Introduction to Psychology PDF

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY PSYCH 111 | Dash 8 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY 1.1 INTRO TO PSYCHOLOGY GOALS IN PSYCHOLOGY Description PSYCHOLOGY — What is hap...

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY PSYCH 111 | Dash 8 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY 1.1 INTRO TO PSYCHOLOGY GOALS IN PSYCHOLOGY Description PSYCHOLOGY — What is happening? — observing a behavior and taking From the Greek word “psyche” – note on everything that is happening mind, spirit, behavior and “logos” – study of…. Explanation Scientific study of behavior and — Why is it happening? mental processes. Behavior which — behavior is being understood by includes overt and covert actions and explaining it. reactions. THEORY - general explanation of a set of CLASSIFICATION OF BEHAVIOR observations or facts Prediction Overt – Behavior that can be — Will it happen again? observed by anyone; talking, facial — Refers to determining what will expressions and movement. happen in the future. Covert – Is the type of behavior that Control is known to the individual performing — How can it be changed? only; as thinking, feeling and — To be able to modify the behavior remembering. from undesirable to desirable. PSYCHOLOGY IS A SCIENCE SCHOOL OF PSYCHOLOGY - Prevent possible biases from leading to faulty observations 1. Structuralism - Precise and careful measurement 2. Functionalism 3. Gestalt Psychology 4. Psychoanalytic Psychology 5. Behaviorism  Believed that “the whole/sum is STRUCTURALISM greater than its parts…” Means that when basic elements that compose our perception of objects are Focused on structure or basic considered together, they produce elements of the mind. something greater and more Wilhelm Wundt’s psychology meaningful that those individual laboratory Germany in 1879. elements alone. Aim to study the building blocks of the mind. PSYCHOANALYTIC PSYCHOLOGY — Wundt’s student; brought structuralism to America. PSYCHOANALYSIS - the theory and therapy based on the work of — Margaret Washburn Sigmund Freud. — Titchener’s student; first woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology. — Freud’s patients suffered from nervous disorders with no found physical Structuralism died out in the early 1900s. cause. — Freud proposed that there is an FUNCTIONALISM unconscious (unaware) mind into which we push, or repress, all of our threatening urges and desires. How the mind allows people to adapt, Freud’s patients suffered from live, work, and play. nervous disorders with no found Proposed by William James. physical cause. Focuses on what the mind does and — He believed that these repressed how behavior functions. urges, in trying to surface, created nervous Looking at what was going on inside disorders. a person's head and its interaction — Freud stressed the importance of with the outside world. early childhood experiences. — Sigmund Freud, he believed that early GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY relationships with parents are the main forces that shape an individual’s personality. - “good figure” psychology. Started with Wertheimer, who — focuses on the sexual and aggressive impulses of people and how it is affecting behavior. studied sensation and perception. Gestalt ideas are now part of the study of cognitive psychology, a field BEHAVIORISM focusing not only on perception but also on learning, memory, thought processes, and problem solving. - The science of behavior that focuses Founded by Max Wertheimer in early on observable behavior only. 1900. — Must be directly seen and measured.  Founded by Abraham Maslow and Proposed by John B. Watson. Carl Rogers — Based much from the work of People have a free will and the IVAN PAVLOV who demonstrated that a freedom to chart their own destiny. reflex could be conditioned (learned). — Watson believed that phobias were learned. Case of “LITTLE ALBERT” – BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL taught to fear a white rat. Mary Cover Jones an early pioneer in behavior therapy. Theorized by psychiatrist George Engel. - Ivan Pavlov and JB Watson, classical conditioning Human and animal behavior is seen as vs. operant conditioning.. a direct result of events in the body. - Focus on the behavior, that which is directly observable. Hormones, heredity and diseases are - They believe that to understand behavior, one must the biological causes of behavior. observe it. MODERN APPROACHES IN PSYCHOLOGY AREAS IN PSYCHOLOGY Cognitive Approach Pure Psychology Humanistic Approach ○ Developmental Psychology Biopsychosocial Perspective ○ Social Psychology ○ Abnormal Psychology Applied Psychology COGNITIVE ○ Clinical & Counseling Psychology focus on how people think, remember, ○ Psychiatry store and use information. ○ Cognitive Psychology Individual’s mental processes are in ○ Industrial & Organizational control of behavior through Psychology memories, perceptions, images and ○ Educational Psychology thinking. PURE PSYCHOLOGY HUMANISTIC DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY  PSYCHIATRY studies the individual from conception Psychiatry – a branch of medicine to death (stages in life). Ovum, embryo, fetus – prenatal (before birth) that tackles abnormal behavior and Birth, infancy, babyhood (early and psychotherapy. Psychiatrists can late), childhood (early and late), prescribe drugs. puberty, adolescence, adulthood, middle age, old age, and death. