Computer Components and Hardware PDF

Computers work in a similar way The CPU is the brain of the computer. It does all the thinking and the calculations. The CPU doesn’t store the data Storage and memory is used to store data and information on the computer CPU Storage CPU & storage...

Computers work in a similar way The CPU is the brain of the computer. It does all the thinking and the calculations. The CPU doesn’t store the data Storage and memory is used to store data and information on the computer CPU Storage CPU & storage The cpu does calculations and they are stored in a storage device The cpu is super fast (modern day CPU’s can do more than 4 billion calculations per second so the storage should be super fast to keep up with the cpu The faster the storage, the higher the cost Storage (RAM and Hard Disk) Ram: it is very fast and very expensive, and it means we cant have a large amount in the computer as it will make the computer very expensive HDD: it is slow and more cost effective so it makes it possible to keep photos and videos How does RAM and HDD’s work Computers have large hard disks because it stores a lot of data for cheap When the user wants to run an application it will take the application from the hard drive and put it in the ram so that it can work faster When the ram is full the cpu will work from the files from the hard disk and will thus slow down the computer Computer hardware What was previously talked about was the physical and tangible aspects of a computer The differences between hardware and software: Hardware are physical parts you can touch and see while software’s are set of instructions that tells what the hardware to do Computer software Software is a set of instructions, data or programs used to operate computers and execute specific tasks There are 2 categories of software’s: o An application: is a software that fulfills a specific need or performs tasks. o A system software: is designed to run a computers hardware and provides a platform for applications to run on top of Programming languages A programming language is a software we use to create applications Programming is the action taken by someone to write the instructions needed to create the programs What are computers made of? Technically plastic and metal But also electricity, which are on and off states (binary) i.e. 1’s and 0’s And the binary system is primarily 8 bit binary What is a pixel? A pixel is the smallest element in an electronic image, it is simply a dot on the screen. The more pixels, the better the image A large group of pixels is called resolution, the higher the count the more details in the photo Screen size is the actual viewable area of a display and is measured diagonally from one corner to the opposite corner Native resolution is the maximum resolution of the display How music is stored These points represent how the speaker will move to make a sound, on average it takes 44,000 thousand samples per second; the more samples per second, the higher quality the audio Networking For 2 computers to share files, data and communicate they will need a network card to connect them to each other A network card will transfer the binary data into a signal that will be transmitted over the wires to the next computers Storage measuring units KB – Kilo Byte = 1024 Byte ~ almost 1000 Byte MB – Mega Bytes = 1024 KB ~ almost 1 million Byte GB – Giga Byte = 1024 MB ~ almost 1 Billion Byte TB – Tera Byte = 1024 GB ~ almost 1 Trillion Byte\ CPU speed MHz Mega Hertz = 1 Million Hertz. GHz Giga Hertz = 1 Billion Hertz. What is a Computer? Slide Reference: Introduction to Computer Parts Definition: A computer is any digital device capable of: 1. Accepting input from sources like keyboards, cameras, microphones, etc. 2. Processing data to transform inputs into meaningful information. 3. Providing output in forms such as images, videos, and audio. 4. Storing data for future use. Examples of Computers: o PCs, laptops, MACs, mobile devices, smart TVs, smart fridges, smart cars, etc. Hardware vs. Software Slide Reference: Hardware vs. Software Hardware: Physical components such as: o Processor (CPU), memory (RAM), storage devices, ports, and peripherals. Software: o Set of instructions that guide hardware functions, including: ▪ Operating Systems (e.g., Windows, macOS). ▪ Applications (e.g., word processors, games). System Unit (Computer Case) Slide Reference: The System Unit "Case" of a computer Purpose: Houses the internal components of a computer. Internal Components: o Power supply, motherboard, CPU, RAM, disk drives, adapter cards. Form Factor: Refers to the physical design or size of the case.  o Common desktop form factors include tower cases and small form factor cases. ▪ Horizontal case ▪ Full size tower ▪ Compact tower ▪ All in one Power Supplies Slide Reference: Power Supplies Function: Converts AC power from wall sockets (220V/110V) into DC power (3.3V, 5V, 12V) for internal components. Common Power Supply Types: 1. AT: Early models from the 1990s. 2. ATX: Updated version of AT; widely used. 3. ATX12V: Most common today. 4. EPS12V: Initially for servers, now common in gaming PCs. Cables: 1. Motherboard Power Cables: Some older motherboards require a single cable; modern boards may need multiple connections. 2. Peripheral Cables: o SATA: Connects hard drives and DVDs. o Molex: Powers older IDE devices. 3. Graphics Card Cables: o PCI Express connectors with 4, 6, or 8 pins. Motherboard Slide Reference: Motherboard Definition: The main circuit board that enables communication between CPU, RAM, and peripherals. Functions:  o Acts as the computer's "infrastructure," similar to roads and power networks in a city. o Connects components using buses for data transfer and distributes power. Chipset: Northbridge: Manages high-speed communication (CPU, RAM, PCI Express). Southbridge: Handles lower-speed devices (USB, SATA drives, peripherals). CPU (Central Processing Unit) Slide Reference: What is the Processor? Function: The CPU acts as the brain of the computer, executing instructions and performing calculations. Key Components: o Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Handles arithmetic operations and logic tasks. o Control Unit: Directs execution of program instructions. o Registers: Temporary storage for data during processing. Machine Cycle: 1. Fetch: Retrieves instructions/data from RAM. 2. Decode: Translates instructions into computer-readable language. 