Information & Society PDF

Information & society What is information? The concept of information as we use it in everyday English, in the sense knowledge communicated, plays a central role in contemporary society. (Capurro andHjørland, 2003) The development and widespread use of computer network...

Information & society What is information? The concept of information as we use it in everyday English, in the sense knowledge communicated, plays a central role in contemporary society. (Capurro andHjørland, 2003) The development and widespread use of computer networks since the end of World War II, and the emergence of information science as a discipline in the 1950s, are evidence of this focus. (Capurro andHjørland, 2003) Although knowledge and its communication are basic phenomena of every human society, it is the rise of information technology and its global impacts that characterize ours as an information society (Capurro andHjørland, 2003). It is commonplace to consider information as a basic condition for economic development together with capital, labour, and raw material; but what makes information especially significant at present is its digital nature(Capurro andHjørland, 2003). The ordinary use of a term like information may carry other meanings than formal definitions, implying that conflicting theoretical views may arise between the explicit scientific definitions of ordinary use (Capurro andHjørland, 2003). Because of this tendency, we must not only compare diQerent formal definitions, but also consider the meaning of a word like information as it is used in relation to, for example, information seeking, information systems, and information services (Capurro andHjørland, 2003). Spang-Hanssen (2001), cited in Rafael Capurro Birger Hjørland (2003) “In fact, we are not obliged to accept the word information as a professional term at all. It might be that this word is most useful when left without any formal definition, like e.g., the word discussion, or the word di;iculty, or the word literature. It might be that the word information is useful in particular when we try to rise our professional status in relation to other professions; it sounds smart and imposing and gives an air of technicality.” The word information—and combinations like information retrieval, information center—have definitely contributed to rise the public opinion of library and documentation work, which is generally held to be a little dull, dusty and distant from what is actually going on in society. (Spang-Hanssen, 2001, cited in Capurro and Hjørland,2003)  Schrader, (1983, p.99), cited in Capurro and Hjørland (2003) studied about 700 definitions of information science and its antecedents from 1900 to 1981 and found that: [T]he literature of information science is characterized by conceptual chaos. This conceptual chaos issues from a variety of problems in the definitional literature of information science: uncritical citing of previous definitions; conflating of study and practice; obsessive claims to scientific status; a narrow view of technology; disregard for literature without the science or technology label; inappropriate analogies; circular definition; and, the multiplicity of vague, contradictory, and sometimes bizarre notions of the nature of the term "information" The Concept of Information in the Humanities and Social Sciences Braman (1989) provides an important discussion of approaches to defining information for policy makers. Four major views are identified: (1) information as a resource, (2) information as a commodity, (3) information as a perception of patterns, and (4) information as a constitutive force in society. The information age is also called "the age of access" (Rifkin, 2000). Information production, distribution, and access is at the heart of the new economy. The terminological shift from information society to knowledge society signals that the content, and not information technology, is the main challenge for economy as well as for society in general. The Concept of Information in information Science The word information has a much richer history than have the fields of inquiry known as library science, documentation, and information science, which are largely products of the 20th century. The term information was also used in 1915 by the American special librarian, Ethel Johnson, who noted, “before everything else, it [the special library] is an  information bureau. The main function of the general library is to make books available. The function of the special library is to make information available” (quoted from Williams, 1998, p. 174). According to Williams (1998), special librarians were the first documentalists in the U.S. ; and, according to Rayward (1998), documentalists can be seen as the first information scientists. We are thus, able to trace one line of development from special librarianship via documentation to information science in both the U.K. and the U.S. In 1968, the American Documentation Institute (founded 1937) changed its name to the American Society for Information Science. From that time, "information" gradually replaced "documentation" as a name for a profession and field of study Only a few institutions have preserved the term documentation. References Capurro, R and Hjørland, B. 2003. The concept of information. In Cronin, B. (Ed). Annual Review of Information Science and Technology, 37 (2003). pp. 343-411. Available: http://www.capurro.de/infoconcept.html Understanding an information society Understanding an information society Approaching the end of the twentieth century, societies all over the world are changing. In countries of many diQerent kinds information now plays an increasingly important part in economic, social, cultural and political life. This phenomenon is taking place regardless of a country’s size, state of development or political philosophy Characteristics of information societies  Information societies have three main characteristics, i.e i. Information as an economic resource; ii. Identification of greater use of information among the general public; and iii. Development of the information sector within the economy Information as an economic resource Organizations make greater use of information to increase their eQiciency, to stimulate innovation and to increase their eQectiveness and competitive position, often through improvements in the quality of the goods and services that they produce. There is also a trend towards the development of more information-intensive organizations that add greater amounts of value and thus benefit a country’s overall economy. Identification of greater use of information among the general public People use information more intensively in their activities as consumers: to inform their choices between diQerent products, to explore their entitlements to public services, and to take greater control over their own lives. They also use information as citizens to exercise their civil rights and responsibilities. In addition, information systems are being developed that will greatly extend public access to educational and cultural provision Development of the information sector within the economy The function of the information sector is to satisfy the general demand for information facilities and services. A significant part of the sector is concerned with the technological infrastructure: the networks of telecommunications and computers. Increasingly, however, the necessity is also being recognized to develop the industry generating the information that flows around the networks: the information-content providers. In nearly all information societies, this information sector is growing much faster than the overall economy  Both developed and developing countries are being transformed into information societies. Most of them are concerned to use information to improve their relative competitiveness or, at least, to retain their position in an increasingly competitive global market. The development of information societies represents a series of attempts to achieve more general economic and social advance. Countries are building economies that encourage information-intensive companies. And they are creating information systems that will raise levels of education, strengthen community links and stimulate public participation in