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Cognitive psychology – examines SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY attention, consciousness, information processing and storage and memory. Social Psychology – focus is on the Problem solving, decision making, social interactions, influences, expertise and intelligence. individual and group thinking, individual and group behavior and the formation of attitudes. INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY Industrial and Organizational Psychology – focus is on personnel Abnormal Psychology – focus is on and human resource management, mental disorders (e.g. dementia, social and group influences of schizophrenia, delusions, phobias, organization. maladjustments etc.) EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY Educational Psychology – psychology in the school setting like CLINICAL AND COUNSELING testing, conducting examinations, PSYCHOLOGY interpreting tests, and test construction. Clinical and counseling psychology – diagnose and treat people with psychological problems. Personal and SCIENTIFIC METHOD career issues…  experiences, and family relationships). Science is not defined by what it investigates but how it investigates. Four (4) attitudes that is essential to CORRELATION RESEARCH the scientific approach: ○ Curiosity ○ Skepticism - Refers to studies that are concerned ○ Objectivity with identifying the relationships ○ Willingness to think critically between two or more variables in order to describe how these variables 5 STEPS IN THE SCIENTIFIC change together. METHOD Observing some phenomenon. EXPERIMENT RESEARCH Formulating hypotheses and predictions. - Causal statements, a causes b… Testing through empirical research. - An independent variable is an Drawing conclusions. independently manipulated Evaluating conclusions. experimental factor. It is a potential cause. - A dependent variable is a factor that TYPE OF RESEARCH can change in an experiment in response to changes in the independent variable. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH - describes data and characteristics of a subject being studied. This includes observation, surveys and interviews, standardized tests and case studies. Observation Survey and interviews Standardized tests Case studies (i.e. person’s goal, hopes, fantasies, fears,  1.2 THE BIOLOGICAL dilation, digestion, and blood PERSPECTIVE pressure. Parasympathetic System OVERVIEW OF THE NERVOUS - Maintains body functions under SYSTEM ordinary conditions; saves energy. Nervous System Sympathetic System - an extensive network of specialized - Prepares the body to react and cells that carry information to and expend energy in times of stress from all parts of the body. Somatic Nervous System (SNS) Neuroscience Carries sensory information and deals with the structure and function controls movement of the skeletal of neurons, nerves, and nervous muscle. tissue. PARTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM STRUCTURE OF THE NEURON Central Nervous System (CNS) Neurons - Brain: interprets and stores The basic cell that makes up the information and sends orders to nervous system and which receives muscles, glands, and organs. and sends messages with that system. - Spinal Cord: Pathway connecting the brain and the peripheral nervous PARTS OF NEURON system. PARTS OF DESCRIPTION - Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) NEURON It includes parts of the nervous DENDRITES branch-like system outside the brain and structures that spinal cord. receive messages from other neurons The Peripheral Nervous System has two SOMA the cell body of the components: neuron, responsible for maintaining the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) life of the cell Automatically regulates glands, internal organs, blood vessels, pupil AXON long tube like  structure that carries - Schwann’s membrane. The the neural message outermost nucleated cytoplasmic layer of Schwann dendrites - receive soma - maintaining cells that surrounds the axon of message the life axon - carries the the neuron. message GENERATING THE MESSAGE: NEURAL IMPULSE OTHER TYPES OF BRAIN CELLS Ions - charged particles Glial Cells - Inside neuron — negatively - gray fatty cells that charged (-) Provide support for the - Outside neuron — positively neurons to grow on and charged (+) around. Resting Potential Deliver nutrients to - the state of the neuron when neurons not firing a neural impulse. Produce myelin to coat Action potential axons - the release of the neural impulse consisting of a reversal Myelin of the electrical charge within - fatty substances produced by the axon. certain glial cells that coat the - Allows positive sodium to enter axons of neurons to insulate, the cell. protect, and speed up the neural All or none impulse. (clean up waste - referring to the fact that a products and dead neurons) neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all. - Return to resting potential NEURONS IN THE BODY NEURON COMMUNICATION Nerves - bundles of axons in the body - Sending the message to other cells that travel togethers through the Axon terminals: branches at body. the end of the axon. - Synaptic knobs are rounded areas on Neurilemma the end of axon terminals.  