3. Execute: Carries out the instruction. 4. Store: Saves the results for further use. Clock Speed: Measured in Hertz (Hz), modern CPUs operate in GHz (billions of cycles per second). Cooling Systems Slide Reference: Cooling System Importance: Prevents overheating of components such as CPU, RAM, and graphics cards.  Types: 1. Passive Cooling: Uses metal fins to distribute heat; silent but less efficient. 2. Active Cooling: Combines fins with fans to improve heat dissipation. 3. Liquid Cooling: Uses liquid to absorb and remove heat; highly efficient. Thermal Paste: Enhances contact between the CPU and the cooling system for better heat transfer. RAM (Random Access Memory) Slide Reference: What is the RAM? Purpose: Temporary storage for active processes and data. o RAM is erased when power is lost. Types: DDR, DDR2, DDR3, DDR4, GDDR (used in GPUs). Performance Impact: RAM determines system speed and multitasking capabilities. Storage (Hard Drives) Slide Reference: Hard Disk Types of Storage: 1. HDD: Traditional spinning disk. 2. SSD: Faster, no moving parts. 3. NVMe: High-speed storage connected via PCIe. Storage Measurement Units: Bit, Byte, KB, MB, GB, TB, PB. Graphics Cards Slide Reference: Graphic Card Types: 1. Integrated Graphics: Built into the motherboard or CPU; shares system RAM. 2. Discrete Graphics Cards: Dedicated cards installed into PCIe slots; ideal for gaming or video editing. Main Manufacturers: NVIDIA and AMD. 1. Overview of BIOS and CMOS BIOS (Basic Input/Output System): o A firmware program stored in ROM (Read-Only Memory) on the motherboard. o Its primary purpose is to initialize and test hardware components and load the operating system (OS). o The term "BIOS" is also used to refer to the ROM chip itself in modern usage. o BIOS remains unchanged even without power due to its storage on non- volatile ROM. CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor): o Stores user-configurable settings for BIOS (e.g., system time, boot sequence, enabled/disabled hardware components). o Unlike BIOS, CMOS is volatile memory and requires constant power supplied by a CMOS battery. o If the battery dies, CMOS resets to default settings stored in BIOS. 2. The Boot Process The boot process is a sequence of steps the computer undergoes when powered on: Step 1: Power ON & BIOS Loading When the power button is pressed: o The power supply runs a self-check and ensures proper voltage levels.  o If successful, the power supply sends a "power good" signal to the CPU, initiating its startup. CPU Initialization: o CPU fetches its initial instructions from a specific ROM memory address containing the BIOS program. o The BIOS provides the instructions for further steps in the boot sequence. Step 2: Power-On Self-Test (POST) The BIOS performs POST, which: o Diagnoses and verifies the proper functioning of critical hardware components like the CPU, RAM, and drives. o Errors during POST are signaled using beep codes: ▪ 1 beep: Normal operation. ▪ Multiple/no beeps: Indicates a failure (e.g., motherboard issues, faulty RAM). If POST fails: o Possible solutions include checking cable connections, reseating hardware components, or resetting CMOS settings. Step 3: Loading the Operating System 1. Finding the Boot Device: o The BIOS checks the boot sequence (configured in CMOS settings) to locate the OS. o Possible boot devices: hard drives, USB drives, DVDs, or network servers. o By default, hard drives are the primary boot device. 2. Identifying the OS: o BIOS searches for the Master Boot Record (MBR) or GUID Partition Table (GPT) on the boot device. o These contain critical information about the OS and instructions to load the kernel. 3. Loading the Kernel: o The OS kernel, the core of the operating system, is loaded into RAM to manage the system and execute tasks. Step 4: System Configuration Once the kernel is loaded, additional components are initialized: o Settings: ▪ Configuration details like background image, default devices, and preferences are retrieved from the Registry. o Devices: ▪ Peripheral devices (e.g., printers, keyboards, graphics cards) are reconnected based on stored configurations. o Drivers: ▪ Essential programs that allow the OS to interact with hardware components. ▪ Every piece of hardware (e.g., a printer or display) requires a specific driver. Step 5: System Utility Loads Utility Programs: o Examples include antivirus software, volume control, or unplugging utilities for external devices. o These programs load into memory during boot to provide essential services. Performance Note: o Having too many autostart programs can slow down the boot process. Step 6: User Authentication The final step before granting system access. Verification methods: o Username/Password: Standard method for most OS. o Biometric Authentication: Fingerprint or face recognition in modern systems. 3. BIOS vs CMOS  BIOS: oNon-volatile firmware. o Stores instructions required for system startup. o Cannot be modified easily; updates are required for changes. CMOS: o Volatile memory. o Saves user settings like boot order, time/date, and enabled devices. o Requires power to retain data; resets if the CMOS battery dies. 4. Updating BIOS Updates provide fixes, improve hardware compatibility, and add features. Stored on Flash ROM for easy updating. Risks: o Interruptions during updates can corrupt the BIOS, rendering the system unbootable. 5. BIOS vs UEFI BIOS (Legacy): o Basic and limited functionality. o Introduced in the 1990s and not equipped for modern hardware needs. UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface): o Replaces BIOS on modern systems. o Offers advanced features like Secure Boot, support for larger drives, and enhanced security. 6. Troubleshooting BIOS and CMOS 1. Common Issues: o System fails to boot or hardware not recognized. o Incorrect date/time: Indicative of a dying CMOS battery. o Persistent errors: Often resolved by resetting BIOS settings. 2. Resetting CMOS: o Methods:  ▪ Use the CMOS reset switch on the motherboard. ▪ Move CMOS jumper pins (1-2 to 2-3 and back). ▪ Remove and replace the CMOS battery after a brief interval. 