decision-making. Public authorities at national and local levels are beginning to find that information can change quite dramatically the way they work. At one level it enables them to improve their general eQiciency in ways similar to those used in commercial organizations: through the automation of clerical and administrative tasks, through the use of decision-support systems and through the development of electronic payment systems. Some are also beginning to develop electronic transactions services so that people can access departments, filling in forms and processing claims electronically Information and citizenship As well as using information when we are at work or studying, we all use information as part of our daily lives. We use information as consumers of products and services, whether provided by the private or the public sector. We also use information in our roles as citizens. Here we use information when we are exercising our rights and responsibilities. As citizens we possess a range of rights, although the range varies from society to society. We have basic human rights: to be treated as a human being with intrinsic worth. We have civil rights: freedom of speech, assembly, religion and the right to justice. We have political rights: the right to vote.  We also have a range of social rights, usually interpreted as the right to a minimum standard of life. We also play a role as members of a community and as citizens of a nation But there is a great deal of diQerence between having a right and being able to exercise it. Poorly informed people are often denied their rights because they lack the power to exercise them. Because of this, some have argued that we can define a further set of rights – the right to information and advice. If we had this additional right, then we would be in a much stronger position to exercise all the other rights. This is the rationale that underlies the concept of freedom of information. Freedom of information legislation gives citizens the right of access to information about what is happening in government so that they can make better judgements about those who govern them. This principle of freedom of information is deeply embedded in some national constitutions, notably those in France, Sweden and the United States. In other cases the principle has been adopted more recently, while in yet others it is still a matter of considerable debate The citizenship argument suggests that access to information is a right to which we are entitled like justice, and that in common with other public services it should be provided free. The eQiciency argument reasons simply that society functions better when everyone is well informed. All these arguments point to the fact that a basic element within an information society should be the provision of a comprehensive public information and advice service. references Moore, N. n.d. The information society. Available: https://files.dnb.de/EDBI/www.unesco.org/webworld/wirerpt/wirenglish/chap20.pdf  PLAYERS IN AN INFORMATION SOCIETY There are many contributors to an information society. On the information front, these range from archivists, librarians, museum players, IT specialists, data scientists and many others. These and other contributors, play complementary roles to an information society. Ultimately, the boundaries between such players may appear straightforward. However, the contribution that each of them makes towards an information becomes blurred due to overlaps between their tasks. The dawning of the "information age" has created greater societal demands for information from information-gathering institutions(Mckellar, 1993:350). Society has become more demanding of simple information or raw data, as well as synthesized information or knowledge, and legislation has ensured their freedom and right to do so (Mckellar, 1993:350). Society increasingly demands access to, and rapid retrieval of, information (Mckellar, 1993:350) LIBRARIES, archives AND MUSEUMS The perspectives of diQerent information professions tend to be understood in terms of their manifestation in the practices of physical institutions. Over the past two centuries, a range of information institutions have evolved that play distinct roles within society (Council on Library and Information Resources [CLIR], n.d] These roles reflect the many ways in which information is created, used, valued, preserved, and disposed of by individuals, organizations, and communities in the conduct of business, scholarship, learning, and personal aQairs (CLIR, n.d) LIBRARIES and society Identify, acquire, preserve, and provide access to the world’s published knowledge Promote equity of access to information Promote intellectual freedom Support education and continuous learning and research Support the development of information literacy in society Serve as focal points for communities and promote community interests  (CLIR, n.d) Libraries, for example, are engaged in the tangible activities of identifying, acquiring, preserving, and providing access to published information (CLIR, n.d). They are also engaged in less tangible, value-laden activities such as promoting intellectual freedom and serving as focal points for various communities (CLIR, n.d). Transparency (i.e., rendering diQerences between diverse information resources invisible to end users) achieved through homogeneity in information retrieval methods and display of retrieved materials also seems to be important (CLIR, n.d). Asserting individual institutional or professional diQerences always carries with it the potential to confuse the user and impede interoperability (CLIR, n.d). It is important, however, to recognize that variant practices have arisen for sound intellectual and pragmatic reasons as institutions have fulfilled their various societal roles and managed their collections from diverse but equally legitimate perspectives (CLIR, n.d). A new paradigm needs to be created that will facilitate the right blend of commonality and distinctiveness (CLIR, n.d). We need to better understand when it is useful to maintain distinctions and when it is useful to create transparency so that we can ask to what extent each community’s practices and principles might endure and in what form (CLIR, n.d) Museums and society Identify, acquire, preserve, and exhibit unique, collectible, or representative objects Promote cultural, community, and familial identity and understanding Provide experiences where visitors can make connections between content and ideas Serve as memory institutions for a culture Support formal and informal learning and research Serve as focal points for communities and promote community interests (CLIR, n.d)  Museums play a distinct role in servicing the information needs of society (Mckellar, 1993:349). An archival holding is a significant and integral component of a museum's collections and is to be considered a valuable dimension of any informationproviding institution(Mckellar, 1993:349). As museums endeavour to respond to increasing societal demands for information, they must provide collections management to ensure eQicient information retrieval (Mckellar, 1993:349). Are museums, as information-providing institutions, prepared to meet these greater demands? (Mckellar, 1993:349) While curators are organizing their research collections for rapid information retrieval, archivists also are arranging and describing their holdings to keep abreast of greater information demands (Mckellar, 1993:349). Archives and society Identify, appraise, preserve, and make available documentary materials of longterm value (essential evidence) to the organization or public that the archives serves (CLIR, n.d) Ensure the accountability of government by preserving public records and making them available to the citizenry as is legally and ethically appropriate (CLIR, n.d) Ensure the accountability of nongovernmental institutions to their shareholders, boards, and other constituents (CLIR, n.d) Preserve unique or collectible documents (CLIR, n.d) Serve as memory institutions for a culture (CLIR, n.d) Support scholarly, administrative, and personal research (CLIR, n.d) Archival institutions are generally legally constituted entities responsible for identifying, managing, and preserving the integrity of an institution’s oQicial records of long-term value (CLIR, n.d). These activities prove the actions of the institution and provide essential protection for the institution’s legal rights and those of its constituents or the general citizenry(CLIR, n.d).  