Synaptic vesicles: sack like - block or reduce a cell’s structures found inside the response to the action of other synaptic knob containing chemicals or neurotransmitters. chemicals. Neurotransmitters chemical found in the synaptic vesicles which, when released, SOME NEUROTRANSMITTERS AND have an effect on the next cell. THEIR FUNCTIONS Synapse/synaptic gap microscopic fluid-filled sac NEUROTRANSMIT FUNCTIONS between the rounded areas on TERS the end of the axon terminals of ACETYLCHOLINE excitatory or inhibitory; one cell and the dendrites or involved in arousal, surface of the next cell. attention, memory, and Receptor sites holes in the controls muscle surface of the dendrites or contractions certain cells of the muscles and SEROTONIN excitatory or inhibitory; glands, which are shaped to fit involved in mood, only certain neurotransmitters. sleep, and appetite GABA major inhibitory Neurons must be turned ON and OFF (GAMMA-AMINOB neurotransmitter; Excitatory neurotransmitter UTYRIC ACID) involved in sleep and inhibits movements — neurotransmitter that causes the receiving cell to fire. GLUTAMATE excitatory; arousal and mood Inhibitory neurotransmitter — neurotransmitter that causes the DOPAMINE excitatory or inhibitory: control of movements receiving cell to stop firing. and sensations of pleasure Chemical substances can affect ENDORPHINS inhibitory neural neuronal communication regulators; pain relief Agonists - mimic or enhance the effects CLEANING UP THE SYNAPSE of a neurotransmitter on the receptor sites of the next cell, increasing or decreasing the activity of that cell. Reuptake Antagonists - process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the synaptic vesicles.  Enzyme to the muscles through the - a complex protein that is motor neurons. manufactured by cells. - Interneurons also make up the - one type specifically breaks up bulk of the neurons in the brain. acetylcholine because muscle Neuroplasticity activity needs to happen - the ability to constantly change rapidly, so reuptake would be both the structure and function too slow. of cells involved in trauma. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM Central nervous system (CNS) Peripheral nervous system (PNS) - part of the nervous system - all nerves and neurons that are consisting of the brain and not in the brain and spinal cord spinal cord. but that run through the body - Spinal cord: a long bundle of itself; divided into the: neurons that carries messages - Somatic nervous system to and from the body to the - Autonomic nervous system brain that is responsible for Soma = body. very fast, life saving reflexes. Somatic nervous system Sensory neuron - division of the PNS consisting - a neuron that carries of nerves that carry information information from the senses to from the senses to the CNS and the central nervous system (also from the CNS to the voluntary called afferent neuron.) muscles of the body. Motor neuron Sensory pathway - a neuron that carries messages - nerves coming from the from the central nervous system sensory organs to the CNS to the muscles of the body (also consisting of sensory neurons. called efferent neuron.) Interneuron Somatic nervous system - a neuron found in the center of - division of the PNS consisting the spinal cord that receives of nerves that carry information information from the sensory from the senses to the CNS and neurons and sends commands from the CNS to the voluntary muscles of the body.  Motor pathway Pituitary gland - nerves coming from the CNS - gland located in the brain that to the voluntary muscles, secretes human growth consisting of motor neurons. hormone and influences all other hormone secreting glands AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (also known as the master gland). Autonomic nervous system (ANS) Pineal gland - division of the PNS consisting of - endocrine gland located near nerves that control all of the the base of the cerebrum that involuntary muscles, organs, and secretes melatonin. glands sensory pathway nerves Thyroid gland coming from the sensory organs to the - endocrine gland found in the neck that CNS consisting of sensory neurons. regulates metabolism. Pancreas Sympathetic division (fight-or-flight endocrine gland that controls the system) levels of sugar in the blood. - part of the ANS that is responsible for reacting to stressful events and bodily Gonads arousal. the sex glands that secrete hormones Parasympathetic division that regulate sexual development and - part of the ANS that restores the behavior as well as reproduction. body to normal functioning after - Ovaries - the female gonads. arousal and is responsible for the - Testes - the male gonads. day-to-day functioning of the organs and glands. Adrenal glands ENDOCRINE GLANDS - endocrine glands located on top of each kidney that secrete over Endocrine glands 30 different hormones to deal - glands that secrete chemicals with stress, regulate salt intake, called hormones directly into and provide a secondary source the bloodstream. of sex hormones affecting the Hormones sexual changes that occur - chemicals released into the during adolescence. bloodstream by endocrine - glands.  