7. Electrical Power Insights Voltage (V): o The pressure driving electricity through a device. o Example: Wall sockets deliver 220V in some regions, while electronics typically use 3.3V, 5V, or 12V. Current (Amperes, A): o Measures the flow of electrical charge. o Higher current means more electricity is supplied per second. Wattage (W): o Total power consumption of a device. o Important when choosing power supplies or chargers (e.g., a higher wattage charger can power multiple devices simultaneously). 8. Power Protection Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS): o Provides temporary power during outages. o Prevents data loss and hardware damage. Surge Protectors: o Shields devices from voltage spikes caused by lightning or power surges. Detailed Notes on Disk Management 1. Hard Disk Basics Definition: o A Hard Disk Drive (HDD) stores user files, the operating system (OS), and applications. o Performance metrics: ▪ Storage capacity: Determines how much data (files, photos, etc.) can be stored. ▪ Data transfer speed: Impacts how quickly files are read/written (affects load times for applications or the OS). Storage Technologies: o Magnetic Storage (HDDs, Tapes): ▪ Stores data using magnetic fields on rotating platters. ▪ Average transfer speeds: 80-160 MB/s. ▪ Examples: Magnetic tapes for backups and HDDs for general storage. o Solid-State Drives (SSDs): ▪ Uses flash memory with no moving parts. ▪ Average transfer speeds: 2000-3500 MB/s. o NVMe Drives: ▪ Faster SSDs using PCIe (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express). ▪ Enables parallel data transfers for speeds up to 32 GB/s. 2. Magnetic Storage (HDDs) How it Works: o Data is stored by altering the magnetic polarity of tiny metal particles on spinning platters. o A read/write head moves across platters to access or write data. Disadvantages: o Slower due to reliance on moving parts. o Susceptible to damage from physical shocks or temperature changes. o Noisy, consumes more power, and is larger/heavier compared to SSDs. Magnetic Tapes:  o Used for backups in enterprise settings. o Features: ▪ High capacity: Up to 580 TB (IBM). ▪ Low cost: Average $40 for 10 TB. ▪ Longevity: Can retain data for 30+ years. o Limitations: Slow read/write speeds and no single-file access. 3. Solid-State Drives (SSDs) Technology: o Utilizes flash memory chips arranged in layers to store data electronically. o Types of memory cells: ▪ Single-level cells (SLC): Store one bit per cell. ▪ Multi-level cells (MLC): Store multiple bits per cell. Advantages: o Fast: Transfer rates far exceed HDDs. o No moving parts: Durable, silent, and consumes less power. o Used in laptops, USB drives, SD cards, and smartphones. Disadvantages: o Limited write cycles (10,000–30,000 for home use). o Not ideal for long-term inactive storage (can lose data after years without power). 4. NVMe Drives Definition: o NVMe (Non-Volatile Memory Express) leverages the PCIe bus for ultra-fast data transfers. o Processes multiple requests simultaneously (parallel communication). Comparison to SSDs: o NVMe drives are significantly faster than SATA-based SSDs. o While SATA SSDs handle one data request at a time, NVMe supports multiple queues. Installation: o Requires a PCIe slot on the motherboard. o Older motherboards may need a PCIe adapter. 5. File Systems Definition: o A file system organizes, retrieves, and manages data on storage devices. o Functions: ▪ Hierarchical organization of files/directories. ▪ Manages data access, naming conventions, and security permissions. ▪ Ensures data integrity during power failures or hardware issues. Common File Systems: o NTFS: Used by Windows; supports permissions, compression, and fault tolerance. o FAT32: Compatible with most devices but lacks advanced features. o exFAT: Supports large files; used on USB drives. o APFS: Optimized for macOS and SSDs. FAT System: o Divides disks into blocks for data storage. o Tracks usage (Free = 0, Occupied = 1, End-of-File = -1) using the File Allocation Table (FAT). 6. Disk Partitioning Definition: o Divides a hard drive into independent sections (e.g., C:, D:, E:). o Necessary for organizing data or running multiple operating systems. Benefits: o Keeps OS separate from user data. o Supports dual-boot configurations. o Simplifies organization for specific tasks (e.g., separate partitions for games or media). 7. Disk Formatting Definition:  o Configures a disk to create a file system, allowing the OS to organize and write data. o Formatting deletes all data on the disk. Steps: 1. Partition the disk. 2. Format partitions to make them usable by the OS. Technical vs. Practical Formatting: o Technical: Prepares the disk and creates a file system. o Practical (Market): Involves backup, formatting, OS installation, and application setup. 8. MBR vs GPT Master Boot Record (MBR): o Used by BIOS systems. o Supports up to 4 primary partitions and disks up to 2 TB. GUID Partition Table (GPT): o Used by UEFI systems. o Allows more partitions and supports disks larger than 2 TB. o Essential for modern OS like Windows 11. 9. Recovery Partitions Definition: o A hidden disk partition used for restoring the system to factory settings. o Types: ▪ Windows Recovery: OS-specific restoration tools. ▪ Manufacturer Recovery: Factory settings (e.g., Lenovo's F11 key). Note: Deleting recovery partitions saves space but prevents system restoration without external tools. 10. Hard Drive Maintenance Tools: o Windows Disk Management:  ▪Manage partitions, format drives, and check health. o CHKDSK: Built-in Windows tool for repairing bad sectors. o Third-party tools: CrystalDiskInfo, HD Tune. Defragmentation: o Reorganizes scattered file blocks on HDDs to improve speed. o Not necessary for SSDs. Data Recovery: o Tools like EaseUS can recover deleted/formatted data. o Secure wiping tools overwrite data multiple times to prevent recovery. Detailed Notes on Operating Systems 1. Introduction to Operating Systems What is an Operating System (OS)? Definition: o An Operating System (OS) is software that serves as a bridge between a computer's hardware components and the user. o Every computer system must have an operating system installed to function. Purpose: o Hardware components like the CPU, RAM, hard drive, printer, or Bluetooth card are not user-friendly by themselves. o The OS manages and coordinates hardware resources to ensure smooth operation. o It provides an intuitive interface for users to interact with the hardware. Example: o When printing a document: ▪ Users select print settings using a graphical interface. ▪ The OS handles complex hardware tasks like managing paper feeding, flipping, and stapling, ensuring everything works seamlessly. 