INL270 Indigenous Knowledge Capture PDF

UNIVERSITY OF PRETORIA INL270 Theme 4 (a) – Indigenous Knowledge: Capturing, retrieval, and access 1 Study objective: Upon the completion of this unit the student should be able to: discuss various research approaches to capturing Indigenous Knowledge, i.e....

UNIVERSITY OF PRETORIA INL270 Theme 4 (a) – Indigenous Knowledge: Capturing, retrieval, and access 1 Study objective: Upon the completion of this unit the student should be able to: discuss various research approaches to capturing Indigenous Knowledge, i.e. participatory research methods; discuss the role of ICTs during the capturing, retrieval and access to IK; discuss the process of digitisation; discuss what metadata scheme will be more appropriate for IK; discuss the best file formats available for the capturing of sound and moving images 2 General introduction More and more communities and organisations around the world are realising the value and significance of Indigenous knowledge and the importance of preserving it for future generations The capture and preservation of Indigenous knowledge is being used to revitalise endangered cultures, improve the economic independence and sustainability of Indigenous communities and to increase community-based involvement in planning and development. The role that information technologies (IT) can play in the capture, management and dissemination of IK is also being recognised 3 General introduction Indigenous communities are beginning to realize the potential benefits digital technologies can offer with regard to the documentation and preservation of their histories and cultures. However, they are also coming to understand the opportunities for knowledge misuse and misappropriation of their knowledge which may accompany digitization Various research approaches exists to capture Indigenous Knowledge, namely participatory research methods i.e Participatory Action Research, etc. 4 4.1 Participatory Action Research Information for this section taken from: – What is Participatory Action Research? http://www.scu.edu.au/schools/gcm/ar/ari/p- ywadsworth98.html – Kemmis, S. and R. McTaggart (1988) The Action Research Planner, 3rd ed, Geelong: Deakin University. – Grundy, S. (1982) Three modes of action research in S. Kemmis and R. McTaggart, ed. The Action Research Reader, Geelong: Deakin University Press. – Grundy, S (1986) Action Research and Human Interests. in M. Emery & P. Long (eds) Symposium May 22-23 1986, Research Network of the Australian Association of Adult Education. 5 4.1 Participatory Action Research Participatory action research (PAR) is a method of research where creating a positive social change is the predominant driving force. PAR grew out of social and educational research and exists today as one of the few research methods which embraces principles of participation and reflection, and empowerment and emancipation of groups seeking to improve their social situation. Participatory action research can be defined as "collective, self-reflective enquiry undertaken by participants in social situations in order improve the rationality and justice of their own social...practices" (Kemmis and McTaggart 1988: 5). 6 4.1 Participatory Action Research Research using PAR as it's method will happen in the four moments of action research, namely 1) reflection, 2) planning, 3) action and 4)observation. These research moments exist interdependently and follow each other in a spiral or cycle. 1) Reflection in PAR is that moment where the research participants examine and construct, then evaluate and reconstruct their concerns (Grundy, 1986: 28). Reflection includes the pre-emptive discussion of participants where they identify a shared concern or problem. 2) Planning in PAR is constructive and arises during discussions among the participants (Kemmis and McTaggart, 1988: 5) The Plan must be for critically examined action of each of the participants and include evaluation of the change. 7 4.1 Participatory Action Research 3) Action happens when the Plan is put into place and the hoped for improvement to the social situation occur. This action will be deliberate and strategic (Grundy, 1986: 28).It is here PAR differs from other research methods in that the action or change is happening in reality and not as an experiment 'just to see if it works'. 4) Observation in PAR is the 'research' portion of PAR' where the changes as outlined in the Plan are observed for its effects and the context of the situation (Kemmis and McTaggart 1988: 13). In this moment research tools, such as questionaries, can be utilised to ensure proper scientific methods are followed and results have meaning. Observation and Action often occur simultaneously 8 4.1 Participatory Action Research Concurrently existing with the moments of PAR are the Principles of PAR. These principles of PAR set PAR apart from traditional research methods and other modes of Action Research. Other modes of Action Research such as the 'Technical or Practical' modes do not embrace all of these principles (Grundy, 1982:355-357). These principles are participation, collaboration, empowerment, knowledge and Social change. 9 4.1 Participatory Action Research 10 4.1 Participatory Action Research 11 4.1 Participatory Action Research 12 4.2 16 Tenets of Participatory Action Research Robin McTaggart (1989) (http://www.caledonia.org.uk/par.htm#1) 1. Participatory action research is an approach to improving social practice by changing it and learning from the consequences of change. 