LOOKING INSIDE THE LIVING TOMOGRAPHY ( and a computer BRAIN PET) compiles a color-coded image of the activity of the brain with lighter Clinical studies colors indicating more Deep lesioning activity. - insertion of a thin, insulated FUNCTIONAL MRI sort of “movie” of wire into the brain through (fMRI) changes in the activity which an electrical current is of the brain using sent that destroys the brain cells images from different at the tip of the wire. time periods. Electrical stimulation of the brain ELECTROENCEPH records electrical (ESB) ALOGRAM (EEG) activity of the brain - milder electrical current that below specific areas of causes neurons to react as if the skull they had received a message. SINGLE PHOTON uses different - Human brain damage. EMISSION radioactive tracers COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY Electroencephalograph (EEG) (SPECT) - machine designed to record the brain wave patterns produced by electrical activity of the THE BRAIN STEM surface of the brain. - Peeking Inside the Brain Medulla - the first large swelling at the top of the spinal cord, forming the MAPPING STRUCTURE lowest part of the brain, which is responsible for life-sustaining COMPUTED brain-imaging method functions such as breathing, TOMOGRAPHY ( using CT) swallowing, and heart rate. computer-controlled X-rays of the brain. Pons MAGNETIC using radio waves and - the larger swelling above the RESONANCE magnetic fields of the IMAGING ( MRI) body to produce medulla that connects the top of detailed images of the the brain to the bottom and that brain plays a part in sleep, dreaming, left–right body coordination, POSITRON radioactive sugar is EMISSION injected into the subject and arousal.  Reticular formation (RF) information from the receptors - an area of neurons running in the nose located just below. through the middle of the medulla and the pons and Hypothalamus: small structure slightly beyond that is in the brain located below the responsible for selective thalamus and directly above the attention. pituitary gland, responsible for Cerebellum motivational behavior such as - part of the lower brain located sleep, hunger, thirst, and sex. behind the pons that controls Sits above and controls the pituitary gland and coordinates involuntary, (master endocrine gland). rapid, fine motor movement. STRUCTURE UNDER THE CORTEX Hippocampus - curved structure located within each temporal lobe, responsible for the formation of long-term Limbic system memories and the storage of - a group of several brain memory for location of objects. structures located under the Amygdala cortex and involved in learning, - brain structure located near the emotion, memory, and hippocampus, responsible for motivation. fear responses and memory of fear. Thalamus: part of the limbic system located in the center of the brain, this structure relays CORTEX sensory information from the lower part of the brain to the proper areas of the cortex and processes some sensory Cortex information before sending it to - outermost covering of the brain its proper area. consisting of densely packed neurons, responsible for higher Olfactory bulbs thought processes and - two projections just under the interpretation of sensory input. front of the brain that receive Corticalization - wrinkling of the cortex.  - allows a much larger area of Somatosensory cortex cortical cells to exist in the - area of neurons running down small space inside the skull. the front of the parietal lobes responsible for processing information from the skin and CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES internal body receptors for touch, temperature, body position, and possibly taste. Cerebral hemispheres Temporal lobes - the two sections of the cortex - areas of the cortex located just on the left and right sides of the behind the temples containing brain. the neurons responsible for the Corpus callosum sense of hearing and - thick band of neurons that meaningful speech. connects the right and left - Primary auditory cortex: cerebral hemispheres. processes auditory information from the ears. THE FOUR LOBES OF THE BRAIN - Auditory association cortex: identifies and makes sense of Occipital lobe auditory information. - section of the brain located at the rear and bottom of each Frontal lobes cerebral hemisphere containing - areas of the cortex located in the visual centers of the brain. the front and top of the brain, Primary visual cortex responsible for higher mental - processes visual information processes and decision making from the eyes. as well as the production of Visual association cortex fluent speech. —identifies and makes sense of Motor cortex visual information. - section of the frontal lobe located at the back, responsible Parietal lobes for sending motor commands to - sections of the brain located at the muscles of the somatic the top and back of each nervous system. cerebral hemisphere containing the centers for touch, taste, and ASSOCIATION AREAS OF CORTEX temperature sensations.  