2. Components of a Computer System A computer system is made up of four main components:  1. Hardware: o Provides basic computing resources. o Includes the CPU, memory (RAM), hard drive, and input/output devices like keyboards or printers. 2. Operating System: o Controls and coordinates hardware usage among applications and users. o Examples include Windows, Android, and iOS. 3. Application Programs: o Software programs designed for specific tasks (e.g., Word processors, web browsers, or video games). o These utilize the OS to access hardware and resources. 4. Users: o Entities interacting with the system, such as humans, other computers, or machines. 3. Key Functions of an Operating System 1. File Management: o Manages file-related activities like: ▪ Storing, organizing, retrieving, sharing, and protecting files. ▪ Handling storage devices (e.g., hard drives, SSDs, DVDs). o Ensures files are stored in an organized way to optimize performance. 2. Device Management: o Keeps track of all connected hardware devices. o Uses driver software to communicate with and operate hardware components. 3. Security: o Implements security settings and rules to protect the system. o Examples include permission settings, encryption, and access control. o Mobile OS (e.g., iOS) are known for specific security features like app sandboxing. 4. Networking: o Manages communication between devices on a network. o Enables data exchange and connectivity with other systems. 5. Process Management: o Manages the execution of processes (program actions) by: ▪ Creating, scheduling, and terminating them.  ▪Ensuring the CPU executes commands efficiently for multiple applications. 6. Memory Management: o Allocates and deallocates memory to running programs. o Keeps track of which part of memory is being used and by which application. o Prevents conflicts between multiple programs trying to access the same memory space. 4. Types of Operating Systems 1. Graphical User Interface (GUI): o Uses visual elements like windows, icons, menus, and scrollbars to interact with the system. o Commonly used in modern OS such as Windows, macOS, and Android. o Designed for ease of use, especially for non-technical users. 2. Command-Line Interface (CLI): o A text-based interface requiring typed commands. o Example: Linux/Unix. o CLI is more flexible and powerful but requires knowledge of specific commands. 5. Components of an Operating System 1. Kernel: o The core program that always runs when a computer is powered on. o Handles: ▪ Memory management. ▪ Process scheduling. ▪ Hardware communication. 2. System Programs: o Utilities and tools bundled with the OS, such as File Explorer, Paint, and Task Manager. o These support system operations and provide user interfaces. 3. Middleware Frameworks: o Sits between the OS and applications.  o Provides additional services like communication protocols, data management, or authentication frameworks (e.g., Java,.NET Core). 6. Examples of Operating Systems Desktop/Server OS: o Windows, macOS, Linux. Mobile OS: o Android, iOS, BlackBerry. Server-Specific OS: o Windows Server, Linux (commonly used in enterprise environments). 7. Updates and Upgrades 1. Updates: o Fix security vulnerabilities, address bugs, and improve performance. o Examples: ▪ Microsoft Patch Tuesday: Monthly updates for Windows. ▪ Samsung Galaxy Updates: Four years of Android updates for eligible devices. 2. Upgrades: o Major version releases with new features and improvements. o Examples: ▪ Windows: Windows 7 → 8 → 10 → 11. ▪ macOS: macOS Monterey → Ventura (current macOS 14 as of 2024). ▪ Android: Versions like Android 13 → 14. 3. Editions: o OS manufacturers offer different editions tailored for specific user needs. o All editions share the same core but differ in features and price. 8. Specialized Operating Systems 1. Server OS: o Designed for client-server environments. o Focuses on:  ▪ Security and stability. ▪ Multi-user management. ▪ Running mission-critical applications. o Example: Windows Server (2003–2022). 2. Unix and Linux: o Unix: ▪ Command-line-based OS, foundational for systems like macOS and Android. ▪ Distributed under an open-source license. o Linux: ▪ A Unix-based free OS, widely used on servers and by IT professionals. ▪ Known for its flexibility, stability, and security. 9. Operating System Comparison 1. Android vs. iOS: o Android allowed simultaneous access to front and back cameras before iOS. o iOS introduced "Offloading Apps" for saving storage without losing app data. 2. Linux vs. Windows: o Linux offers more secure file handling and permissions. 10. History of Operating Systems 1. Microsoft Windows: o 1981: MS-DOS (CLI-based). o 1985–1990: Windows 1.0–3.0 (introduced GUI). o 1995–1998: Windows 95, 98 (modern GUI OS). o Modern versions: ▪ Windows XP (2001), Windows 7 (2009), Windows 10 (2015), Windows 11 (2021). 2. macOS: o Began as Macintosh System Software in 1984. o Modern macOS evolved from NeXTSTEP (Unix-based). 3. Unix and Linux:  o Unix was foundational for developing many modern OS. o Linux remains a critical skill for IT professionals, especially in server environments. 11. Mobile Operating Systems Examples: o Android, iOS, BlackBerry. Features: o Optimized for smaller, less powerful devices. o Enhanced support for touchscreens and mobile hardware. 12. Experimentation and Customization Operating systems are generally designed for specific hardware (e.g., Android for mobile devices, macOS for Apple computers). Experimentation includes: o Installing Android on a laptop. o Running Windows on a Mac. These setups are not fully functional and are considered experimental. Detailed Notes on Computer Management 1. Understanding OS Processes What is a Process? Definition: o A process is an instance of a program currently being executed by the operating system (OS). o It includes the program’s code, current activity, and allocated resources. Components of a Process: 1. CPU State: ▪ Tracks the commands being executed and the next instructions.  ▪ Maintains registers like: ▪ Program Counter (PC): Points to the next instruction. ▪ Stack Pointer (SP): Points to the process's stack. ▪ Ensures smooth multitasking by saving and restoring process states during context switches. 2. Memory Space: ▪ Each process has isolated memory to ensure data security and stability. ▪ Prevents processes from accessing or modifying each other's data accidentally or maliciously. 3. Resource Allocations: ▪ Resources like CPU time, memory, file handles, and I/O devices are allocated by the OS. ▪ Example: When multiple processes request access to a printer, the OS schedules and coordinates usage to avoid conflicts. 2. Multitasking and Scheduling Multitasking: Enables multiple processes to appear to run simultaneously, even though most CPUs can execute only one instruction at a time. The OS rapidly switches between processes, creating the illusion of simultaneous execution. Scheduling Algorithms: Determines how CPU time is allocated among processes. 1. First-Come, First-Served (FCFS): o Executes processes in the order they arrive. 2. Round Robin (RR): o Allocates a fixed time slice to each process, cycling through a queue. 3. Priority Scheduling: o Executes processes based on priority levels. 3. Understanding OS Services Definition: OS services are background programs that perform essential tasks without user interaction. These services ensure smooth system operation and application performance. Examples of OS Services: 1. Windows Update: o Automatically checks for and installs updates. o Troubleshooting: Restarting the Windows Update service can resolve update failures. 2. Print Spooler: o Manages print jobs to ensure seamless printing. o Troubleshooting: Restarting this service can resolve printer queues or non- responsive printers. 3. Windows Defender: o Runs virus scans and provides security against malware. 4. Task Manager Definition: A system utility for monitoring processes, applications, and overall system performance. Allows users to: o View resource usage (CPU, memory, disk, network). o End unresponsive applications. o Monitor background processes. Access Methods: Via Taskbar: Right-click the taskbar and select "Task Manager." Keyboard Shortcut: Press Ctrl + Alt + Del and choose "Task Manager." Key Tabs: 1. Processes Tab: o Displays all running applications and processes categorized into: ▪ Apps: User-opened programs like browsers.  ▪ Background Processes: Services running in the background, e.g., cloud sync tools. ▪ Windows Processes: Essential system operations, e.g., Windows Explorer. o Useful for: ▪ Identifying high resource usage. ▪ Ending unresponsive tasks. 2. Performance Tab: o Shows real-time resource usage for: ▪ CPU: Indicates high usage from demanding apps or poorly optimized programs. ▪ Memory (RAM): Highlights if too many applications are running. ▪ Disk: Reflects data read/write activity. o Helps diagnose slow performance and identify bottlenecks. 3. App History Tab: o Tracks past resource usage for troubleshooting issues that occurred earlier. 4. Startup Tab: o Lists applications that launch at startup. o Allows users to disable unnecessary startup programs to improve boot time. 5. Users Tab: o Displays active users and their resource usage. 6. Details Tab: o Advanced settings to modify CPU priority for specific processes (not typically required). 7. Services Tab: o Lists all system services and their statuses. o Advanced users can identify and restart critical services. 5. Control Panel Utilities Definition: A centralized tool for configuring Windows settings and hardware. Key Utilities: 1. System and Security:  o Configure Windows Defender Firewall and security settings. 2. Network and Internet: o Set up and troubleshoot networking and file sharing. 3. Hardware and Sound: o Manage printers, audio devices, and power settings. 4. Programs: o Install, modify, or remove software and updates. 5. User Accounts: o Manage user credentials and permissions. 6. Ease of Access: o Accessibility settings for users with physical or perceptual challenges. 7. Clock and Region: o Adjust time, date, and regional settings. 8. Appearance and Personalization: o Customize the taskbar, file explorer, and system fonts. 6. Windows Registry Definition: A hierarchical database storing settings for Windows and installed applications. Tracks configurations like: o Desktop background. o Application preferences. o Wi-Fi passwords. Accessing the Registry: 1. Press Start. 2. Type regedit and press Enter to open the Registry Editor. Backup and Restore: 1. Backup: o Open the Registry Editor. o Click File > Export to save a backup. 2. Restore: o Open the Registry Editor. o Click File > Import and select the backup file. 7. OS Installation Methods Methods: 1. DVD/USB: o Install the OS using a bootable USB or DVD. 2. Network Installation: o PXE (Pre-boot Execution Environment) allows remote installation without physical media. 3. Recovery Partition: o Pre-installed on systems for restoring factory settings. 4. Image-Based Deployment: o Create a pre-configured image of one system and deploy it to multiple computers using tools like Norton Ghost or Microsoft SCCM. 8. Graphics Card Basics Definition: A hardware component responsible for rendering images, videos, and visual content on a screen. Two types: 1. Integrated Graphics: ▪ Built into the motherboard or CPU. ▪ Suitable for basic tasks like browsing and document editing. 2. Dedicated Graphics: ▪ Separate hardware with its own GPU and memory. ▪ Ideal for gaming, video editing, and graphics-intensive tasks. Key Components: 1. GPU (Graphics Processing Unit): o Handles rendering tasks. o Contains thousands of cores for simultaneous simple calculations. 2. VRAM (Video RAM): o Stores image data for faster rendering. 1. Windows 10 & Office Applications Skills Importance: o IT students need proficiency in Windows features and Microsoft Office apps (Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Outlook). o Essential for personal work and providing IT support. Learning Options: o These skills aren't part of university curricula. o ICDL course materials are a good resource; exams are optional. 