2. Participatory action research is contingent on authentic participation which involves a continuing spiral of planning, acting (implementing plans), observing (systematically), reflecting and then re-planning and so round the spiral again. The process can be initiated in different ways: Collect initial data in an area of general interest (a reconnaissance), reflect on it, and then make a plan for changed action; Make an exploratory change, collect data on what happens, reflect, and then build more refined plans of action. 13 4.2 16 Tenets of Participatory Action Research 3. Participatory action research is collaborative: those responsible for action are involved in improving it. The collaborating group is widened from those most directly involved to directly involve as many as possible of those affected by the practices concerned. 4. Participatory action research establishes self-critical communities of people participating and collaborating in the research processes of planning, acting, observing and reflecting. it aims to build communities of people committed to enlightening themselves about the relationship between circumstance, action and consequence, and to emancipating themselves from the institutional and personal constraints which limit their power to live by their legitimate, and freely chosen social values. 14 4.2 16 Tenets of Participatory Action Research 5. Participatory action research is a systematic learning process in which people act deliberately through remaining open to surprise and responsive to opportunities. It is a process of using critical intelligence to inform action, and developing it so that social action becomes praxis (critically informed, committed action). 6. Participatory action research involves people in theorising about their practices. This involves them in being inquisitive about and coming to understand the relationship between circumstances, action and consequences in their own lives. The theories that participatory action research develops may be expressed initially in the form of rationales for practice. These initial rationales are then subjected to critical scrutiny through the participatory action research process.. 15 4.2 16 Tenets of Participatory Action Research 7. Participatory action research requires that people put their practices, ideas and assumptions about institutions to the test by gathering compelling evidence for substantiation 8. Participatory action research involves not only keeping records which describe what is happening as accurately as possible but also collecting and analysing the groups judgements, reactions and impressions about what is going on. 9. Participatory action research involves participants in objectifying their own experiences. This can be done by keeping a personal journal in which participants record their progress and their reflections about two parallel sets of learnings: (a) about the practices themselves (how the individual and collective practices are developing) and (b) about the process of studying the practices (how the action research project is going). 16 4.2 16 Tenets of Participatory Action Research 10. Participatory action research is a political process because it involves people in making changes that will affect others. For this reason it sometimes creates resistance to change, both in the participants themselves and in others. 11. Participatory action research involves making critical analyses of the institutionally structured situations (projects, programmes, systems) in which people work. The resistance to change felt by a researcher is due to conflicts between the proposed new practices and the accepted practices (eg concerning communication, decision-making and educational work) of the institution. This critical analysis will help the participatory action researcher to act politically by (a) involving others collaboratively in the research process and inviting them to explore their practices, and (b) by working in the wider institutional context towards more rational understandings, more just processes of decision-making, and more fulfilling forms of work for all involved. 17 4.2 16 Tenets of Participatory Action Research 12. Participatory action research starts small by working on minor changes which individuals can manage and control, and working towards more extensive patterns of change. These might include critiques of ideas of institutions which might lead to ideas for the general reforms of projects, programmes or system-wide policies and practices. Participants should be able to present evidence on how they articulated the thematic concern which holds their group together, and on how they established authentically shared agreements in the group. 13. Participatory action research starts with small cycles of planning, acting, observing and reflecting which can help to define issues, ideas and assumptions more clearly so that those involved can define more powerful questions for themselves as their work progresses. 18 4.2 16 Tenets of Participatory Action Research 14. Participatory action research starts with small groups of collaborators but widens the community of participating action researchers so that it gradually includes more and more of those involved and affected by the practices in question. 15. Participatory action research allows and requires participants to build records of their improvements: records of their changing activities and practices, records of the changes in the language and discourse in which they describe, explain and justify their practices,records of the change in the social relationships and forms of organisation which characterise and constrain their practice and records of the development of their expertise in the conduct of action research. 