hemispheres and the structures that connect them. Association areas Split brain research - areas within each lobe of the - Study of patients with severed cortex responsible for the corpus callosum. coordination and interpretation - Involves sending messages to of information, as well as only one side of the brain. higher mental processing. - Demonstrates right and Broca’s aphasia left-brain specialization. - condition resulting from Language is primarily a left damage to Broca’s area (usually hemisphere activity for most in the left frontal lobe), causing individuals. the affected person to be unable to speak fluently, to Left side of the brain mispronounce words, and to - seems to control language, speak haltingly. writing, logical thought, Wernicke’s aphasia analysis, and mathematical - condition resulting from abilities, processes information damage to Wernicke’s area sequentially, can speak. (usually in left temporal lobe), Right side of the brain causing the affected person to - controls emotional expression, be unable to understand or spatial perception, recognition produce meaningful language. of faces, patterns, melodies, and Spatial neglect emotions, processes - condition produced by damage information globally, cannot to the association areas of the speak. right hemisphere resulting in an inability to recognize objects or body parts in the left visual field. SPLIT BRAIN RESEARCH Cerebrum - the upper part of the brain consisting of the two  1.3 SENSATION AND The sense organ for vision is the EYE PERCEPTION and the stimulus to which it is sensitive is in the form of GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY Sensory Awareness - Sensation is a process of acquiring messages or information through the sensory system electromagnetic rays known as light waves. Stimulus - anything that arouses a sense of organ The three coat of the eye: activity. Sclerotic coat: outermost covering of Receptor organs the eye which serves as a protective - a highly specialized part of the body coat. selectively sensitive to a definite Choroid coat: middle layer and is stimulus. made up of bloody tissues which gives nourishment to the eye. Distal senses Retina: innermost coat acting as true - The eyes and the ears are sensitive to organ of vision external stimuli coming from a distance in the outside environment. The internal part of the eye: Cornea: a convex shaped, tough and transparent membrane which covers SENSORY RECEPTORS the front of the eye and serves as a It has 2 general Characteristics: protective plate for the inner parts - Absolute Thresholds: refers to the with refractive functions. minimum amount of stimulation Aqueous humor: fluid in the inner required before the sensation is eye with refractive functions. evoked. Pupil: opening in the iris of the eye - Sensory Adaptation: refers to the through which light enters and the ability of the sense receptors. amount of light is regulated. Iris: a group of muscles operated by reflex actions which regulate the size VISION of the pupil  Lens: a crystalline structure which Astigmatism caused by the adjusts the light rays in order to focus irregularity in the the object to be projected to the retina. part of the cornea Vitreous humor: fluid in the eye causing distortion of which gives its round shape. the images as they are focused in the retina. The receptor cell of the eye found in retina: Diplopia caused by some Rods: enable the eye to function muscular irregularity in the under reduced illumination and make inner eye. colorless discrimination. Cones: enable the eye to function Scotoma a temporary blind spot caused by over during daylight vision and perceive exposure to light colors. and the abuse of substances. VISUAL DEFECTS PARTS OF DESCRIPTION Classification of Color: VISUAL DEFECTS 1. Chromatic Color is a color which has even the slightest amount of hue Myopia or The image comes 2. Achromatic Color is a one that lacks nearsightedness into focus slightly in hues such as white, gray and black front of the retina because the lens (Color Blind) may be too strong 3. Primary – Red, Green, Blue (RGB) for the length of the 4. Complementary - YMWC eyeball. Hyperopia or The image comes Color Blindness is the result when the farsightedness into focus behind cones in the eyes could not distinguish and the retina because respond to the color spectrum initiated by the eyeball is too the wavelength of light. short for close vision. Visual Defects Presbyopia results in the elasticity in the part Parts of Visual DESCRIPTION of the lens due to Defects old age. Achromatic color There is an absence - Inner Ear: composed of vestibular blindness/Monochr of cones in the eye portion and cochlea ome Color and the individual - Basilar Membrane: important for Blindness sees his understanding sound. environment in - Organ of Corti: Receptors of black and white. hearing. Dichromatic color One could not blindness/Red-Gre distinguish the Auditory Defects en Color Blindness absence of one of Deafness: may be total or partial the primary colors. deafness. It may come from several causes. One type may be due to infection called Otitis