Archival institutions enable legally constituted access to records, access that must also constantly address a range of legal concerns that become more pressing in the digital environment (CLIR, n.d).  Society has become more demanding of simple information or raw data, as well as synthesized information or knowledge, and legislation has ensured their freedom and right to do so (Mckellar, 1993:350). Is it not the role of the archivist to ensure client access to archival holdings, as well as to provide the needed contextual information pertaining to the records? (Mckellar, 1993:350) In the present age of information overload, archivists need to reaQirm the important role which they are to play and the steps which they are taking in order to keep abreast of increasing information demands (Mckellar, 1993:350). Archivists are well-prepared for the information age if they are able to oQer a contextual approach to information management (Mckellar, 1993:350). These concerns include intellectual property, the privacy of individuals mentioned in materials, the conditions under which certain types of materials can be accessed and made available, and the protection of the integrity of digital materials from accidental or deliberate tampering(CLIR, n.d). Concern for retaining the evidential value of records has placed the archival community at the vanguard of research and development in digital preservation and authentication(CLIR, n.d). Because archives focus on records, archivists have an awareness of the societal, institutional, and individual construction of memory and an understanding of the implications of how that memory is represented and transmitted over time(CLIR, n.d). This awareness becomes increasingly important as more of the world’s collections are reformatted and represented online. It is also important for retaining evidence in time and over time, especially through digital preservation processes(CLIR, n.d). Libraries have focused predominantly on the organization, dissemination, and use of existing information (traditionally in published form, but this is changing rapidly), archives focus on these activities too, but are also intimately engaged in the creation of information and its ultimate disposition (either destruction or permanent retention) (CLIR, n.d).  Since the 1960s, the archival community has worked closely with the creators of records and record-keeping systems to develop means to identify and preserve digital records that have no paper counterpart (CLIR, n.d). The problem of what to do about records that are born digital has forced archivists to reexamine and reinvent their principles and practices in light of a digital challenge that emerged before the advent of digital libraries (CLIR, n.d). This engagement at various points in the life cycle of materials also helps to establish a bridge to information and knowledge production processes and communities from electronic publishing to digital asset management that have traditionally fallen outside the domain of bibliographic information (CLIR, n.d). With the increasingly complex and competitive information environment within which archives exist, we are in fact in the rather strange position of being at risk of losing the archivist in archives (Maher, 1998). We have witnessed society as a whole become increasingly focused on information, and increasingly interested in using information in nonconventional forms (Maher, 1998). We presume that archivists preside over the past so that others may examine it; that is, that our mission is not to interpret the documentary record or limit it to one set of meanings (Maher, 1998). We should hold fast to the luxury that our goal is to manage the documentary record for use by others who will form their own opinion and picture of the past (Maher, 1998). References Council on Library and Information Resources. n.d. The societal role of archives. Available: https://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub89/role/ Maher, W. J. 1998. Archives, archivists, and society. American Archivist, 252-265. Available: http://meridian.allenpress.com/american- archivist/articlepdf/61/2/252/2749122/aarc_61_2_f1555w1738v134n2.pdf Mckellar, S. 1993. The role of the museum archivist in the information age. Archivaria, 347-352 Professional environment for archivists/records management What is my job title or name? Ø There is no one description that covers the wide range of education and employment opportunities in the records, archives, and information management professions. Ø The challenges and changes that archivists and information management professionals face are based on the need to manage, preserve and make accessible our collections be they paper, film, audio visual or digital formats (International Council on Archives, 2010). Titles of records, archives and information management practitioners Collection O\icer Digital Archivist Document eDRMS Systems Controller Engineer Heritage O\icer Information Information Knowledge analyst Manager Manager Recordkeeping Records O\icer Records Manager WHO ELSE AM I? Consultant WHERE DOES A RECORDS AND INFORMATION PRACTIONER WORK? Common examples Government National, state and local archives and records institutions Judicial bodies, such as the courts and tribunals Departments, authorities, municipal agencies Educational institutions from primary school to universities Cultural institutions such as archives, galleries, libraries and museums or foundations (government or private) Non-government organizations (global, national and local) Community, cultural, religious, volunteer and not-for-profit organizations Business or private sector  What does an archivist do? Source: Dearstyne, b.(2000). The Archival Profession: Meeting Critical Institutional and Social Needs Ø Professional archivists, through a combination of education and experience, are qualified to identify, manage, preserve, and make available records with enduring value for documentation, research, and other purposes. Ø They are employed in businesses, governments, universities, historical societies, libraries, museums, and other institutions that create and wish to maintain important records of their own, or that collect and maintain records for research use. Ø Archival enterprise is clearly a well-established profession. Is Archiving a profession? Ø A profession is characterized by such things as high educational requirements, a solid body of theoretical and practical knowledge, service orientation and dedication, relative autonomy and independence in work, independent judgment, strategies for meeting complex issues, and a code of ethics. Ø Professional archivists exhibit all of these traits and have commensurate responsibilities for making critical judgments and carrying out work of fundamental importance for ensuring the systematic identification, sound administration, and accessibility of important records. Functions of archivists Ø Act as agents of the present and the past for the future. Archivists have major responsibilities for determining what records are identified, saved, and protected. Their work ensures the availability of institutional records needed for documentation, legal, and other purposes, as well as supports the transmission of cultural information and historical and other research. Ø Partner in the information field. Archivists are information professionals, and they work closely with allied professionals such as librarians, records managers, knowledge managers, information resource specialists, and information technology specialists. Functions of archivists Ø Determine which records have continuing value. The heart of archival work is the systematic identification of records with enduring value. Archivists exercise independent critical judgment in carrying out this complex work through studying the functions of records-producing institutions, developing documentation plans, analyzing and evaluating series of records to ascertain their value, anticipating research and other use, and factoring in available resources. Ø Preserve and protect records. Archival work has important custodial and