19 4.2 16 Tenets of Participatory Action Research 16. Participatory action research allows and requires participants to give a reasoned justification of their social (educational) work to others because they can show how the evidence they have gathered and the critical reflection they have done have helped them to create a developed, tested and critically examined rationale for what they are doing. Having developed such a rationale, they may legitimately ask others to justify their own practices in terms of their own theories and the evidence of their own critical self-reflection. 20 4.3 The role of ICTs in the capturing, retrieval and access to IK: Indigenous Knowledge Capture (taken from: The role of information technologies in Indigenous knowledge management Australian Academic & Research Libraries, June, 2005 by Jane Hunter) As we have seen, Indigenous knowledge encompasses many forms. It includes cultural heritage in the form of traditional stories, songs, dances and ceremonies that reflect beliefs related to spirituality, family, land and social justice. It includes potentially patentable knowledge about traditional medicines, foods, farm practices, architecture and construction, handicrafts, artwork and folk music. It includes knowledge about people, places, plants, animals, and historical events associated with a particular community. 21 4.3 The role of ICTs in the capturing, retrieval and access to IK: Indigenous Knowledge Capture The first steps in many Indigenous knowledge projects involve identifying the material to be preserved and then capturing it in a digital form so that it can be systematically documented, shared, and re-used by permitted groups or individuals. Determining the optimum and most culturally appropriate approach to selecting, eliciting, recording, describing and disseminating this knowledge without insensitivity, intrusion, constraints, degradation or misrepresentation of the content, is a challenge that is often underestimated. Appropriate consultative processes need to be established to identify and prioritise the material to be captured. 22 4.3 The role of ICTs in the capturing, retrieval and access to IK: Indigenous Knowledge Capture Alternative digital technologies and environments for recording and storing the data need to be compared and evaluated. Because of the oral tradition of Indigenous knowledge, audiovisual digital recording devices such as digital video cameras and audio recorders are a primary tool for capturing techniques, practices, stories, language, songs and dances. Scanners are being used to digitise photographs, manuscripts, maps and historic documents. Increasingly 3D scanners are used to generate 3D digital surrogates of physical artifacts in museums and cultural institutions, such as tools, shields, carvings, clothing and baskets. 23 4.3 The role of ICTs in the capturing, retrieval and access to IK: Indigenous Knowledge Capture But there are still many issues which need to be resolved. For example, should audio be saved as WAV or MP3 files? Is QuickTime, MPEG-4 or MPEG-2 the best format for archiving video content? What digital media should be used for storing the content eg hard disk, DAT, CD, DVD or FlashRAM? What are the advantages and disadvantages of recording in a controlled environment such as a studio, as opposed to in the field or from a live performance? Should the content be edited to improve or enhance it afterwards? Solutions to many of these questions will depend on a detailed analysis of the specific project and community needs. 24 4.3.1 Virtual repatriation Many museums, archives, libraries and cultural institutions throughout the world hold large collections of objects that are of cultural or historical significance to Indigenous communities. Because many of these objects were collected without the consent of the traditional owners, the custodial organisations are now facing the challenges of determining ownership, seeking direction from the traditional owners on the future of such objects and either repatriating them, storing them or exhibiting them appropriately as requested. This process is made more difficult because colonisation has caused many Indigenous communities to become dispossessed of their lands and widely dispersed geographically. 25 4.3.1 Virtual repatriation New, innovative high quality 2D and 3D scanners, collaborative interactive software tools, high-speed networks and emerging grid technologies that facilitate communication and the sharing of resources and knowledge between geographically dispersed groups, are providing an infrastructure that is ideally suited to the implementation of such digital and physical repatriation programs. Past experience has indicated that many tribal communities would initially like access to the records of all objects in institutional collections associated with their community. After reviewing these, some communities may request that the actual physical artefact be repatriated but many communities will be satisfied with copies of digital surrogates and access to physical objects when requested. 26 4.3.2 Community mapping Indigenous communities have close ties to the land, which is not only seen as a means of production and livelihood eg for hunting and gathering, but also as part of Indigenous people's spiritual and cultural traditions. Consequently a significant proportion of Indigenous knowledge is directly related to land. Community-based mapping projects have been established within a number of Indigenous communities to delineate and document the native customary land boundary and thus help preserve the community's traditional knowledge related to their customary land. 27 4.3.2 Community mapping Once documented, the community map can be used as a tool for negotiation and resolving disputes between the community and outside parties or within the community itself and to strengthen the community's land, fishing and hunting claims. Community maps can also be applied as a tool for community-based resource management. To date, they have been used to identify sites or landscape features of cultural significance, to document flora and fauna distribution and Indigenous biodiversity knowledge and to provide input to land, forest and fire management, conservation and planning. 