Media. Another may be due to HEARING damage of Cochlea The sense organ for hearing is the EAR and the stimulus to which it is sensitive is in the form of sound waves caused by the vibration of air waves. OLFACTORY SENSATION The sense organ for sense of smell is the Sound waves NOSE and the stimulus to which is sensitive - Intensity is in the form of gaseous substances. Any - Pitch Prolonged exposure odorous substance must first suspend in the - +85 decibels air for it to activate the olfactory receptors. - Hearing loss 6 classes of classifying odors: Flower Fruity Spicy Resinous Burnt or Smoky Foul Structure and Function of the Ear: - Outer Ear: composed of pinna, SENSE OF TASTE auditory canal and the ear drum. - Middle Ear: The sense organ for taste is the TONGUE and the stimulus to which it is sensitive is in has three tiny bones: hammer, anvil the form of chemical substances in liquid and the stirrups. form. Sense receptors for taste are called taste buds. VESTIBULAR SENSE Taste or Gustation 5 “tastes” Sense of balance & body position - Sweet relative to gravity - Sour Receptors are called semicircular - Salty canals & are located in inner ear - Bitter Send messages to cerebellum - Umami Processed by the vestibular organs that convey information about Chemical sense - both have sensory movement and body position. receptors that respond to molecules in the food we eat or in the air we breathe. Two kinds of DESCRIPTION Sensory interaction - is the process by vestibular organs which our five senses work with and influence each other. Otolith Organs tiny sacs found about cochlea. Semicircular SENSE OF TOUCH Canals circular tubes that The sense organ for sense of touch is the are filled with fluid SKIN, which is considered the largest organ and stimulate hair of the body. The stimuli to which it is like receptors when sensitive are the thermal pressure and rotated. These are temperature. Sense receptors for cutaneous located in the inner sensation are free nerve endings, basket ear. cells, tactile discs and specialized end bulbs. You know whether you are falling or going up, rotating or standing still, going forward or backward because of your vestibular KINESTHETIC SENSE sense. Awareness of body position & movement PERCEPTION Proprioceptive receptors in skin, joints, muscles and tendons. perception is the process of giving meaning - Kinesthesia comes from the to a stimulus received by the sense Greek words kenein (to move) receptors. and aesthesis (sensation) E.x. Close your eyes, take off your shoes and wiggle your toes.  FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE of perception to create a complete PERCEPTION whole perception. Characteristics of the Perceiver: STIMULUS Motivation: we tend to perceive more CHARACTERISTICS objects that are consistent with our Principle of Figure and motives. Thus, different motivations Ground Relationship: this can lead to different perceptions. principle states that when Age: (generation gap) we see a stimulus, part of Gender: differ in perception what we see is the center of our focus, Economic Status: individuals coming and the remaining part becomes the from different income group background. Values: Motivation and attitudes Past Experience: pleasant and Principle of Continuity: unpleasant experiences tend to color Perception tends to be our perception. directed by stimuli that maintain regularity rather Frame of Reference than irregularity. Types of Perception: Depth Perception: ability to perceive Principle of Proximity: objects three-dimensionally. *to see the Objects that are close to depth we use different cues – binocular and each other are perceived as monocular. one. In our society where interpersonal relationships are highly valued, people who frequently are seen Monocular cues Binocular cues close to each other. – Relative size – Are depth cues – Overlap or that depend on the Principle of Similarity: Interposition combination of the Stimuli of similar sizes, – Relative clarity images in the left shapes and even color tend – Texture gradient and right retinas to be group together. – Relative height – Motion parallax Principle of Closure: We – Linear perspective tend to perceive incomplete forms as complete. According to Speed of Movement Kellman, et al, missing This is another monocular cue. Objects sensory information is farther away appear to move across the automatically “filled in” in the process field vision more slowly than do closer objects.  - Example: Suppose the dog runs from Ponzo Illusion (Optical distance a distance, it appears to move slowly Illusion) but it runs right in front of us, it Poggendorff Illusion – Line that appears to move quickly. appears to pass behind solid objects at an angle appear to “move over” as they emerge. Perceptual Illusions PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCY Our perception of objects remains constant and stable regardless of its distance and (ESP) EXTRA SENSORY position. Look around you, you would PERCEPTION OR PSI probably see different objects like – chairs PHENOMENON – PERCEPTION and tables. Even if you walk around the WITHOUT SENSATION room and see these objects from different angles, your perception of their size and 4 known types of “ESP”: shape remains the same. Mental Telepathy – referred to as “mind reading” where one is able to Perceptual Constancy know the thoughts of another person - Size Constancy: size of objects without the use of any senses. remains the same even though the size Clairvoyance – the perception of of objects changes. external events without normal - Shape Constancy: shape of objects sensory stimulation. remains the same even though the Precognition – the ability to see shape of object changes. future events before they happen. - Brightness Constancy: the same Psychokinesis – is the ability of the degree of brightness remains even mind to move objects without actually though the amount of light fall on it moving them. differs. Perceptual Illusions – is the wrong perception of an objective stimulus. Hallucination is a perception of stimulus that does not exist. Examples of Perceptual Illusions: Muller-Lyer Illusion – This is a kind of illusion where 2 lines are equal in length, yet one line appears longer because of the effect of arrows. Zollner Illusion – Parallel lines look slanted because of the effect of short diagonal lines. Perceptual Illusions  1.4 CONSCIOUSNESS: Microsleeps - brief sidesteps into sleep lasting only a few seconds. Sleep deprivation - any significant loss of SLEEP, DREAMS, HYPNOSIS AND sleep, resulting in problems in concentration DRUGS and irritability. Adaptive theory - theory of sleep proposing that animals and humans evolved sleep CONSCIOUSNESS patterns to avoid predators by sleeping when predators are most active. Consciousness - a person’s awareness of Restorative theory - theory of sleep everything that is going on around him or proposing that sleep is necessary to the her at any given moment. physical health of the body and serves to Waking consciousness - state in which replenish chemicals and repair cellular thoughts, feelings, and sensations are clear, damage. organized, and the person feels alert. Altered state of consciousness - state in which there is a shift in the quality or pattern BRAIN WAVE PATTERNS of mental activity as compared to waking consciousness. Electroencephalograph (EEG) - allows scientists to see the brain wave activity as a person passes through the various stages of NECESSITY OF SLEEP sleep and to determine what type of sleep the person has entered. Circadian rhythm - a cycle of bodily Alpha waves - brain waves that rhythm that occurs over a 24-hour period. indicate a state of relaxation or light - “Circa” - about sleep. - “Diem” - day Theta waves - brain waves indicating Hypothalamus - tiny section of the brain the early stages of sleep. that influences the granular system. Delta waves - long, slow waves that - Suprachiasmatic nucleus - deep indicate the deepest stage of sleep. within the hypothalamus; the internal clock that tells people when to wake Notes: infants need far more sleep than older children and adults. Both REM sleep up and when to fall asleep. and NREM sleep decrease dramatically in - Tells pineal gland to secrete the first 10 years of life, with the greatest melatonin, which makes a person feel decrease in REM sleep. Nearly 50% of an sleepy. infant’s sleep is REM, compared to only 20% percent for a normal, healthy adult. (Roffwarg, 1966) SLEEP DISORDERS Nightmares - bad dreams occurring during STAGES OF SLEEP REM sleep. REM behavior disorder - a rare disorder in Rapid eye movement (REM) - stage of which the mechanism that blocks the sleep in which the eyes move rapidly under movement of the voluntary muscles fails, the eyelids and the person is typically allowing the person to thrash around and experiencing a dream. (bangungot) even get up and act out nightmares. - REM sleep is paradoxical sleep (high Sleepwalking(Somnambulism) - Occurring level of brain activity) during deep sleep, an episode of moving - If woken during REM sleep, almost around or walking around in one’s sleep. always report a dream. Sleepwalking is more common among - REM rebound - increased amounts children than adults. People with this of REM sleep after being deprived of disorder usually have no memory of this REM sleep on earlier nights. sleepwalking episode. NREM (non-REM) sleep - ant of the stages Night terrors - relatively rare disorder in of sleep that do not include REM. which the person experiences extreme fear Non-REM stage 1 - light sleep. and screams or runs around during deep May experience: sleep without waking fully. - Hypnagogic images or Insomnia - the inability to get to sleep, stay vivid visual events. asleep, or get a good quality of leep. Sleep apnea - disorder in which the person - Hypnic jerk - knees, stops breathing for nearly half a minute or legs, or whole body more. jerks. Narcolepsy - sleep disorder in which a Non-REM stage 2 - sleep spindles person falls immediately into REM sleep (brief bursts of activity only lasting a during the day without warning. second or two). - Cataplexy - sudden loss of muscle Non-REM stages 3 and 4 - delta tone. waves pronounced. - DEep sleep - when 50%+ of waves are delta waves.  