curatorial responsibilities to ensure the survival and usability of records, many of which are on fragile media, including electronic records, often the most vulnerable of all. Ø Foster access and use of records. Archivists encourage people to use archival records through production of finding aids and services to researchers who visit the archival repository or access its services and holdings via phone, letter, fax, e-mail, or the World Wide Web. Ø Broaden awareness of record information. Archivists work to increase awareness and research use of archival records, for instance, through the mounting of exhibitions and the preparation of document packets for use in schools. Domains of archiving a) Selection/aquisition of documents b) Arrangement and description of documents c) Reference service and access to documents d) Preservation and protection of documents e) Outreach, advocacy, and promotion of documentary collections and archival repositories f) Managing archival programs g) Professional, legal, and ethical responsibilities. Open data and open archives Definitions, projects/examples Defining open data Meaning of “OPEN” The term “open” is associated with a number of concepts, e.g “open data”, “open access”, “open content”, “open knowledge” etc. The Open Definition makes precise the meaning of “open” with respect to knowledge, promoting a robust commons in which anyone may participate, and interoperability is maximized (Open Knowledge Foundation, n.d ). It sets out principles that define “openness” in relation to data and content (Open Knowledge Foundation n.d ). Defining open data It makes precise the meaning of “open” in the terms “open data” and “open content” and thereby ensures quality and encourages compatibility between diQerent pools of open material (Open Knowledge Foundation, n.d ). Open means anyone can freely access, use, modify , and share for any purpose (subject, at most, to requirements that preserve provenance and openness (Open Knowledge Foundation, n.d ). Thus, “Open data and content can be freely used, modified, and shared by anyone for any purpose” (Open Knowledge Foundation, n.d ) Preconditions for open data/works 1. OPEN WORKS Open works have should satisfy the following characteristics/features: Open license/status Access Machine readability Open format Preconditions for open data/works Open license or status The work must be in the public domain or provided under an open license. Any additional terms accompanying the work (such as a terms of use, or patents held by the licensor) must not contradict the work’s public domain status or terms of the license. Preconditions for open data/works Access The work must be provided as a whole and at no more than a reasonable one-time reproduction cost, and should be downloadable via the Internet without charge. Any additional information necessary for license compliance (such as names of contributors required for compliance with attribution requirements) must also accompany the work. Preconditions for open data/works Machine readability The work must be provided in a form readily processable by a computer and where the individual elements of the work can be easily accessed and modified. Without machine readability, access becomes limited. Preconditions for open data/works Open format The work must be provided in an open format. An open format is one which places no restrictions, monetary or otherwise, upon its use and can be fully processed with at least one free/libre/open-source software tool. Preconditions for open data/works II OPEN LICENSES Open access means that: A license should be compatible with other open licenses. A license is open if its terms satisfy the following conditions: Preconditions for open data/works A: REQUIRED PERMISSIONS: The license should irrevocably permit the following: Use: The license must allow free use of the licensed work Redistribution: The license must allow redistribution of the licensed work, including sale, whether on its own or as part of a collection made from works from diQerent sources. Modification: The license must allow the creation of derivatives of the licensed work and allow the distribution of such derivatives under the same terms of the original licensed work. Preconditions for open data/works Separation: The license must allow any part of the work to be freely used, distributed, or modified separately from any other part of the work or from any collection of works in which it was originally distributed. All parties who receive any distribution of any part of a work within the terms of the original license should have the same rights as those that are granted in conjunction with the original work. Compilation: The license must allow the licensed work to be distributed along with other distinct works without placing restrictions on these other works. Preconditions for open data/works Propagation: The rights attached to the work must apply to all to whom it is redistributed without the need to agree to any additional legal terms. Application to any purpose: The license must allow use, redistribution, modification, and compilation for any purpose. The license must not restrict anyone from making use of the work in a specific field of endeavor. No discrimination: The license must not discriminate against any person or group. No charge: The license must not impose any fee arrangement, royalty, or other compensation or monetary remuneration as part of its conditions. Preconditions for open data/works B: ACCEPTABLE CONDITIONS The license must not limit, make uncertain, or otherwise diminish the permissions required above except by the following allowable conditions: Attribution: The license may require distributions of the work to include attribution of contributors, rights holders, sponsors, and creators as long as any such prescriptions are not onerous. Integrity: The license may require that modified versions of a licensed work carry a diQerent name or version number from the original work or otherwise indicate what changes have been made. Share-alike: The license may require distributions of the work to remain under the same license or a similar license. Notice: The license may require retention of copyright notices and identification of the license. Source: The license may require that anyone distributing the work provide recipients with access to the preferred form for making modifications. Technical restriction prohibition: The license may require that distributions of the work remain free of any technical measures that would restrict the exercise of otherwise allowed rights. Non-aggression: The license may require modifiers to grant the public additional permissions (for example, patent licenses) as required for exercise of the rights allowed by the license. The license may also condition permissions on not aggressing against licensees with respect to exercising any allowed right (again, for example, patent litigation). Source/references Open Knowledge Foundation. n.d. Open definition: defining open in open data, open content and open knowledge. Available: http://opendefinition.org/od/2.1/en/ Categories of open data 1. Legally open This means that data must be placed in the public domain or under liberal terms of use with minimal restrictions (World Bank Group, 2019). II. Technically open This means that data must be published in electronic formats that are machine readable and non-proprietary, so that anyone can access and use the data using common, freely available software tools. Data must also be publicly available and accessible on a public server, without password or firewall restrictions. (World Bank Group, 2019). BENEFITS OF OPEN DATA Similar to other global commodities, data has significant potential to provide benefits. In fact, data has been referred to as the new oil, because while both data and oil have intrinsic value, they both must be “refined” or otherwise transformed to realize their full potential. When government data are made accessible and re-usable, they enable individuals, organizations and even governments themselves to innovate and collaborate in new ways (World Bank Group 2019). Benefits of open data Open data provides the following benefits (World Bank Group, 2019): Transparency Open Data supports public oversight of governments and helps reduce corruption by enabling greater