28 4.3.2 Community mapping Community mapping projects are being undertaken in Australia, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Cambodia, Mozambique and Ecuador. Over the past ten years, community mapping has seen significant transformation. The technologies and methods used by Indigenous communities has advanced from basic compass and tape with hand plotted map to modern sophisticated GPS mapping and the use of portable digital assistants (PDAs), digital cameras and GIS software to produce community maps and related, spatially-indexed knowledge. Additional benefits from such projects include training of Indigenous staff and the production of reference materials on community mapping in the local language. 29 4.3.3 Digital Libraries Digital libraries can be used to store, as well as disseminate IK A number of countries are using information technologies to develop digital libraries of traditional knowledge both to use the knowledge in current community projects and also to prevent misappropriation of the knowledge through commercial patents. India in particular has developed a Traditional Knowledge Digital Library that contains information on 36,000 formulations used in Ayurveda--India's 5000-year-old system of traditional medicine. The information--presented in English, French, German, Spanish and Japanese--was created in a format accessible by international patent offices to prevent the granting of inappropriate patents. 30 4.3.4 Local Knowledge Bases Many Indigenous communities are developing local Indigenous Knowledge Bases either informally or within Indigenous Knowledge and Cultural Centres (IKCs) established specifically for this task. The digital content being assembled and presented within these IKCs is either captured locally, donated or repatriated from external private and public collections belonging to museums, church archives, community members, anthropologists, missionaries, and others. Determining the optimum software solutions to support such knowledge bases requires an analysis of the communities' needs and objectives. 31 4.3.4 Local Knowledge Bases Prior to the development of the IKM system, the following set of generic requirements were identified that apply across many Indigenous communities' knowledge bases: – Security: because of the sacred/secret nature of the content, it is essential that robust, reliable IT security mechanisms are employed. The specific rights management requirements corresponding to customary laws associated with secret or sacred knowledge are described in detail below. – Simple user interfaces: many of the potential users of this type of system will have limited computer literacy and poor keyboard skills so simple intuitive user-friendly interfaces are essential. 32 4.3.4 Local Knowledge Bases – Robustness: the system must be able to stand up to the rigours of unexpected input by users with little prior computing experience. – Low cost: in order to make the software open source and widely accessible to Indigenous and grassroots communities, it must be built as inexpensively as possible, ideally using components that are freely available. – Interoperability: the software tools should be built on international standards (eg Dublin Core, XML) in order to ensure maximise the interoperability between disparate databases. 33 4.3.4 Local Knowledge Bases – Portability: it should be able to run on a range of platforms and operating systems including Windows, Linux and Macintosh. Within the IKM software we employ Java, XML and SMIL (Synchronised Multimedia Integration Language) for the software development environment to ensure transparent portability across platforms. – Flexibility: the customary laws and intellectual property needs of traditional knowledge holders vary enormously among Indigenous communities throughout the world. Quite often the views within a single clan can vary significantly and they may also vary over time. The system must attempt to support by default the common notions across most Indigenous communities. In addition, Schema editing tools can be provided in order to provide maximum flexibility and to enable easy customisation of the software. 34 4.3.4 Local Knowledge Bases – Adaptability: both Indigenous knowledge and knowledge management technologies are dynamic and constantly evolving--the corresponding systems and infrastructure must be designed to be flexible and adaptable in order to support these changing needs. As new relevant technology becomes available and affordable (eg voice recognition for spoken word interfaces) it should be able to be incorporated with minimum cost or effort. – Scalability: the size of collections within IKCs can reach hundreds of thousands. The software should be capable of efficiently performing fine-grained search and retrieval across very large sets of resources. Attribute-based rights management, which involves comparing the user profile of the searcher against the rights metadata for each object, may substantially affect the speed of query retrieval for large data sets. 35 QUESTIONS??? 36