2. LinkedIn & LinkedIn Learning LinkedIn Learning Features: o Online teaching platform with thousands of simplified courses. o Accessible via a mobile app; courses can be downloaded. o Offers certificates for completed courses, boosting employability. Recommended Courses: o Essential Courses (exam-relevant): ▪ Windows 10 Essential Training. o Additional Recommendations: ▪ Windows 10 Troubleshooting, PowerPoint, Word (Microsoft 365), Excel (2016). Activation: o UDST students can activate LinkedIn Learning for free. 3. Windows File Explorer & Shortcuts Functions: o File Explorer organizes and navigates files/folders. Keyboard Shortcuts: o Basic: Copy (Ctrl+C), Cut (Ctrl+X), Paste (Ctrl+V), Undo (Ctrl+Z), Redo (Ctrl+Y). o Navigation: Alt+Tab (switch apps), Win+D (show desktop), Win+L (lock PC). File Extensions: o Rules:  ▪ Up to 255 characters. ▪ Certain characters not allowed (e.g., , /, :, *, ?, “). ▪ Not case-sensitive. o Examples: ▪.MP3 (audio),.MP4 (video),.CSV (data),.PPTX (PowerPoint),.BAT (batch files). o Viewing Extensions: ▪ Hidden by default; enable via File Explorer’s "View" tab. 4. System Folders Key Directories: o C:\Windows: OS files, drivers, critical libraries. o C:\PerfLogs: Performance logs and reports. o C:\Program Files: ▪ Contains installation files for programs (separate folders for 32-bit and 64-bit). ▪ Application data stored in C:\Users\username\AppData. o C:\Users: ▪ Houses user profiles, containing personal folders like Desktop, Documents, etc. 5. User Accounts Definition & Benefits: o Stores settings, permissions, and protects files from unauthorized access. o Allows multiple users with individual settings. Types: o Computer User Account: Local account for a specific PC. o Domain User Account: Access across organizational networks. o Service Account: For services like email or Netflix. Permissions: o Administrators have full control (install/remove programs, access others' files). o Standard users have limited control (run apps, modify personal settings only).  Advanced Management: o Use Security Groups to assign permissions collectively. 6. User Profile Folders Structure: o Located in C:\Users\username, includes personal folders like Desktop, Documents, Downloads. o Profiles created at first login. Temporary Profiles: o Created if the user profile fails to load. o Temporary changes are lost after logout. 7. Backup & Disaster Recovery Disaster Impact: o Data loss due to hardware failure, theft, or disasters can have severe personal and business consequences. Disaster Recovery: o Includes backup, planning, risk analysis, and continuity strategies. Backup Strategies: o Manual Backup: Copy files to USB/DVD. o Automated Solutions: Use specialized software. o Key considerations: ▪ What, where, and how often to back up. 1. Installing Windows 7 Preparation: o Access instructor server (\\192.168.26.102, \\192.168.26.101, etc.). o Copy the following to your Windows 10 desktop: ▪ Windows 7.ISO (from ISOs folder). ▪ RUFUS (from ISOs folder). ▪ sp70278.exe (from Applications folder). Creating a Bootable USB:  o Use RUFUS to burn the Windows7.ISO file onto a USB drive. o Select MBR or GPT depending on your Windows 10 setup. o After RUFUS finishes, copy sp70278.exe to the USB. Creating a New Partition: o Open Disk Management. o Shrink the C: drive by 50 GB. o Create a new partition of 50 GB. Installing Windows 7: o Restart your computer and boot from the USB (press F9 during startup). o Choose "Custom" during the installation process. o Select the 50 GB partition created earlier to avoid overwriting Windows 10. 2. Understanding Drivers Definition: o Drivers are software that enable the OS to communicate with and control hardware. o Written by hardware manufacturers, they act as intermediaries between hardware and software. Example: o A print request involves: 1. Application requesting the OS to print. 2. OS calling the printer driver. 3. Driver controlling the printer hardware. 4. Errors being relayed through the driver to the OS. 3. Types of Drivers Generic Drivers: o Basic drivers provided by the OS or hardware manufacturers. o Enable fundamental device functionality (e.g., keyboard or mouse). o Best replaced with specific drivers for optimal performance. Specific Drivers: o Device-specific drivers provide full functionality and better performance. 4. Updating Drivers Importance: o Manufacturers frequently release updates to fix bugs and improve performance. o Regular updates help prevent issues. BIOS Update: o Critical updates can address hardware-related problems. Tools: o Manufacturer-provided utilities (e.g., Lenovo Vantage). 5. Obtaining Drivers Manufacturer Websites: o Search for drivers using product details (e.g., Lenovo, HP, Nvidia). o Ensure compatibility with OS (32-bit or 64-bit). Driver Format: o Typically, a.exe file is downloaded and executed for installation. Using Windows 7 Drivers on Windows 10: o Pay attention to compatibility and use appropriate driver versions. 6. Do You Need Drivers? Yes: o Windows may come with pre-installed drivers for older hardware. o Newer hardware requires manual driver installation. Lab PCs: o Older models may have Windows 10-compatible drivers pre-installed. o Windows 7 may lack built-in drivers, requiring manual installation. 7. Device Manager Console Functionality: o Central view of all Windows-recognized hardware (graphics cards, sound cards, network adapters, etc.).  Access: o Navigate to Computer Management → Device Manager. Driver Information: o View driver details (version, date) by right-clicking the device → Properties → Driver tab. 8. HP Driver Installation Steps: o Search for the HP Driver website. o Enter the product number. o Download the driver for Windows 7 (64-bit). o Restart the system if prompted during installation. Additional Notes: o Avoid installing HP Assistant. o HP drivers are named with the prefix SP####. Lab Workflow (Summary): 1. Copy Windows7.ISO, RUFUS, and sp70278.exe. 2. Burn the ISO to a USB using RUFUS. 3. Create a new 50 GB partition by shrinking C:. 4. Boot from USB and install Windows 7 on the new partition. 5. Use Device Manager for driver updates and troubleshooting. Detailed Notes Introduction to Computer Networks Definition: Networks enable computers to share data and resources, leveraging their collective capabilities. Key Components: o Network Card (NIC): Converts data into signals for transmission over cables. o Network Speed: Measured in bps (bits per second).  ▪ Wired: Up to 10Gbps. ▪ Wi-Fi: New standards (Wi-Fi 6) reach 10Gbps. ▪ Mobile: 4G (10Mbps), 5G (up to 20Gbps). Networking Devices Network Hub vs. Switch: o Hub: Non-intelligent; broadcasts data to all ports, causing potential congestion. o Switch: Intelligent; directs data to the intended recipient, ensuring efficiency and security. Router: o Connects multiple networks, including local to internet. o Handles traffic routing using IP addresses. IP Addressing IP Address: o Unique identifier for network devices. o Composed of four numbers (0–255), e.g., 192.168.1.1. Subnet Mask: o Divides IP into Network ID and Host ID, e.g., 255.255.255.0. o Enables devices on the same network to communicate. Dynamic (via DHCP) vs. Static IP: o Dynamic: Changes over time. o Static: Remains constant, e.g., for printers. MAC Address: o Hardware identifier unique to each network device. o Fixed, unlike IP addresses. DNS and Address Translation DNS (Domain Name System): o Maps human-readable names (e.g., www.google.com) to IPs. o Example: Local DNS resolves \\instructor to 192.168.26.102. IPv4 vs. IPv6 IPv4: Limited to ~4.3 billion addresses. IPv6: Vast capacity (~340 undecillion), suited for IoT and future growth. Network Cables CAT Cables: o Variants: CAT5 (100Mbps), CAT6 (1Gbps), CAT8 (40Gbps for short distances). o Uses RJ45 connectors. o Max length: 100 meters. Fiber Optic: o Transmits data as light pulses. o Advantages: Higher speed, longer distances, enhanced security. Wireless Networks Wi-Fi Standards: o Generations from 802.11b (1999) to Wi-Fi 6 (2019, 9.6Gbps). Home Wi-Fi: o Routers often combine functions (switch, DHCP, parental controls). o Wi-Fi Mesh ensures better coverage for large homes. Virtual Private Network (VPN) Definition: Encrypts data to ensure privacy and bypass restrictions. Uses: o Secure corporate access. o Personal security on public Wi-Fi. Network Topologies  LAN (Local Area Network): o Small geographic area, e.g., home or office. WAN (Wide Area Network): o Connects multiple LANs; e.g., the internet. 1. Networks enable resource sharing and communication between devices. 2. Key Devices: o NIC: Transfers data signals. o Switch: Directs data to intended recipients. o Router: Connects networks, manages traffic. 3. IP Addressing: o Dynamic (DHCP) or Static (manual). o Subnet Masks define network and host IDs. 4. DNS maps human-readable names to IPs. 5. IPv4 is limited, transitioning to IPv6 for scalability. 6. Cables: o CAT cables for shorter distances. o Fiber Optic for high-speed, long-distance communication. 7. Wi-Fi has evolved to Wi-Fi 6, offering speeds up to 9.6Gbps. 8. VPNs ensure secure, encrypted communication. 9. Topologies: o LAN: Localized connections. o WAN: Broader, multi-LAN networks. Here are detailed and summarized notes based on the Command Prompt lecture slides: Overview of Command Prompt (CMD) Definition: A text-based interface for interacting with the operating system (OS). Purpose: o Efficient execution of tasks. o Automation using batch scripts. o Advanced control over system settings and troubleshooting. Basic Commands in CMD 1. Navigation: o dir: Lists directory contents. o cd FolderName: Moves into a specific folder. o cd..: Moves up one level. o cd \: Returns to the root directory. 2. Folder Management: o md or mkdir: Creates new folders. o rd or rmdir: Deletes empty folders (/s deletes folders with contents). o ren OldFolderName NewFolderName: Renames folders or files. 3. File Management: o copy con FileName.txt: Creates a text file directly in CMD. o type FileName.txt: Displays the contents of a file. o tree: Displays the folder structure (/f includes files). 4. Screen and Command History: o cls: Clears the screen. o F7: Displays command history. o Ctrl+C: Cancels running processes. o exit: Closes CMD. Advanced Folder and File Management 1. Creating Multiple Folders: o md Folder1 Folder2 Folder3: Creates multiple folders simultaneously. o md Parent\Child1\Child2: Creates nested folder structures. 2. Copy and Move Commands: o copy source destination: Copies files. o move source destination: Moves files. o Example: copy C:\Lab\File.txt C:\Class\File.txt. Addressing in CMD 1. Absolute Address: o Full path from the root, e.g., C:\Folder\File.txt. 2. Relative Address: o Path relative to the current directory.  o Example: ▪ Current directory: C:\Labs\Hardware. ▪..\File.txt: Refers to a file in the parent directory. Wildcards 1. Purpose: o Perform actions on files with unknown or similar names. 2. Types: o *: Matches multiple characters. o ?: Matches a single character. 3. Examples: o dir *.txt: Lists all.txt files. o dir lab*: Lists all files starting with "lab". o dir *lab*: Lists all files containing "lab". Key Features of CMD 1. Help Options: o help: Lists available commands. o command /?: Provides details about a specific command. 2. Efficient Usage: o CMD is faster than GUI for many tasks. o Useful for system recovery and automation. Summarized Notes 1. CMD is a text-based interface for OS interaction, offering efficiency and advanced control. 2. Basic Commands: o dir, cd, md, rd, ren for navigation and folder management. o copy, move for file operations. 3. Addressing: o Absolute: Full file path. o Relative: Path based on the current location.  4. Wildcards (*, ?): o Simplify handling multiple files. o Examples: dir *.txt (all text files), dir lab* (files starting with "lab"). 5. Advanced Features: o Command history (F7). o Scripting capabilities. 6. Use Cases: o Automation via batch scripts. o Recovery when GUI tools fail. Here are detailed and summarized notes based on the lecture slides about printers: Detailed Notes Overview of Printers Definition: A device that produces physical copies of electronic files, essential for business records and regulatory compliance. Technician Role: o Selecting and installing printers. o Configuring and troubleshooting printer issues. Printer Performance Factors 1. Speed: o Measured in Pages Per Minute (PPM). ▪ Inkjet: 10–20 PPM. ▪ Laser: 20–50 PPM. 2. Resolution: o Measured in Dots Per Inch (DPI). ▪ Home Laser: 300–1200 DPI. ▪ Inkjet: 1200–5000 DPI for superior photo quality. 3. Printing Cost: o Cost per Page: Ink/toner cost ÷ page yield. o Page Yield: Estimated pages per cartridge (standard text pages). 4. Paper Capacity: o Important for high-volume office printing.  o Reduces frequent refills. 