transparency. For instance, Open Data makes it easier to monitor government activities, such as tracking public budget expenditures and impacts. It also encourages greater citizen participation in government aQairs and supports democratic societies by providing information about voting procedures, locations and ballot issues. Benefits of open data B. Public service improvement Open Data gives citizens the raw materials they need to engage their governments and contribute to the improvement of public services. For instance, citizens can use Open Data to contribute to public planning, or provide feedback to government ministries on service quality. BENEFITS OF OPEN DATA C. Innovation and economic value Public data, and their re-use, are key resources for social innovation and economic growth. Open Data provides new opportunities for governments to collaborate with citizens and evaluate public services by giving citizens access to data about those services. Businesses and entrepreneurs are using Open Data to better understand potential markets and build new data-driven products. Benefits of open data D. E\iciency Open Data makes it easier and less costly for government ministries to discover and access their own data or data from other ministries, which reduces acquisition costs, redundancy and overhead. Open Data can also empower citizens with the ability to alert governments to gaps in public datasets and to provide more accurate information. Source/References World Bank Group. 2019. Open data essentials. Available: http://opendatatoolkit.worldbank.org/en/essentials.html#:~:text=Open%20Data%20De fined,- The%20term%20%E2%80%9COpen&text=Data%20or%20content%20is%20open,that %20preserve%20provenance%20and%20openness Examples of open data initiatives http://opendatatoolkit.worldbank.org/en/essentials.html#:~:text=Open%20Data%20De fined,- The%20term%20%E2%80%9COpen&text=Data%20or%20content%20is%20open,that %20preserve%20provenance%20and%20openness Preconditions for open data/works DISCUSSION OPEN DATA LAWS AND POLICIES CASE STUDY OF THE UAE DATA LAWS: https://u.ae/en/resources/guidelines Open data licenses and laws Licenses and laws for open data Open access laws Apart from the development of tailor-made licenses to facilitate the use and potential reuse of data, there are also a range of standard licenses and waivers, which can be used to help achieve open data. Creative commons (cc) licenses Creative Commons (CC) Licences5 CC licenses are fast becoming one of the most used and recognised standard licenses for providing access to data and other resources. They permit the free of charge copying, reuse, distribution and, in some cases, the modification of the initial creator’s creative work, without having to obtain permission every single time from the rights holder. This is because specific permissions are granted in advance by the rights holder (or with the consent of the rights holder). CREATIVE COMMONS (CC) LICENSES The main CC licenses oQer a series of ‘baseline rights’, with attribution (BY) as a core requirement, together with three other ‘license elements’ that can be mixed and matched to produce a customised license through a point-and-click web interface: Attribution (BY) – you must credit the work’s creator (where provided). Non-Commercial (NC) – you can only use the work for non-commercial purposes.  No-Derivatives (ND) – you may not create adaptations of the work or merge it into other works. Share Alike (SA) – you may create adaptations of the work, but if you make them publicly available, these must be under the same license terms as the original CC work. CC Zero (CC0) CC0 is a tool created by Creative Commons to facilitate the release of content, data, datasets and databases into the public domain (i.e., by the copyright owner waiving all its rights, including the database right and the right to be identified as the creator. Where this is not possible, a CC0 license provides the means for the rights holder (or someone authorised to act on behalf of the rights holder) to provide instead an irrevocable, royalty-free and unconditional license for anyone to use the resource, etc., for any purpose. Open data commons Open Data Commons has produced three open solutions specifically for data, datasets and databases: Open Data Commons Attribution License ODC-By (compatible with CC BY). Open Data Commons Open Database License ODC-ODbL (compatible with CC BY SA). Public Domain Dedication License PDDL (compatible with CC Zero). The open government license The National Archives has recently launched the Open Government License (OGL) facilitating the reuse of Government and other public sector information. The OGL replaces the “Click Use” license previously used to provide access to Crown Copyright materials. As with Creative Commons licenses, it is available in a machine-readable form as well as a “human-readable” form. Unlike CC licenses, it defaults to the governing legislation to which the licensor has their place of business. It does not permit copying of logos, registered trademarks and other IP such as patents, and includes specific non-endorsement clauses. Laws associated with/a\ecting open data 1. INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS (IPRs) IPR is the family name for a range of legal protections for things created as a result of human innovation, skill, creativity and endeavour. IPR includes copyright, moral rights, database right and other rights. For examples, the intellectual property in the UAE: https://u.ae/en/information- and-services/business/intellectual-property#:~ =According%20to%20Article%2020%20of,calendar%20year%20following%20his%20d eath. CONTRACT LAW Contracts are the means by which permissions can be granted to use data and/or datasets supplied by third parties. Recipients of data from third parties must be aware of, and read the detail of any contract they intend to enter into to ensure that they are in a position to negotiate terms favourable to them, and to ensure they can comply with any agreed terms. In other countries, for example, in the UK, provisions of contracts can override provisions of the law. Data protection Many countries have promulgated data protection laws to promote responsible use of data, including personal data. If the data, either alone or in combination with other data that may be accessible by the data controller, can identify the individual, and that individual is alive, it is personal data. It is important that data is shared that is fair, transparent and in line with the rights and expectations of the people whose information you are sharing. Data protection If it is personal data, then the consent of the data subject needs to be sought, or the use justified because the processing is for the conduct of contractual relationship with the individual, or is necessary for the legitimate interests of the institution or individual handling the data. It should be noted that there are special exemptions under the Data Protection Act for data collected for research purposes, and readers should make themselves familiar with these. Data protection in the UAE: https://u.ae/en/about-the- uae/digital-uae/data/data-protection-laws. Freedom of information acts Many countries have freedom of information acts, e.g. USA, Scotland, England, Philippines, Zimbabwe, Nigeria etc. These laws are meant to promote access to information. Source/references Korn, N and Oppenheim. 