIONS OF recording behavior. For example, an educational psychologist might observe the SCIENCE TO SONS AND DAUGHTERS AT A extent to which children are aggressive in a classroom or interview teachers about SCIENCE MUSEUM their attitudes toward a specific teaching strategy. By itself, descriptive research In a naturalistic observation study at a children’s cannot prove what causes some phenomenon, but it can reveal important information science museum, parents were three times more about people’s behavior and attitudes (Boynton, 2017). likely to explain science to boys than girls (Crowley & others, 2001). The gender difference Observation We look at things all the time. Casually watching two students inter- occurred regardless of whether the father, the acting, however, is not the same as making the type of observation used in scientific mother, or both parents were with the child, studies. Scientific observation is highly systematic. It requires knowing what you are although the gender difference was greatest for looking for, conducting observations in an unbiased manner, accurately recording fathers’ science explanations to sons and daughters. and categorizing what you see, and effectively communicating your observations (Jackson, 2016; Salkind, 2017). A common way to record observations is to write them down, often using short- hand or symbols. In addition, tape recorders, video cameras, special coding sheets, one-way mirrors, and computers increasingly are being used to make observation more accurate, reliable, and efficient. Observations can be made in laboratories or in naturalistic settings (Babbie, 2017). A laboratory is a controlled setting from which many of the complex factors of the real world have been removed. Some educational psychologists conduct research in laboratories at the colleges or universi- ties where they work and teach. Although laboratories often help researchers gain more control in their studies, they have been criticized as being artificial. In naturalistic observation, behavior is observed in the real world. Educational psychologists conduct naturalistic observations of children in class- rooms, at museums, on playgrounds, in homes, in neighborhoods, and in other settings. Naturalistic observation was used in one study that focused on conver- sations between parents and children in a children’s science museum (Crowley & others, 2001). Parents were three times as likely to engage boys as girls in explanatory talk while visiting different exhibits at the science museum (see Figure 2). In another study, Mexican American parents who had completed high school used more explanations with their children as they were observed at a science museum than Mexican American parents who had not completed high school (Tennebaum & others, 2002). laboratory A controlled setting from which many of Participant observation occurs when the observer-researcher is actively the complex factors of the real world have been involved as a participant in the activity or setting (McMillan, 2016). The participant removed. observer will often participate in a context and observe awhile, then take notes on what he or she has viewed. The observer usually makes these observations and writes naturalistic observation Observation conducted in down notes over a period of days, weeks, or months and looks for patterns in the the real world rather than in a laboratory. observations. For example, to study a student who is doing poorly in the class with- participant observation Observation conducted out apparent reason, the teacher might develop a plan to observe the student from while the teacher-researcher is actively involved as a time to time and record observations of the student’s behavior and what is going on participant in the activity or setting. in the classroom at the time. www.mhhe.com/santedu6e Research in Educational Psychology 17 Following are strategies recommended by teachers at different grade levels regarding how they use participant observation in their classrooms. EARLY CHILDHOOD We take notes, observe, and record the activities of our young children throughout the day. Taking notes on children at the preschool level can be challenging because when children first notice that you are intently watching and taking notes, they may become curious and ask many questions, or become overly anxious and say things like, “Look at me!” to the teacher. As the year goes by, however, children get used to the recordings, and the questions are less frequent, allowing for a more accurate assessment of a child’s needs. —Valarie Gorham, Kiddie Quarters, Inc. ELEMENTARY SCHOOL: GRADES K–5 I meet with leveled reading groups, typically ranging from three to five students. Materials and texts that are at the group’s instructional level are used. As the lesson and activities are carried out, I take quick notes as I see the group or individuals grasping concepts, struggling in any way, or if a “teachable moment” presents itself. These notes help me later in my planning to make decisions about whether to reteach a certain lesson/concept, move on to new concepts/materials, or go to something other than originally planned because of a teachable moment or connection that has been discovered. —Susan Froelich, Clinton Elementary School MIDDLE SCHOOL: GRADES 6–8 I once had a student who often came to class unprepared and late. Over time, I observed the student, took notes, and created a chart for myself that listed the times the student did not come to class prepared or on time. Because I kept good records, I was able to find out that when the student had a physical education class just before my class, he was late. I then worked with the student and phys. ed. teacher to come up with a solution so that the student had time to get to my class with the necessary classroom materials. —Casey Maass, Edison Middle School HIGH SCHOOL: GRADES 9–12 In the lab portion of my class, I have a chart that identifies when students are off-task and a notation for what they are doing instead of the task, such as listening to an iPod, talking to their friends, and so on. After a pattern develops, I talk with the student and show them their pattern on the chart. High school students tend to understand graphs and data better than being reminded while they are being off-task. For me, charting provides a more positive environ- ment than an interruption or reprimand. —Sandy Swanson, Menomonee Falls High School Interviews and Questionnaires Sometimes the quickest and best way to get infor- mation about students and teachers is to ask them for it. Educational psychologists use interviews and questionnaires (surveys) to find out about children’s and teachers’ experiences, beliefs, and feelings. Most interviews take place face-to-face, although they can be done in other ways, such as over the phone or the Internet. Questionnaires usually are given to individuals in written form. They, too, can be transmitted in many ways, such as directly by hand, by mail, or via the Internet. Good interviews and surveys involve concrete, specific, and unambiguous questions and some means of checking the authenticity of the respondents’ replies (Leary, 2017). Interviews and surveys, however, are not without problems. One crucial limitation is that many individuals give socially desirable answers, responding in a way they think 18 Chapter 1 Educational Psychology: A tool For Effective Teaching is most socially acceptable and desirable rather than expressing how they truly think or feel. Skilled interviewing techniques and questions that increase forthright responses are crucial to obtaining accurate information (Kazdin, 2017). Another problem with inter- views and surveys is that the respondents sometimes simply are untruthful. Standardized Tests Standardized tests have uniform procedures for administra- tion and scoring. They assess students’ aptitudes or skills in different domains. Many standardized tests allow a student’s performance to be compared with the perfor- mance of other students at the same age or grade level, in many cases on a national basis. Students might take a number of standardized tests, including tests that assess their intelligence, achievement, personality, career interests, and other skills (Gregory, 2016; Mills & Gay, 2016). These tests can provide outcome measures for research studies, information that helps psychologists and educators make decisions about an individual student, and comparisons of students’ performance across schools, states, and countries. Standardized tests also play an important role in a major contemporary educa- tional psychology issue—accountability, which involves holding teachers and stu- dents responsible for student performance (Popham, 2017). As we indicated earlier, both students and teachers increasingly are being given standardized tests in the accountability effort. The U.S. government’s No Child Left Behind Act is at the centerpiece of accountability; it mandated that in 2005 every state had to give stan- dardized tests to students in grades 3 through 8 in language arts and math, with testing for science achievement added in 2007. Physiological Measures Researchers are increasingly using physiological measures when they study children’s and adolescents’ development (Johnson, 2016). A physi- ological measure that is increasingly being used is neuroimaging, especially func- tional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) that uses electromagnetic waves to construct images of a person’s brain tissue and biochemical activity (de Haan & Johnson, 2016; Galvan & Tottenham, 2016). Heart rate has been used as an indicator of children’s development of perception, attention, and memory (Kim, Yang, & Lee, 2015). Further, heart rate has been used as an index of different aspects of emotional development, such as inhibition, anxiety, and depression (Blood & others, 2015). Researchers also are assessing levels of hormones when they study children’s and adolescents’ development. Cortisol is a hormone produced by the adrenal gland that is linked to the body’s stress level and has been measured in studies of tempera- ment, emotional reactivity, peer relations, and child psychopathology (Jacoby & others, 2016). As puberty unfolds, the blood levels of certain hormones increase. To determine the nature of these hormonal changes, researchers analyze blood samples from adolescent volunteers. Further, there has been a major increase in the study of genetic and environ- mental influences on children’s and adolescent development (Hill & Roth, 2016). As researchers have become more capable of assessing actual genes, they increas- ingly are examining how specific genes or combinations of genes might influence such education-related topics as intelligence, ADHD, autism, and many other areas (Grigorenko & others, 2016). We will have much more to say about the topic of genetic/environmental interaction in the chapter on physical and cognitive develop- ment and in a number of other chapters as well. standardized tests Tests with uniform procedures Case Studies A case study is an in-depth look at an individual. Case studies often for administration and scoring. They assess students’ are used when unique circumstances in a person’s life cannot be duplicated, for either performance in different domains and allow a student’s practical or ethical reasons. For example, consider the case study of Brandi Binder performance to be compared with the performance of (Nash, 1997). She developed such severe epilepsy that surgeons had to remove the other students at the same age or grade level on a right side of her brain’s cerebral cortex when she was 6 years old. Brandi lost virtu- national basis. ally all control over the muscles on the left side of her body, the side controlled by case study An in-depth look at an individual. the right side of her brain. At age 17, however, after years of therapy ranging from www.mhhe.com/santedu6e Research in Educational Psychology 19 leg lifts to mathematics and music training, Brandi is an A student. She loves music and art, which usually are associated with the right side of the brain. Her recupera- tion is not 100 percent—for example, she has not regained the use of her left arm— but her case study shows that if there is a way to compensate, the human brain will find it. Brandi’s remarkable recovery also provides evidence against the stereotype that the left side (hemisphere) of the brain is solely the source of logical thinking and the right hemisphere exclusively the source of creativity. Brains are not that neatly split in terms of most functioning, as Brandi’s case illustrates. Although case studies provide dramatic, in-depth portrayals of people’s lives, we need to exercise caution when interpreting them. The subject of a case study is unique, with a genetic makeup and set of experiences that no one else shares. For these reasons, the findings often do not lend themselves to statistical analysis and may not generalize to other people. Ethnographic Studies An ethnographic study consists of in-depth description and interpretation of behavior in an ethnic or a cultural group that includes direct involve- ment with the participants (Jachyra, Atkinson, & Washiya, 2015). This type of study might include observations in naturalistic settings as well as interviews. Many eth- nographic studies are long-term projects. In one ethnographic study, the purpose was to examine the extent to which schools were enacting educational reforms for language minority students (U.S. Office of Education, 1998). In-depth observations and interviews were conducted in Brandi Binder is evidence of the brain’s hemispheric a number of schools to determine whether they were establishing high standards and flexibility and resilience. Despite having the right side of restructuring the way education was being delivered. Several schools were selected her cortex removed because of a severe case of epi- for intensive evaluation, including Las Palmas Elementary School in San Clemente, lepsy, Brandi at the age of 17 engaged in many activi- California. The study concluded that this school, at least, was making the necessary ties often portrayed as only “right-brain” activities. She reforms for improving the education of language minority students. loved music and art and is shown here working on one of her paintings. Focus Groups Focus groups involve interviewing people in a group setting, in most © Brandi Binder cases to obtain information about a particular topic or issue (Nel, Romm, & Tiale, 2015). Focus groups typically consist of five to nine people in which a group facili- tator asks a series of open-ended questions. Focus groups can be used to assess the value of a product, service, or program, such as a