5. Color: o Uses CMYK (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, Black) for color printing. Printer Types 1. Inkjet Printers: o Uses liquid ink sprayed onto paper via nozzles. o Pros: ▪ Low initial cost, excellent photo resolution, and versatile media support. ▪ Compact and lightweight. o Cons: ▪ High cost per page, slow speed, and frequent ink cleaning. 2. Laser Printers: o Uses lasers to transfer toner onto paper. o Pros: ▪ Faster, cost-efficient for text-heavy tasks, and sharp graphics. o Cons: ▪ Higher initial cost, limited media compatibility, and higher maintenance. 3. Thermal Printers: o Uses heat-sensitive paper for printing. o Pros: ▪ No ink/toner cost, durable, and quiet operation. o Cons: ▪ Requires special paper and offers poor color and quality. 4. Dot Matrix (Impact Printers): o Uses pins and an ink ribbon for printing. o Pros: ▪ Durable, handles carbon copies. o Cons: ▪ Noisy, limited resolution, and low color capability. 5. 3D Printers: o Builds objects layer by layer using CAD models. o Applications include prototyping, healthcare, and custom manufacturing. 6. Plotters:  o Produces vector graphics using pens or cutters. o Ideal for architectural designs and banners. Specialized Printers 1. Multifunction Printers (MFP): o Combines printing, scanning, copying, and faxing. o Available in inkjet or laser types. 2. Virtual Printers: o Saves outputs as digital files (e.g., PDF, XPS, or images) instead of physical prints. Printer Connectivity 1. Types: o USB: Fast, stable, common for personal use. o Ethernet: Networked printers for multiple users. o Wi-Fi: Wireless printing for home and office. o Bluetooth: Short-range convenience. 2. Printer Sharing: o USB-connected: Requires the host computer to remain ON. o Network-connected: Uses an IP address, accessible to all networked devices. Advanced Features 1. Mobile Printing: o Print from smartphones or tablets via apps, email, or web portals. 2. Cloud Printing: o Send print jobs remotely; options include home printer setup or public cloud services. 3. Follow-Me Printing: o Secure printing from any network printer after user authentication. o Benefits: Flexibility, security, and usage reports. Summarized Notes 1. Printers: o Produce physical copies of digital files. o Key performance factors: speed (PPM), resolution (DPI), cost per page, and paper capacity. 2. Types: o Inkjet: Low cost, photo-quality, versatile but slower and costly per page. o Laser: Fast, sharp, efficient but expensive and less versatile. o Thermal: No ink, fast, but needs special paper and lacks color. o Dot Matrix: Durable, handles carbon copies but noisy and low quality. o 3D Printers: Builds physical models. o Plotters: Creates vector designs. 3. Connectivity: o Options: USB, Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth. o Shared printing through USB or network. 4. Advanced Features: o Mobile Printing: Wireless via apps or emails. o Cloud Printing: Remote job submission. o Follow-Me Printing: Secure, flexible printing with user authentication. Here are detailed and summarized notes based on the provided text about Virtualization and Cloud: Detailed Notes Virtualization 1. Definition: o Virtualization allows multiple virtual machines (VMs) to run on a single physical computer (host) by sharing resources like CPU, RAM, and storage. o A hypervisor manages the creation and operation of VMs. ▪ Examples: VMware Workstation, Microsoft Hyper-V, Oracle VirtualBox. 2. Benefits: o Work on multiple operating systems (Windows, Linux, macOS) without affecting the host machine.  o Allocate resources like RAM and CPU to specific VMs. o Perform tasks like testing, troubleshooting, and running applications in isolated environments. 3. How It Works: o Install a hypervisor on the host OS. o Create VMs, allocate resources, and install OSes on these VMs. o Hypervisors manage the interaction between the host and VMs. 4. Use Cases: o Individual Users: Run multiple OSes for learning or testing. o IT Teams: ▪ Consolidate physical resources into a resource pool. ▪ Flexible resource allocation (e.g., temporary high-performance VMs). ▪ Cost savings by reducing hardware requirements. ▪ Easy remote access to VMs via web or application. 5. Advanced Features: o Snapshots: Backup the VM's state for quick recovery. o Export/Import: Transfer VMs between hosts using formats like OVF. o Virtual Networking: ▪ Host-Only: Isolated from physical networks, ideal for experiments. ▪ NAT: Isolated from the host but with internet access. ▪ Bridge: VM connects directly to the same network as the host. Cloud Computing 1. Definition: o Extends virtualization by hosting VMs on remote servers accessible over the internet. o Delivers services like storage, databases, and applications on demand. 2. Key Concepts: o Private Cloud: Owned and managed by an organization. o Public Cloud: Managed by providers like AWS, Azure, or Google Cloud. o Hybrid Cloud: Combination of private and public clouds. 3. Service Models: o IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service): Rent virtual servers and networks. o PaaS (Platform as a Service): Pre-configured platforms for specific use cases.  o SaaS (Software as a Service): Access software over the internet without installation (e.g., Google Workspace, Microsoft Office 365). 4. Benefits: o Scalability: Quickly adapt to changing resource needs. o Cost Efficiency: Pay-as-you-go model reduces expenses. o Flexibility: Access services from anywhere with an internet connection. Lab Instructions 1. Setup: o Access server files for ISO downloads and VMware installation. o Enable virtualization in BIOS settings. o Install VMware Workstation for a 15-day trial. 2. Tasks: o Create a Windows 10 VM and an Ubuntu VM. o Configure VM settings like hard drive size and snapshots. Summarized Notes 1. Virtualization: o Allows running multiple virtual machines (VMs) on one physical computer. o Managed by a hypervisor (e.g., VMware, Hyper-V). o Key features: resource sharing, snapshots, export/import, and virtual networking. 2. Benefits: o Flexibility in resource allocation. o Cost savings by reducing physical hardware. o Easy access and isolated environments for testing. 3. Cloud Computing: o Extends virtualization by hosting VMs on remote servers. o Offers services via IaaS, PaaS, and SaaS models. o Advantages: scalability, cost efficiency, and flexibility. 4. Lab Setup: o Enable BIOS virtualization settings. o Install VMware and create VMs using ISO files.