2011. Licensing open data: a practical guide. Joint Information Systems Committee. Available: http://discovery.ac.uk/files/pdf/Licensing_Open_Data_A_Practical_Guide.pdf Archives, memory and power Archives as contested spaces Archives, memory and power Archives, records, power: three words which now resonate across a range of academic disciplines and professional pursuits. Individually, these terms are often flashpoints for lively debates on social values, cultural identities, and institutional accountability (Schwartz and Cook, 2002). Yet, collectively, “archives, records, and power” make an unlikely troika: what have old, dusty archives, stored away in secure vaults, got to do with power? (Schwartz and Cook, 2002) Archives, memory and power Archivists have long been viewed from outside the profession as “hewers of wood and drawers of water,” as those who received records from their creators and passed them on to researchers. Inside the profession, archivists have perceived themselves as neutral, objective, impartial (Schwartz and Cook, 2002). Archives, memory and power As sites of memory negotiation and as spaces where a multiplicity of narratives can either flourish or disappear, archives become profoundly politicized arenas of power and control. By extension, archivists themselves are thoroughly implicated in the power dynamics of archives, since archivists are the primary determinants of who will possess a lasting voice in one of society’s most significant cultural repositories (Roca, 2011). Archives, memory and power Archives – as records – wield power over the shape and direction of historical scholarship, collective memory, and national identity, over how we know ourselves as individuals, groups, and societies. And ultimately, in the pursuit of their professional responsibilities, archivists – as keepers of archives – wield power over those very records central to memory and identity formation through active management of records before they come to archives, their appraisal and selection as archives, and afterwards their constantly evolving description, preservation, and use (Schwartz and Cook, 2002). Archives, memory and power Whereas a dwindling number of archivists still defend a “pure” Jenkinsonianism where the archivist would remain a passive guardian of evidence, a neutral custodian never doing appraisal, and a selfless devotee of Truth, Jenkinson’s spirit yet remains powerful, and not just in the renewed and understandable concern over “evidence” in our age of transient digital records (Cook and Schwartz, 2002). Archives are value-laden instruments of power. They emerge from organizational cultures and personal psychologies of great complexity, multiple relationships, and many identities (Cook and Schwartz, 2002). Archives, memory and power Shapers of archives (records creators, subsequent managers, and generations of archivists) add layers of meaning (Cook and Schwartz, 2002). The archivist is an actor, not a guardian; a performer, not a custodian. The archival performance should not only be consciously acknowledged, but enthusiastically celebrated (Cook and Schwartz, 2002). Archives, memory and power Postmodern archival theory asks that we acknowledge, in the words of Verne Harris, that: “The archive... is not a quiet retreat for professionals and scholars and craftspersons. It is a crucible of human experience. A battleground for meaning and significance. A babel of stories. A place and a space of complex and ever-shifting power-plays. Here you cannot keep your hands clean. Here the very notions of profession and scholarship and craft must be reimagined.” Archives, memory and power Because of the control that archivists wield in determining who and what gets included into an archive, he or she exercises power over the way an individual, group, or society will assemble and constitute their memories (Roca 2011). The politics of inclusion and exclusion are further heightened by the archivist’s ability to make conscious decisions about which elements of an archive to expose or obscure (Roca, 2011). Archives, memory and power The items that archivists choose to include in archives tend to reflect the dominant political or social body’s values and estimations of importance (Roca 2011). Archives are inclined to further reinforce the hold of those already in power (Ketelaar, 2002). Records thus become instruments of power, depriving certain groups the ownership of their own history (Roca 2011). Archives, memory and power Verne Harris’ compelling account of the repressive apartheid regime in South Africa, and its accompanying subdued archives, draws attention to the fact that archives are only able to preserve “a sliver of a sliver of a sliver of a window” (Harris, 2002). Harris indicates the state’s control over the collective memory of a people as one of its facilitators for controlling society itself; with the dominant narrative justifying the dominant regime of apartheid, and with the obliteration of any competing narrative, the apartheid regime was able to maintain control of the country for decades. Archives, memory and power Interestingly, Harris (2002) underscores the dominant regime’s narrative as one that involved both remembering and, crucially, forgetting; thus, dictating that which should be ignored, forgotten, excluded, or silenced are all key elements of control (Rico 2011). Archives, memory and power Archives have always been about power, whether it is the power of the state, the church, the corporation, the family, the public, or the individual. Archives have the power to privilege and to marginalize (Schwartz and Cook, 2002). They can be a tool of hegemony; they can be a tool of resistance. They both reflect and constitute power relations. They are a product of society’s need for information, and the abundance and circulation of documents reflects the importance placed on information in society (Schwartz and Cook, 2002). Archives, memory and power Archives have also always been at the intersection of past, present, and future – Margaret Hedstrom’s “interfaces.” These spaces are the loci of power of the present to control what the future will know of the past (Schwartz and Cook, 2002). Accordingly, archivists must respond to the challenges of postmodernism and be prepared to respond to both continuity and change in society’s concepts of, needs for, and uses of the past, memory, information, knowledge, for ultimately what is at stake is the relevance of archives in society, the power of the record, and the present strength and future vitality of the archival profession (Schwartz and Cook, 2002). Archives, memory and power The power of archives and records has also changed over time and across space in response to historical events: religious strife, civil wars, political revolutions, imperial rule, and gender, race, and class upheavals, as well as to geographical circumstance: distance, transportation, and communication (Schwartz and Cook, 2002). Archives, memory and power Memory, like history, is rooted in archives. Without archives, memory falters, knowledge of accomplishments fades, pride in a shared past dissipates. Archives counter these losses. Archives contain the evidence of what went before. Archives are our memories (Schwartz and Cook, 2002). References Cook, T and Schwartz, J. M. 2002. Archives, records, and power: from (postmodern) theory to (archival) performance. Archival Science 2: 171–185. Available: https://assetpdf.scinapse.io/prod/2041373518/2041373518.pdf Roca, B. 2011. Narrating the collective: memory, power, and archival space. Faculty of Information Quarterly. 1(4): Available: https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/handle/1807/78350 Schwartz, J. M and Cook, T. 2002. Archives, records, and power: the making of modern memory. Archival Science, 2: 1–19. Available: https://journalofburmesescholarship.org/pprs/SchwartzCook-Archives.pdf Awareness and promotion of archival materials Building and enhancing awareness of archival holdings Over time, archives have been criticized for not actively promoting themselves or educating the public. They have not fostered widespread appreciation for the importance of archives in society or their relevance to everyday life. Often, archives fail to anticipate public interest in their holdings and services, instead waiting for users to approach them. To play a more significant societal role and maintain resources during economic challenges, archives need to change this approach. This can be achieved through three key strategies: image-building, awareness, and education programmes. Image building Image-building serves as a marketing approach for archives. At an institutional level, creating a positive image is essential for obtaining the resources required to fulfill their mandate. Cultural institutions, often unfamiliar with self-promotion, need to develop strategies to present archives as dynamic, engaging organizations that address the informational and cultural needs of both the public and sponsors. Image building The aim is to make resource allocators recognize the value of the institution by increasing knowledge and appreciation of archival work. This requires awareness, education, and access programmes to meet the