SLEEP DISORDERS are falling. In a dream like that, the act of falling is the manifest content of the dream.) Name of disorder Primary - Latent content - the true, hidden symptoms meaning of a dream. (kabaliktaran ng Somnambulism Sitting, walking, or panaginip) performing Activation-synthesis hypothesis - complex behavior explanation that states that dreams are while sleeping. created by the higher centers of the cortex to Night terrors Extreme fear, explain the activation by the brain stem of agitation, cortical cells during REM sleep periods. screaming, while asleep. Restless leg Uncomfortable HYPNOSIS syndrome sensations in legs causing movement Hypnosis - state of consciousness in which and loss of sleep. the person is especially susceptible to Nocturnal leg Painful cramps in suggestion. cramps calf or foot Four elements of Hypnosis: muscles. - The hypnosis tells the person to focus hypersomnia Excessive daytime on what is being said. sleepiness. - The person is told to relax and feel tired. Circadian rhythm Disturbances of the disorders sleep-wake cycle - The hypnotist tells the person to “let such as jet lag and go” and accept suggestions easily. shift work. - The person is told to use vivid imagination. enuresis Urinating while asleep in bed. Hypnotic susceptibility - degree to which a person is a good hypnotic subject. THEORIES OF HYPNOSIS DREAMS Hypnosis as dissociation - hypnosis works Freud - dreams as wish fulfillment. only in a person’s immediate consciousness, - Manifest content - the actual dream while a hidden “observer” remains aware of itself. (many people dream that they all that was going on. Social-cognitive theory of hypnosis - - Caffeine - the stimulant found in theory that assumes that people who are coffee, tea, most sodas, chocolate, and hypnotized are not in an altered state but are even many over-the-counter drugs. merely playing the role expected of them in the situation. PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS DEPRESSANTS Psychoactive drugs - drugs that alter Depressants - drugs that decrease the thinking, perception, and memory. functioning of the nervous system. Physical Dependence - Barbiturates - depressant drugs that - Tolerance - more and more of the have a sedative effect. drug is needed to achieve the same - Benzodiazepines - drugs that lower effect. anxiety and reduce stress. - Withdrawal - physical symptoms that - Rohypnol - the “date rape” drug. can include nausea, pain, tremors, Alcohol - the chemical resulting from crankiness, and high blood pressure, fermentation or distillation of various kinds resulting from a lack of an addictive of vegetable matter. drug in the body systems. - Often confused as a stimulant but Psychological dependence - the feeling that actually a depressant on CNS. a drug is needed to continue a feeling of emotional or psychological well-being. NARCOTICS STIMULANTS Narcotics - A class of opium-related drugs that suppress the sensation of pain by Stimulants - drugs that increase the binding to and stimulating the nervous functioning of the nervous system. system’s natural receptor sites for - Amphetamines - drugs that are endorphins. synthesized (made in labs) rather than - Opium - substance derived from the found in nature. opium poppy from which all narcotic - Cocaine - natural drug; produces drugs are derived. euphoria, energy, power, and pleasure. - Morphine - narcotic drug derived - Nicotine - active ingredient in from opium, used to treat severe pain. tobacco.  - Heroin - narcotic drug derived from MARIJUANA opium that is extremely addictive. Marijuana (pot or weed) - mild hallucinogen derived from the HALLUCINOGENS leaves and flowers of a particular type of hemp plant. Psychogenic drugs - drugs including - Cannabis is reported to relieve pain in hallucinogens and marijuana that produce cases of multiple sclerosis and chronic hallucination or increased feelings of pain from nerve damage. Such use is relaxation and intoxication. controversial as cannabis is classified Hallucinogens - drugs that cause as an illegal drug in some countries. false sensory messages, altering the perception of reality. HALLUCINATIONS Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) - powerful synthetic hallucinogen. Hypnagogic hallucinations Phencyclidine (PCP) - synthesized - These hallucinations are vivid, often drug now used as an animal bizarre sensory experiences that occur tranquilizer that can cause stimulant, as a person is transitioning from depressant, narcotic, or hallucinogenic wakefulness to sleep. They can effects. involve seeing, hearing, or feeling MDMA (Ecstasy or X) - designer things that aren't actually there. These drug that can have both stimulant and hallucinations are a common hallucinatory effects. phenomenon and usually occur during Stimulatory Hallucinogens - drugs the hypnagogic state, which is the that produce a mixture of period just before falling asleep. psychomotor stimulant and Hypnopompic hallucinations hallucinogenic effects. - similar to hypnagogic hallucinations Mescaline - natural hallucinogen but occur during the transition from derived from the peyote cactus sleep to wakefulness, rather than from buttons. wakefulness to sleep. They happen as Psilocybin - natural hallucinogen you're waking up and can involve found in certain mushrooms. seeing, hearing, or feeling things that aren't actually present.