heightened expectations of the public. Awareness Most people are unlikely to become regular users of archives. Their curiosity will generally focus on learning about archival institutions and the records they hold. This interest can be addressed through programmes that explain the function and mission of archives while introducing the materials they manage. These awareness programmes serve two purposes: they promote institutional support and help the public understand and interpret archival information. Awareness Developing awareness activities opens opportunities for creative use of records. Some types of records are more easily understood by occasional users, depending on their form or content. Archivists should test their materials with target audiences to ensure comprehension and engagement. Awareness Activities with broad public appeal, such as exhibitions or film series, can eQectively reach general audiences. School programmes should focus on allowing students to work with real archival records, fostering an understanding of research and the value of archives. Participating in local events or celebrating anniversaries can also extend an archive's reach. Education Awareness activities alone do not equip participants to become skilled users of archives. Potential users need to learn what information is available and how to access it. Archives have a responsibility to teach foundational principles of archival work and record retrieval, providing researchers with tools to address their questions. Education The main goal of educational programmes is to teach users research techniques and strategies. This can include introductory sessions, videos, or "how to do archival research" seminars for advanced students. Additionally, users should learn how records are created, organized, and preserved in archives. Education It’s crucial for users to identify and select relevant information eQectively. Educational programmes must cater to diQerent research stages and contexts. Resources should be available to users before visiting archives, during their research, and afterward to ensure ongoing support. Awareness By combining image building, awareness, and education programmes, archives can demonstrate their value. While not everyone will become a regular user, they will gain an appreciation for the role and usefulness of archives. For others, these initiatives can serve as the first step towards actively using archival materials. Source Blais, G. 1995. Access to Archival Records: A Review of Current Issues. A RAMP Study. Available: http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library.cgi?e=d-00000-00---oQ-0hdl--00-0----010- 0---0---0direct-10---4-------0-1l--11-en-50---20-about---00-0-1-00-0-0-11-1-0utfZz- 810&a=d&c=hdl&cl=CL1.1&d=HASH01b2d83ecec036e9b30f7867 Typologies of archives Common types of archives Ø Government archives Ø College/university archives Ø Corporate archives Ø Special collections Ø Religious archives Ø Historical societies Ø Museum archives Ø Community archives Government archives Ø Collects for and from the public sector. Ø Usually established through a law(s) Ø May collect from the private sector, depending on the legislative provision and the collection development policy (CDP). Ø Sources of collections include local government departments, ministries and parastals Ø Clientele is the public sector in general College/university archives Ø Specific to an academic institution such as a college or university. Ø Clientele primary the parent institution and alumni. Ø May welcome members of the public on certain conditions. Corporate archives Ø Stand-alone department/unit/section within an organisation that is dedicated to the management of its repository. Ø Usually responsible for taking care of the historical and corporate memory of an organization. Ø Collections are primarily open to members of staz, and are used to advance the business interest of the organization. Ø Access by members of the public is at the description of the organization, depending on its policies. Special collections Ø Collections gathered from families, individuals and organisations that are deemed to be of special and historical interest to the community. Ø Materials held in special collections may be on medicine, royal families, law, literature, technology e.t.c Ø Rare collections are examples of special collections. Ø Access depends on the na Religious archives Ø These are archival collections relating to traditions or institutions of major faith or places of worship. Ø Collections are primarily for members of the religious establishment, and access to the materials by members of the public/researchers is possible, depending on the policy of the institution. Historical societies Ø By definition, historical societies “are organizations that seek to preserve and promote interest in the history of a region, a historical period, nongovernment organizations, or a subject.” (Society of American Archivists 2022). Ø The focus of historical associations is typically a state or community, and may overlap with national archives. Museum archives Ø These are archives that are found in museums. Ø They accompany the artefacts that the museum collects. Ø May be private or public, depending on the typology of the museum itself. Community archives Ø Some archival materials are collected, preserved, and overseen by small, grass- roots organizations. These archives often focus on regional history and local communities, like racial and ethnic groups, or immigrant communities. Community archives are often created by people from historically marginalized groups, who do not feel their histories represented or supported by traditional government and university institutions. (University of Colorado Boulder Libraries, 2022). References Society of American Archives. 1997-2022. Types of archives. Available: https://www2.archivists.org/usingarchives/typesofarchives University of Colorado Boulder Libraries. 2022. Introduction to archival research. Available: https://libguides.colorado.edu/c.php?g=1154758&p=8428086 Information ethics and information and knowledge societies Information, communication and knowledge are key drivers of development in globalized, multicultural, knowledge-based societies. How can they be used in order to strengthen ethical development and avoid unethical consequences? The “World Summit for Information Society” – WSIS – is the broadest platform for work on these issues. The “First WSIS+10 Review Event” on 25-27 February 2013 in Paris in its final statement “invites all Stakeholders to … encourage international and interdisciplinary reflection and debate on the ethical challenges of emerging technologies and the information society.” 1. Principles: ETHICAL VALUES Knowledge societies can be sustainable, coherent, innovative and integrative if they are based not only on pragmatic opportunities or political or financial interests, but on ethical values. In a globalized multicultural world these values have to be global values while at the same time respecting the diversity of contextual values. PRINCIPLES AND ETHICAL VALUES “Global ethics is an inclusive approach to common binding values, guiding principles, personal attitudes and common action across cultures, religions, political and economic systems and ideologies. Global ethics is grounded in the ethical recognition of inalienable human dignity, freedom of decision, personal and social responsibility and justice. … Global ethics identifies trans-boundary problems and contributes to their solution” (Globethics.net Principles on Sharing Values across Cultures and Religions, 2009/2013) Global ethics promotes public awareness of those fundamental values and principles. They are the foundation on which the universal consensus on human rights is built. Human rights are the most tangible and legally binding expression of this ethical vision. Global ethics fosters trust among human beings and strengthens caring and action for global environmental protection. Contextual ethics takes seriously the identity of people and institutions in their local, cultural, religious, economic and political contexts. Global ethics needs to be local and contextual in order to have an impact on individual action and social structures. On the other hand, contextual ethics becomes isolationist if it remains local and is not linked to global ethics. Contextual ethics appreciates and respects diversity in its dizerent forms as social, political, cultural, religious, and bio- diversity. There is an enormous richness in diversity. It may decrease vulnerability and be a source of sustainability. Contextual ethics contributes to global ethics. Together they can lead to unity in diversity. All cultures and religions can contribute to global values.  Global and contextual ethics are two poles that challenge each other and inseparably belong together. … Global ethics can be abused for domination over other cultures, religions and values. Contextual ethics can be abused to defend traditional privileges or power. On a global as well as on a local level, ‘power over others’ tends to be oppressive, ‘power with and for others’ tends to be empowering and nurturing. Fundamental values for knowledge societies 2. Participation: access to knowledge for all Access to information, communication, education and knowledge is a basic right and public good. Open access for free or for azordable costs enables participation of all in the development of societies. The digital divide between the global North and South is narrowing, but instead there is an "access divide" to knowledge resources. Technical developments in recent years have increased bandwidth particularly in Asia but also Latin America and Africa, although there are still major discrepancies with the global North. Technology alone is not enough, however. In fact, the right to education includes the right to information, communication and knowledge. Participation: access to knowledge for all They can be seen as one human right as they are interlinked. Nevertheless, the management of knowledge resources continues to be monopolised by the global  North such as through large commercial publishers, particularly in the sphere of academic journals. Increasing access to knowledge needs to go beyond promoting an information flow from North to South. In recent years a number of developments have used the possibilities ozered by information and communication technologies to increase access to knowledge, such as open access, both through open access journals (the “gold” path) and institutional repositories (the “green path”). In several continents, there have been moves by governments to ensure that publicly-funded research must be openly accessible. Some recommendations Globethics.net calls upon: Governments and international organizations to reinforce free and fair access to knowledge for developing countries; Governments to include support for open access repositories in Ozicial Development Assistance, including training and support as well as infrastructure; Regulators to support the development of regional hubs that index open access repositories, distinguishing between full text repositories and those ozering only metadata; Public and private actors to develop open access and open publishing initiatives in collaboration with institutions in the global South that include global visibility, accessibility, new ranking mechanisms, building impact factor metrics and local value attribution. 2. People: COMMUNITY, IDENTITY, GENDER, GENERATION, EDUCATION People, human beings, as senders and receivers are the key actors of information, communication and knowledge. How to filter, digest and assimilate information and knowledge? How to use them for enrichment and not confusion, for identity building and not identity-loss, for respect of diversity and not increase of uniformity, for more equality instead of more inequality?  Is knowledge primarily used to win over others in very competitive markets, to oppress others or for building communities? The knowledge society should respect six aspects: Value-based: Societies are envisaged where persons, groups and institutions share knowledge in fairness, equity, freedom and for the benefit of caring sustainable communities: families, communities and nations which respect the rights of individuals, but also of the communities, which strengthen unity but also respect diversity of cultures, languages, worldviews, religions, economic and political systems. People-centred: The fast innovations in ICTs make technology a main driver of development. But technology is not a goal in itself, it should serve people. Information society needs to be people-centred. Communities and identities-oriented: ICT trends increase individualism and individual media consumptions. The needs and rights of individuals and of communities need to be balanced. The flood of information leads to constant deconstruction and reconstruction of identities and needs care in balancing change and stability and building strong identities especially of adolescent people. Education-focussed: Information ethics is needed on all levels, from the producers to the consumers in order to deal with information in a responsible way. Awareness has to be increased that dealing with information, communication and knowledge can be as challenging as handling toxic substances or driving a powerful car. Therefore education for the ethical use and the personal transformation of such information to knowledge for the society becomes very important. Instruments are education in critical media consumption including the use of social media. Gender-oriented: Gender equality in access to information, communication, knowledge and decision-making is an important dimension of an inclusive and people-centre society. Generation-sensitive: Computer literacy of older persons is important for their participation in society and for intergenerational exchange. Recommendations Globethics.net recommends that: Educational institutions to increase information ethics in the curricula and examine a “driving licence” for young adults for using the information highways (already practiced in test schools);  Educational institutions to care for ethical aspects of fast growing elearning, distant learning and Mass Online Courses; Media providers and educational institutions to increase ezorts to transform information into adapted and digested knowledge Public and private media institutions to care for cultural and lingual diversity of programmes; Building empowering capabilities of women and girls to use ICTs for education, formation and citizenship and for older persons in computer and internet literacy; Validate and include indigenous people’s values and knowledge; Policy makers to guarantee the freedom of expression while avoiding moral harm and violation of the integrity of persons. 4. PROFESSION: ETHICS OF INFORMATION PROFESSIONS Professions in the fields of information, communication and knowledge creation, processing, dissemination, control, renewal, preservation, archiving and policy- making have a special ethical responsibility in implementing core values. Journalists, librarians, archivists, teachers, bloggers, philosophers, scientists, IT hardware and software developers, curricula developers, religious leaders, social media owners, politicians and many other content professionals in information, communication and knowledge production have a great influence on private and public opinions since ever. Value-based development and Human Rights require strengthening ethics and Human Rights for the work conditions of the content professionals. This includes: the space and freedom for value-based, corruption-free, honest journalism; the protection of information professionals who in some countries face threats to life, or are killed; the value-based vision of media-owners to support cultural, linguistic and religious diversity and views expressed and to optimize but not maximize the profits expected from media investments. At the same time, the content professionals have to strengthen these values, virtues and rights themselves through their professional work. This includes: fair, honest, transparent, corruption-free, qualitative journalism based on integrity, independence of investigative journalism and the endeavour to seek truth; respecting integrity of people and institutions; respecting ethical benchmarks  against the pressure of economic profit maximisation, audience rating and entertainment goals. Professional codes of ethics are important instruments to enhance the ethical responsibility of content providers in the information society.